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The chapter presents a discussion on crevasse fillings – one of a group of glacial forms whose formation is assigned by various authors to two peripheral dynamics of ice-sheet masses: stagnant ice and surging glaciers. Examples from literature of crevasse filling formation in these two states of dynamics are presented. The author makes an overview of documented in the literature examples of crevasse fillings forming in stagnant and surging ice and discusses the differences between the group formed in stagnant and the group formed in surging ice. In the conclusions, the author arguments assigning crevasse fillings to the surge dynamics of ice masses whereas glacial forms, which develop in stagnant ice crevasses, should not be termed crevasse fillings, but interpreted e.g. as kames, eskers and hummocky moraines.
Department of Geomorphology and Palaeogeography, Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland
*Address all correspondence to: anna.orlowska@mail.umcs.pl
1. Introduction
Among the various forms of glacial relief in glaciated areas, both in the Pleistocene and today, a significant group of them is associated with a specific state of ice dynamics: balanced, positive or negative. The most typical examples of this include: (1) accumulative end moraines, which are an indicator of a balanced ice balance [1, 2]; (2) end moraines characterized by a positive ice balance [1, 3]; (3) kames, which are a record of the negative ice balance [1, 4, 5, 6].
However, there are forms of glacial relief whose origin still remains problematic in the context of assigning them to one dynamic state of ice. This group includes crevasse forms, which in the literature are examples of forms attributed to two extreme dynamic states of ice (according to Orłowska [7]): stagnant [8, 9, 10, 11, 12] and surging [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Against this background, controversial issues arise regarding: the term crevasse forms, used for relief forms formed in ice crevasse under conditions of different ice dynamics, and the characteristic features of these forms.
In the context of the above issues, the following issues are worth considering: (1) a review of examples of forms formed in ice crevasses documented in the literature, (2) a comparison of their features and an attempt to explain their genesis and (3) assigning them to a specific state of glaciers/ice-sheet dynamics.
The place where crevasse deposits are formed is an ice crevasse. Benn & Evans [21] define this term as a space in the ice created by ice fracture. This occurs when glacial ice does not move fast enough to allow the ice mass to adjust to its shape under the stress. Earlier, Sharp [13] indicated what ice dynamics should be associated with the formation of crevasses, stating that a crack, which is the place where a crevasse develops, can only occur during the active phase of glacier movement.
Similarly, the term “crevasse” was classified by Terpiłowski [5], specifying it as a crack in the ice, conditioned by static and dynamic stresses in the ice. Additionally, he separated the term “ice crevasse” from other, similar concepts, i.e. “ice rift” (defined as a depression in the ice, also reaching the sub-ice surface, resulting from uneven surface ablation) and “ice crevasse” (defined as an elongated, narrow a depression in the ice resulting from the degradation of the roof of an ice tunnel).
The formation of fractures defined in this way, explained in the literature by the distribution of compression and tension stresses in the ice, became the basis for the construction of models for their formation. Nye’s [22] best-known model concerned the formation of crevasses in mountain glaciers as a result of shear stress generated by glacier movement. Nye [22] considered three situations of the formation of cracks in the ice as a result of the action of shear stresses (Figure 1A): (a) at the interface between the glacier and the valley walls as a result of the friction of the ice on the valley slopes; (b) in the central part of the glacier, where the ice tension flow dominates, which causes the expansion of fractures oriented transversely to the direction of flow; (c) in the marginal part of the ice, where compressive ice flow occurs.
Figure 1.
Models of crevasse formation: (A) according to Nye [22]; (B) according to Benn et al. [23]; (C) according to Röthlisberger & Lang [24]; (D) according to Nitychoruk [25]; (E) according to Morawski [28].
The latest model by Benn et al. [23] presents three ways of creating cracks as a result of (Figure 1B): I – opening mode – occurring as a result of the tension of the walls of cracking ice; II – sliding mode – causing a crack along the shear plane in the same direction as the direction of the shear stress; III – tearing mode – occurring at right angles to the shear direction. Several examples of fracture formation documented in the literature fit these models.
Model I corresponds to a situation in which the ice sheet entered the morphological obstacles present in its base. As a result of the action of tensile stresses, the ice became sealed above the subsurface elevation (e.g., [24]); Figure 1C). Such an example was presented by Nitychoruk [25], who suggested subsurface subsidence along Paleogene-Neogene tectonic trenches in the South Podlasie Lowland, activated as a result of ice loading. (Figure 1D). Model II corresponds to the most frequently documented cracks at the junction of a glacier/land ice sheet with an ice stream moving much faster than the surrounding ice [26]. Such examples are recorded in modern Antarctic ice sheets [27]. The result of these processes is crevasse forms observed in the post-glacial relief of areas glaciated in the Pleistocene (e.g., [25]). Model III corresponds to the origin of the formation of cracks in the ice located above the tectonic framework, resulting from activating isostatic movements of the ground. Such an example was presented by, among others, Morawski [28, 29], who documented the formation of the interlobe zone, and thus the cracks separating the Vistula glaciation ice sheet into the Warmian and Masurian lobes, thanks to the vertical neotectonic movements of blocks of crystalline basement (Figure 1E).
In the fractures defined in this way, numerous deposits of fracture forms, deposited in stagnating and charging ice, have been documented, examples of which are presented in the next chapter.
Crevasse fillings were introduced into the canon of glacigenic forms by Flint [8], based on studies of the glacial relief of the Connecticut area in North America. This author separated them from the group of eskers, pointing out the differences between them. These differences were expressed in: (1) location - crevasse forms were to occur at a certain distance from terminal or recessional moraines or between them, but without a direct connection with them (connection with terminal moraines is a feature often found in eskers, oriented perpendicular to frontal moraine sequences and directly reaching them); (2) morphological features - crevasse forms are short, single and individual embankments that do not show - typical of eskers - traces of connections into long sequences of embankments with irregular ridges and orientation parallel to the direction of ice advance; (3) geological structure - fissure forms are composed of fine-grained sediments, i.e. fine-sandy and silt/clay without clay cover, deposited in a glacial lake environment, i.e. they are different from eskers, composed of coarse-grained sediments deposited in a glacifluvial environment. Flint [8] did not document deformations in the sediments building crevasse forms, which are characteristic of esker deposits covered with basal clay [e.g., [30, 31]).
Crevasse forms with similar morphological features, referring to the work of Flint [8], were documented by Johnson [10], who, while examining the Donjek glacier in the St. Mountains, Elijah, in the Yukon area (Canada), noted a large number of short, single and isolated embankments in cracks parallel to the direction of glacier movement and radiating to the lobe shape of the front. However, the material building these forms was runoff clay. Johnson [10] explained the origin of these forms by the deposition of ablative material, i.e., clay flowing into open crevasses in the glacier; gaps formed during the ice surge, but filled already in the stage of ice stagnation.
Forms formed in the crevasses of stagnant ice were also the object of interest of Polish researchers (including [9, 32, 33, 34]). A model of the formation of crevasses as a result of tensions above the ground hump, and then shaping forms in them in the already stagnant Pleistocene ice sheet by filling them with supraglacial sediments: (A) glacifluvial, was presented by Bartkowski [9] in the area of the Wielkopolska Lowland, (B) glacilimnic, presented by Klimek [32] in the area Lesser Poland Upland. However, both authors classified such forms as kames - including Bartkowski [9] as glacifluvial kames. Similar fissure forms near Kornica [33], filling fissures in the stagnant Pleistocene ice sheet, composed of sediments with a fan-delta sequence atypical for fissure forms, and developed above a basement hump (Figure 2A), were reinterpreted and classified as glacidelta kames by Godlewska & Terpiłowski [34].
Figure 2.
Examples of forms, developing in crevasses of stagnant ice: (A) glaciodeltaic kames according to Godlewska & Terpiłowski [34]; (B) hummocky moraines and linear disintegration ridges according to Eyles et al. [11]; (C) crevasse fill ridges according to Friello & Hanson [12] and Dreimanis [35]; (D) interlobate eskers according to Gruszka et al. [38].
An analogous mechanism of the formation of cracks in the ice stagnating above the ground hump, as well as the formation of forms within them, but with a significantly different internal structure, was presented by Eyles et al. [11]. Based on research on the glaciated area in Canada, they proposed a model of two groups of forms deposited in the so-called cracks, hummocky moraine and linear disintegration ridges. According to the above-mentioned authors, both groups of forms in the floor part are composed of soft clay-rich basal till, which, as a result of strong hydration, was plastically pressed into the cracks as a result of being loaded with stagnant ice blocks. They are therefore characterized by the presence of anticlinal extrusion deflections within the clay (Figure 2B). Hummocky moraine are forms deposited in wide crevasses. As a result of pressing the clay, the so-called “circular shafts” giving the shape of doughnuts. In the ceiling, these forms are filled and covered with glacilimnic sediments (fine-grained - sandy-mud, silt and clay), deposited in still waters in the ice crevasse. Their characteristic feature is a flat top. These are therefore forms of subglacial-supraglacial origin. However, linear disintegration ridges are formed in narrow cracks and are composed exclusively of subglacial sediments (Figure 2B). The lack of supraglacial sediments in their profile is due to the limitation of the upper part of the rift by an ice ceiling, which results in their characteristic morphology, i.e., sharp-edged, “jagged” ridges.
Analogously shaped forms with a similar internal structure, called crevasse fill ridges, were documented by Friello & Hanson [12] in the area of the United States glaciated by the Laurentian ice sheet. In their opinion, the formation of cracks took place in active ice, but their filling took place between blocks of stagnant ice. Like Eyles et al. [11], they documented a subglacial link in the form of basal clay pressed into the cracks from below. However, the above-mentioned authors also proposed an alternative model with a supraglacial link covering the basal clay with runoff clay (Figure 2C). Rift forms with such a subglacial-supraglacial succession of layers were also documented by Dreimanis [35] in ice crevasses of the stagnant ice sheet of the Wisconsinan glaciation in Ontario (Canada).
Forms formed in crevasses of stagnant ice have also been documented in interlobe zones sensu Punkari [36]. However, the features composed of sediments filling these cracks have been interpreted as kames or eskers.
The formations composed of glacifluvial sediments (sand, sand-gravel and gravel), covered with runoff clay, located in the interlobe zone of the Laurentian ice sheet, were considered to be kames. They were documented by Santos [37] in the Kent area, Ohio (USA). According to this author, sediment deposition took place in crevasses of stagnant ice, the formation of which took place above the subsurface elevation.
However, eskers, formed in the cracks of the interlobe zones of the Pleistocene ice sheet in northern Poland, were documented by Gruszka et al. [38]. The sediments that constitute them were deposited in narrow crevasses, shaped in the ice as a result of vertical movements of the crystalline substrate, activated by the loading of the ice sheet (Figure 2D). These eskers form narrow, long embankments, perpendicular to the line of the maximum extent of the Pomeranian phase of the Vistula Glaciation, composed of glacifluvial sediments (sand, gravel, sand and gravel), deposited in high-energy sedimentary environments and runoff clay on the slopes. Deposition of these sediments occurred in stagnant ice (Figure 2D).
To sum up, the documented forms formed in the crevasses of stagnant ice are characterized by the following features according to Orłowska [7]: (1) in terms of morphology - they are ridges, plateaus; (2) geologically - composed of both supraglacial (glacifluvial, glacilimnic, ablative, i.e., runoff clay) and subglacial (basal clay) sediments; (3) in terms of location - oriented both perpendicularly and parallel to the glacier front. In the geomorphological classification, they are interpreted as forms of different origins and with different nomenclature, i.e., crevasse forms, kames, eskers, hummocky moraine or linear disintegration ridges.
3.2 Crevasse forms in surging ice
The pioneer in the study of crevasse formations as indicators of surging glaciers was Sharp [13, 14]. In the forelands of the Eyjabakkajökull and Vatnajökull glaciers in Iceland, he documented embankments with steep slopes (70–80° inclination), up to 2–3 m high, up to 2 m wide and with sharp-edged, irregular ridges. These forms were made of basal clay. The author explained the lack of cover with supraglacial sediments by pressing basal sediments through the cracks to the surface of the thin ice in the marginal zone. He associated their formation with the simultaneous creation of cracks and pressing of basal clay into them during the glacier’s surge. Only in the phase of calming down of ice activity after the surge was it possible to statically press the clay already present in the cracks and fill the open cracks with basal clay up to the ice surface (Figure 3) [13, 14]. After the ice disappeared, forms appeared on the surface in the form of the so-called clay walls (Polish terminology).
Figure 3.
Examples of crevasse fillings developing in surging ice according to Sharp [13, 14]: (a) situation directly after ice surge; (b) situation at the beginning of the stagnant phase; (c) situation after ice-front recession.
Crevasse squeeze ridges (CSRs) associated with glacial advances were also described by Evans & Rea [15, 16], Evans et al. [17, 18] or Waller et al. [20] from the foreland of Icelandic glaciers, as well as Christoffersen et al. [19] on the foreland of the Elisebreen glacier on Svalbard. In each case, these authors confirmed that these forms took the form of low (1–3 m high) embankments, built of basal clay pressed into the cracks from the bottom and were oriented perpendicular to the directions of glacial movement, thus adopting the concept proposed by Sharp [13] their genesis. An example of such forms is presented in Figure 1. It is worth emphasizing that these are short-lived forms, recorded only in modern glaciers and have no chance of being preserved since the Pleistocene era.
To sum up, the documented forms formed in the cracks of surging ice are characterized by the following features (according to Orłowska [7]): (1) in terms of morphology - they are low, irregular embankments with sharp-edged ridges and steep slopes; (2) geologically - composed exclusively of subglacial sediments, i.e. clayey basal clay pressed into the crack from the ground; (3) in terms of distribution - only parallel to the front of the glacier/ice sheet, and therefore perpendicular to the direction of its advance. In the geomorphological classification, they were assigned various terms: crevasse infills, crevasse fill ridges and CSRs (see, among others, Evans [39] or Benn & Evans [21]).
Based on the conducted review, there are significant differences in the characteristic features that developed in the crevasses of stagnating and surging ice, i.e. in terms of morphology, geological structure and the distribution of attention at the glacier/ice sheet front (see Table 1).
narrow ridges, elongated hummocks (up to 1–8 m in height, 100–200 m in width, 0.2–1.5 km in length), located above an elongated ridge 5 km in length and 10 m in height
sharp-crested, narrow ridges (with 2–3 m of height, up to 2 m in width) with steep slopes
glacial deposits (basal till)
transverse
Evans & Rea [15], Evans et al. [18], Christoffersen et al. [19]
crevasse squeeze ridges
ridges (up to 1–3 m in height)
glacial deposits (basal till)
transverse
Evans et al. (2016)
crevasse squeeze ridge corridors
a 200-km-long and 10-km-wide linear assemblage of ridges
glacial deposits (basal till)
transverse
Table 1.
List of forms in crevasses of stagnant and surging ice documented in the references (according to Orłowska [7]).
The morphology of the shapes formed in stagnant ice is characteristic of crevasses that widen with differential ablation, hence their final shape in the form of ridges, plateaus with a separate and/or symphonic top. Meanwhile, in surging ice, the top-down closure or only their width results from formations with sharp-edged peaks. Additional, significant definition in the thickness of the sediments of these forms, i.e., up to several dozen meters in stagnant ice and up to several meters in surging ice, two from the above-mentioned wide or maximum opening or closing of the rift, but also from the boundary ablation of the most often thick ice in Pleistocene ice sheets, than the limited limits of marginal mountain glaciers surging.
The geological structure of the forms in the crevasses of stagnant ice, i.e., the glacifluvial, glacilimnic and ablative sediments documented there, are typical of the sediments of the supraglacial subenvironment, flowing into the crevasses from the ice surface, more or less sorted depending on the share of meltwater. The basal clay present in the cracks of stagnant ice is the result of being pressed into the cracks from below as a result of the load of long-lasting stagnant ice. This is a much different process from pressing basal clay into surging ice. In it, when the clay at the foot of the ice sheet/glacier is saturated with water, it enhances the sliding process, reducing friction and facilitating the rapid movement of ice, and thus its tension and the formation of cracks. At the same time, it is dynamically, subglacially pressed into the opening spaces in the ice from below (according to Sharp [13, 14]) and it is the only sediment filling the crevasses of the surging ice (see Table 1).
Significant differences in the forms in which sediments are deposited in ice crevasses with extremely different dynamic states also concern the distribution of these forms (see Table 1). The involvement of sediments in forms arranged perpendicular or parallel to the ice front or the direction of its advance is related to the distribution of fractures during the transgression of glaciers/land ice sheets. Active glaciers with a normal advance rate are characterized by a distribution of crevasses parallel to the direction of transgression, i.e., perpendicular to the ice front (cf. Evans & Twigg [40]). Therefore, most of the forms deposited in the crevasses, after reaching the maximum extent, of the already stagnant Pleistocene glaciers/land ice sheets, have a direction parallel to the direction of their advance (see Table 1). Sometimes, examples of these forms with a transverse orientation are related not to the dynamics of the glacier/land ice sheet itself, but to external conditions causing the ice to seal, e.g. with specific ground conditions, i.e., its morphology (see, among others, Terpiłowski [4]; Godlewska & Terpiłowski [34]), also resulting from isostatic movements of this substrate (e.g., Nitychoruk [25]; Gruszka et al. [38]). Meanwhile, the distribution of fractures in the charging ice is oriented only transversely to the direction of ice advance, because during the surge the glacial tongue is stretched longitudinally and separated into separate blocks as a result of the action of tension stresses. They favour the formation of crevasses parallel to the ice front as a result of the rapid pace of ice movement. Therefore, as a result, formations are created in crevasses located only parallel to the front of the charging glaciers (see Table 1).
The above differences in morphology, geological structure and the distribution of forms in the crevasses of stagnating and charging ice may also result from the chronology/sequence of the formation of the cracks and their filling. The formation of forms in the crevasses of stagnant ice does not occur synchronously with the formation of these crevasses. These are formed when the ice is active, and only then, after the glacier/land ice activity ceases, they are filled. Such paleogeographic conditions lead to the formation of forms that can generally be classified as ice disintegration forms, e.g., kames, hummocky moraines or linear disintegration ridges, but also eskers (Figure 4). Meanwhile, in charging ice, the formation and filling of cracks occur synchronously, i.e., the crevasse opening from the bottom is immediately filled with the intruding basal clay and pressed within it during the surge, as well as after it stops (Figure 4). Such paleogeographic conditions are possible only for surging glaciers, which is why such forms - according to the examples presented in the literature - are considered in the world literature to be crevasse forms in the strict sense (Figure 4) and are associated with the landscape of surging glaciers (terrestrial surging glacier landsystem as defined by Evans & Rea [16]).
Figure 4.
Ice dynamics and forms deposited in crevasses of stagnant and surging ice (according to Orłowska [7]).
Filling ice crevasses, in the context of their genesis, has so far been associated with extreme dynamic states of ice: stagnant or charging. A review of the literature documenting slotted forms allows us to draw the following conclusions:
Forms filling the crevasses of stagnant ice are most often embankments, plateaus, made of glacifluvial, glacilimnic and glacial sediments, with various arrangements: parallel and perpendicular to the direction of ice advance. These forms are characteristic of ice disintegration. The places of their deposition, i.e., crevasses, were formed during active ice, and the deposition in the crevasses took place in the final phase of activity and in the initial phase of ice stagnation.
Meanwhile, crevasses forms in the strict sense correspond to glacial forms in the form of low, sharp-edged embankments, the deposition of which in the crevasses occurred synchronously with the formation of ice crevasses parallel to the front and perpendicular to the direction of ice advance. Such conditions of their formation are only possible in surging glaciers. The deposition of such forms takes place from the bottom up into the crevasses by pressing basal clay into them.
Examples of forms documented in the literature show that crevasses forms defined in this way only occur in modern glaciated areas of high latitudes.
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Written By
Anna Orłowska
Submitted: 01 March 2024Reviewed: 12 March 2024Published: 29 April 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
