Plant Nutrition Optimization: Integrated Soil Management and Fertilization Practices

Abstract

This chapter examines soil analysis, fertility management, and integrated soil management (ISM) practices that are critical to sustainable agriculture and environmental stewardship. It highlights the importance of detailed soil analysis—covering physical, chemical, and biological aspects—to inform decisions about fertilization, irrigation, and crop management. The discussion extends to soil nutrient dynamics, emphasizing how accurate analysis identifies imbalances and deficiencies that affect crops. ISM is presented as a holistic strategy that combines multiple dimensions of soil health to improve agricultural resilience. Practices such as conservation tillage, organic matter addition, and crop rotation are shown to increase soil fertility and achieve ecological goals, including biodiversity and carbon sequestration. In addition, the chapter advocates sustainable fertilization within ISM, promoting precision agriculture and 4R nutrient stewardship (right source, rate, time, place) to balance productivity with environmental stewardship. It aims to provide a comprehensive guide to modern soil management techniques that enhance productivity while ensuring soil health and sustainability, and emphasizes the integration of scientific knowledge with practical approaches to address global environmental and food security challenges.

1. Introduction

The complex relationship between soil health, plant nutrition, and agricultural productivity is a cornerstone of sustainable agriculture. As the world’s population continues to increase, there is pressure on agricultural systems to produce more food without compromising the environment. This scenario requires a deeper understanding of plant nutrition, soil science, and their direct impact on plant growth and ecosystem health. The first part of this chapter lays the groundwork by exploring the complexity of soil composition and the factors that influence its fertility. Soil is not just a medium for plant growth; it is a dynamic system teeming with life, biological, and chemical reactions that play a central role in the health of plants and, by extension, the entire agricultural ecosystem.

The second part of the chapter focuses on the importance of soil analysis as a tool for maximizing agricultural yields while conserving natural resources. Soil analysis provides crucial insight into the soil’s physical, chemical, and biological properties and provides a roadmap for effective soil management practices. By understanding the current state of the soil, farmers and agronomists can make informed decisions about irrigation, fertilization, and crop selection, all of which are critical to optimizing yields and maintaining long-term soil productivity.

Building on the knowledge gained from soil analysis, the chapter then moves into integrated soil management (ISM). ISM is a holistic approach that seeks to balance soil health’s chemical, physical, and biological aspects. This section highlights how such an integrated approach improves soil fertility and contributes to broader environmental goals, including biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and water quality improvement. Practices such as conservation tillage, organic matter incorporation, and efficient water management are explored as key components of ISM.

The fourth part of the chapter focuses on fertilization strategies within the integrated management framework. Adopting precise and sustainable fertilization techniques is crucial in modern agriculture. This section discusses the principles of “source, rate, time, and right place” in fertilizer application, emphasizing the need for a deep understanding of plant–soil interactions and the use of precision agriculture technologies. The integration of organic and inorganic fertilizers and a mindful approach to their environmental impact form a significant part of this discussion.

This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive guide to soil analysis and fertility management, integrated soil management practices, sustainable fertilization, and efficient nutrient use by plants strategies. By bridging the gap between scientific understanding and practical application, this chapter seeks to contribute to developing more sustainable and productive agricultural systems worldwide.

2. Soil analysis and fertility diagnosis

An essential part of agricultural management is soil analysis, critical to maximizing crop yields and protecting soil resources [1]. This practice is important since it provides an in-depth understanding of the soil’ physical, biological, and chemical status. This data is essential for making informed decisions about irrigation, fertilization, and cultivation techniques, significantly improving agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability [2]. In addition, soil analysis can help detect contamination, excessive salinity, pH imbalances, and nutrient deficiencies, allowing growers to take proactive steps to correct these problems before they negatively affect crop development [3]. By understanding these factors, farmers can make informed decisions about fertilization, irrigation, and crop selection to maximize yields and maintain the long-term productivity of their land.

One of the key aspects of soil analysis is assessing the soil’s available nutrient content [4]. This typically involves testing for essential elements such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), (B), (Fe), and others, which deficiencies or imbalances can have a significant impact on crop growth and yield [5]. Analyzing soil pH is also critical as it affects nutrient availability and microbial activity.

Soils with an inappropriate pH hinder the uptake of essential nutrients by plants, leading to reduced yields and potential plant health problems [6]. Thus, understanding the soil’s chemical attributes through analysis is crucial for making appropriate improvement decisions, such as liming to adjust pH levels.

Soil texture is another important factor that can be assessed by soil analysis, as it results in different water retention capacities and drainage properties [7]. Understanding soil texture allows farmers to make informed decisions about irrigation and drainage management, which are essential to optimize crop growth and prevent waterlogging or drought stress. In addition to these factors, soil analysis provides insight into the overall health and fertility of the soil. This can include assessing organic matter content, cation exchange capacity, and the presence of any contaminants or pollutants. Farmers can implement soil management practices that promote long-term soil health and sustainability by assessing these aspects.

Effective soil analysis begins with representative sampling [8]. This involves selecting multiple points within a field, taking into account variations in topography, soil types, historical land use, and management practices [9].

Samples should be taken from different depths, depending on the purpose of the analysis, such as assessing surface fertility or subsoil conditions. The sampling technique must ensure that the collected samples represent the area of interest, avoiding atypical or contaminated areas such as those near roads or field margins. As shown in Figure 1, Sample 1 and Sample 2 differ due to their distinct management regimes [10], while Sample 3 is unique as it is derived from a garden area.

Figure 1.

Representation of different crops and management on the same farm, where soil sampling must be done individually within each system. Source: Ref. [10].

After collection, the soil needs to be analyzed, and the type of analysis depends on the owner’s aims. The chemical analysis focuses on determining the presence of critical nutrients such as macronutrients, calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), nitrogen (N), and micronutrients. Additional chemical tests may measure soil pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), organic matter content, salinity, and others. Physical analysis evaluates aspects soil texture, structure, porosity, and bulk density, critical to understanding water retention and root penetration. Biological analysis evaluates soil microbial activity and biodiversity, including assessing specific soil enzymes such as acid phosphatase and beta-glucosidase. These enzymes indicate nutrient cycling processes and overall soil health [11]. Together, these multiple analyses provide in-depth data on soil fertility and overall soil health, facilitating the development of field-specific management strategies.

The analysis results can first be used to interpret the actual condition of the soil at the time of sampling, such as soil acidity, compaction, nutrient deficiencies, and microbial activity. This diagnostic process begins with the interpretation of soil analysis results, where the concentration of macronutrients and micronutrients is compared to established agricultural benchmarks. These benchmarks are often region-specific, taking into account local soil types, climatic conditions, and crop requirements. The diagnosis helps to identify nutrient deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances, which is critical for developing an effective nutrient management plan [12]. The goal of soil fertility diagnostics to increase crop yields and minimize environmental impacts through the judicious use of fertilizers and soil amendments [13].

Soil nutrient depletion, particularly in tropical regions, is a major challenge to sustainable agriculture.

This place’s soil is often characterized by low natural fertility due to intense leaching and high rates of organic decomposition accelerated by the hot and humid climate [14]. These factors result in rapid loss of nutrients, especially N and P (mainly by sorption process), which are essential elements for plant growth. A soil is considered nutrient-poor or low-fertility when its ability to supply adequate nutrients to crops is limited [15]. Low levels of organic matter, reduced cation exchange capacity (CEC), and low concentrations of essential macronutrients and micronutrients often indicate this [16]. Under these conditions, plants show signs of nutrient deficiencies, resulting in stunted growth, low yields, and, in severe cases, crop failure.

As mentioned before, each country or region develops its fertilizer recommendation guidelines tailored to local agricultural conditions and crop requirements. These guidelines are often compiled into bulletins or manuals that provide growers and agronomists with region-specific advice on optimal fertilizer application rates and practices.

3. Integrated soil management to improve fertility and plant nutrition

Integrated soil management (ISM) is a holistic approach that combines various agronomic practices to improve soil fertility and health, ultimately leading to sustainable agricultural productivity [17]. The core philosophy of ISM is to treat the soil not just as a medium for plant growth, but as a dynamic and living ecosystem [18]. This approach involves balancing the soil’s chemical, physical, and biological aspects to create a more resilient and productive system.

Chemical balance is achieved by providing essential nutrients through organic and inorganic fertilizers while ensuring that soil pH is optimal for nutrient availability and plant growth [19]. Physical soil health is enhanced by conservation tillage, which maintains soil structure and reduces erosion, and by maintaining optimal soil moisture and aeration through proper irrigation and drainage practices [18].

The biological aspects of ISM focus on enhancing soil biodiversity and microbial activity, which are critical for nutrient cycling and decomposition of organic matter [20]. Incorporating organic matter into the soil, such as crop residues, compost, or green manures, stimulates biological activity and helps build soil structure. Cover crops play an important role in this management type, protecting the soil from erosion, adding organic matter and providing habitat for beneficial organisms [21]. As shown in Figure 2, according to Amsili and Kaye, some cover crop plants have root systems with different architectures and are generally quite robust, reaching deep into the soil [22]. In addition, crop rotation and intercropping practices support a diverse soil biota, which can improve nutrient availability, suppress soil-borne diseases, and increase overall soil resilience to environmental stresses.

Figure 2.

Root distribution of triticale, crimson clover, canola, and a 5-species mix across In-row and between-row spaces at depths of 0–5 cm, 5–20 cm, and 20–40 cm. Source: Adapted from Amsili and Kaye [22].

Sustainability is at the heart of ISM, which means considering the long-term impact of soil management practices on the environment and future productivity [23]. This means adopting strategies that address current fertility issues, prevent soil degradation, and preserve soil health for future generations. Practices such as agroforestry, integrated pest and nutrient management, and conservation of natural soil habitats are integral to ISM [24]. These practices improve soil fertility and contribute to broader environmental goals such as biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and water quality improvement. Ultimately, ISM is about striking a balance between meeting immediate agricultural needs and maintaining the ecological integrity of the soil ecosystem.

4. Fertilization strategies and integrated management

Fertility strategies and integrated management involve a multifaceted approach to nutrient application that ensures crops receive the nutrients they need for optimal growth while minimizing environmental impact [25]. The main focus of this approach is understanding soil nutrient dynamics and crop needs, which guides the selection and timing of fertilizer applications [26]. Modern fertilizer strategies emphasize the principle of “right source, right rate, right time, and right place,” commonly known as 4R nutrient stewardship [27]. This involves selecting the appropriate type of fertilizer (organic or inorganic), applying it at the optimal rate to meet crop needs without over-application, timing the application to coincide with plant growth stages, and placing the fertilizer where the crop can most effectively utilize it. This targeted approach maximizes nutrient use efficiency and reduces the risk of runoff and leaching that can lead to environmental degradation [28].

Integrated fertilizer management also requires a deep understanding of crop–soil interactions. This includes recognizing the specific nutrient needs of different crops and the ability of different soil types to provide these nutrients [29]. Crop rotation and intercropping are critical to maintaining soil fertility and reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers. Rotating crops with different nutrient requirements can naturally help to balance the soil nutrient profile, intercropping with legumes can increase nitrogen availability through biological nitrogen fixation [30]. In addition, soil amendments such as lime can be used to adjust soil pH or improve soil structure, further optimizing nutrient availability [31].

The environmental impact of fertilization strategies includes the promotion of organic fertilizers and compost, which provide nutrients and improve soil organic matter content, soil structure, water retention, and microbial activity [32]. Integrating of organic and inorganic fertilizers can provide a balanced nutrient supply while maintaining soil health [33]. In addition, covering crops and reducing tillage practices as mentioned before contribute to soil health by helping to retain nutrients and reduce erosion, which is critical for sustainable nutrient management. Zhang et al. schematized an excellent example of integrated nutrient management as represented in Figure 3 [34]. A strategic approach synergizes nutrient supply within the root zone with the nutrient needs of high-yielding crops to achieve sustainable agricultural productivity [35]. On the supply side, it quantifies bioavailable nutrients and characterizes the nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) available in the soil as influenced by environmental inputs. On the demand side, it considers the crop’s total and periodic nutrient needs, as well as its response to nutrient inputs. The nutrient management strategy is twofold: It includes in-season management for nitrogen and addresses establishing and maintaining phosphorus and potassium levels. It also includes corrective actions for trace element deficiencies. These strategies are supported by high-yield crop management and optimal water management practices. The culmination of these practices forms the core of INM, which aims to balance crop productivity with environmental quality to ensure food security and long-term soil health.

Figure 3.

Balancing soil health and productivity: Implementing integrated nutrient Management for Improved Food Security and Sustained Environmental Quality. Source: (adapted from Zhang et al. [34]).

Finally, continuous monitoring and adjustment are essential aspects of fertility strategies and integrated management. Soil fertility and crop nutrient needs can vary yearly due to changes in weather patterns, crop rotations, and other environmental factors [36]. Regular soil testing, plant tissue analysis, and plant growth and health monitoring are necessary to adjust fertilization strategies accordingly. This adaptive management approach ensures that fertilization practices remain effective and sustainable over time and meet the evolving needs of the soil–crop system. Furthermore, as mentioned before, an accurate fertilizer recommendation must be based on a detailed soil analysis and accurate interpretation of the results, taking into account crop history, regional climatic conditions, and specific crop requirements. Based on this information, agronomists can prescribe the exact type and amount of fertilizer to meet specific crop needs and identify soil deficiencies.

The selection of fertilizer sources is also critical. Different nutrient sources have different release rates and plant availability, affecting fertilizer efficiency [37]. For example, synthetic fertilizers provide a high concentration of nutrients and rapid availability, while organic fertilizers release nutrients more slowly but improve soil organic matter and structure [38]. The environmental impact of fertilizers should also be considered, with preference given to those with a lower risk of leaching or volatilization, such as controlled-release or stabilized fertilizers [37]. Precision agriculture technologies can further refine fertilizer recommendations, enabling site-specific and variable-rate applications that the crop’s spatial and temporal needs [39]. As a result, informed fertilizer recommendations and wise selection of fertilizer sources are essential to successful integrated fertilizer strategies that positively impact agricultural productivity and natural resource conservation.

5. Use of nutrients by plants

Plant’s efficient use of nutrients is essential for crop productivity and agricultural ecosystems’ sustainability [40]. Plant nutrition is a delicate balance of nutrient uptake, assimilation, and utilization that must be tightly managed to avoid the depletion of soil resources and increase crop productivity [41]. Plants require a range of macronutrients and micronutrients, each serving a unique function within plant cells and systems. Macronutrients such as N, P, and K are often the focus of fertilizer programs because of their high plants demand and important role in growth and development. However, efficient use of these nutrients depends on their availability in forms that plants can readily absorb and utilize, which requires a nuanced understanding of soil chemistry and plant physiology [42].

The mechanism of nutrient uptake by plants is complex and involves soil–root interactions that are influenced by several factors such as soil pH, texture, and the presence of organic matter [43]. Mycorrhizal associations and root exudates modify the rhizosphere to enhance nutrient availability [44], and plant’s root architecture can adapt to optimize nutrient uptake [43]. This biological efficiency is critical; for example, P, which tends to be fixed in the soil, can be made more available through the application of mycorrhizal inoculants or root organic acid exudates that solubilize phosphates and promote uptake [45].

Micronutrient efficiency is equally critical, although these nutrients are needed in smaller amounts. Micronutrients such as zinc, iron, manganese, and copper are essential for plant enzyme systems and photosynthesis [46]. Their efficient use is often hampered by soil conditions that make them unavailable to plants, such as high pH levels that cause these nutrients to precipitate. Chelated micronutrients or foliar applications can improve their availability and ensure that plants receive adequate amounts to maintain optimal physiological functions [47]. In addition, foliar application ensures a more uniform distribution, especially for nutrients required in low rates.

Water management also plays a critical role in nutrient use efficiency. Overirrigation can lead to leaching of nutrients, especially highly mobile ions such as nitrate, from the root zone, reducing their availability to plants and potentially contaminating groundwater [48]. Conversely, under-irrigation can result in poor solubilization of nutrients and reduced uptake due to reduced ion movement to the absorption zone [49]. Implementing precise irrigation strategies that deliver water directly to the root zone in amounts that meet plant needs without overdosing can significantly improve nutrient use efficiency [50].

6. Conclusions

This chapter highlights the importance of soil analysis and integrated management for sustainable agriculture. Soil analysis is essential for understanding nutrient levels, pH, and soil texture, which inform targeted fertilization strategies. Integrated soil management (ISM) combines chemical, physical, and biological approaches to improve soil health and fertility while protecting the environment through agroforestry and reduced tillage. Precision agriculture techniques are critical in optimizing fertilization to meet specific crop needs and protect the environment. Efficient nutrient use by plants is emphasized, focusing on the uptake and assimilation of both macro and micronutrients are crucial for plant growth. Ultimately, the chapter advocates a balanced approach that meets agricultural needs and maintains ecological integrity, ensuring long-term soil productivity and environmental sustainability.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior—CAPES (financing code 001) for supporting the publication of this study. This research was supported by the Foundation for Research Support of the State of São Paulo, Brazil (FAPESP - 2020/13710-0), and the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq - 168192/2018-7; 371878/2023-3).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest that could influence the publication of this chapter.