Perspective Chapter: Why Are Compositae Weeds More Invasive?

Abstract

Biological invasion is a global ecological problem, and it is important to understand the mechanism of successful invasion for the prevention and control of invasive weeds. Based on my experience and expertise in ecology, I have observed a significant gap in the literature regarding Compositae weeds invasions, and aimed to address this gap. We searched the literature related to Compositae weeds invasions published after 2000 in the China National Knowledge Infrastructure, PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science. A list of 60 major Compositae weeds that are widely invasive around the world, and five important reasons (reproductive strategies, ecological adaptations, genetic diversity, enemy release, and human activities) explored that could be responsible for the powerful invasiveness of Compositae weeds. We offer a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge in this field and present a different perspective that incorporates existing theories. A clear address about the aggressive invasiveness of invasive species belonging to Compositae, and proposing scientific prevention, control, and management strategies will help prevent further invasion around the world in the future.

1. Introduction

Invasive weed species pose a significant threat to global ecosystems and economy around the world [1]. Compositae weeds have been particularly successful at invading heterogeneous habitats, many species within this family have become invasive in various regions (Table 1, contains references [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61]), especially in agroecological zones and grassland areas [62, 63]. Here, we aim to explore the factors that contribute to the strong invasiveness of Compositae weeds. Several reasons for their success in invading new habitats will be discussed, including their reproductive strategies, ecological adaptations, genetic diversity, enemy release, and the impacts of human activities on their spread (Figure 1). Understanding these factors can aid in the development of effective management strategies for controlling the invasion of Compositae weeds.

Compositae weeds	Common name	Place origin	Invasive habitats	References
Ageratina adenophora	sticky snakeroot	Mexico	sparse vegetation, bare land	Poudel et al. [2]
Ageratum conyzoides	tropical whiteweed	Tropical America	valley, understory, meadow, wasteland	Erida et al. [3]
Ambrosia artemisiifolia	annual ragweed	Central and North America	roadside, channels, riverbanks, streets	Gusev et al. [4]
Ambrosia trifida	great ragweed	North America	fields, roadsides, wetlands	Xu et al. [5]
Aster subulatus	annual saltmarsh aster	North America	roadside, abandoned land, wilderness	Xu et al. [6]
Bidens alba	common beggar’s tick	Tropical America	villageside, roadside, wasteland	Wang et al. [7]
Bidens frondosa	devil’s beggartick	North America	wet field	Min et al. [8]
Bidens pilosa	hairy beggarticks	America	villageside, roadside, wasteland	Li et al. [9]
Chromolaena odorata	Siam weed	Mexico	hilly land, savanna	Xu et al. [10]
Erigeron annuus	annual fleabane	North America	hillsides, roadsides, fields	Huang et al. [11]
Erigeron canadensis	horseweed	North America	wilderness, wasteland, field edge, roadside	Liendo et al. [12]
Erigeron sumatrensis	fleabane daisy	South America	meadow, wilderness, roadside	Maslo et al. [13]
Flaveria bidentis	bristly yellowtop	South America	wilderness, pasture, abandoned farmland	Dai et al. [14]
Mikania micrantha	American rope	Central and South America	forest, farmland	Jiang et al. [15]
Parthenium hysterophorus	famine weed	Tropical America	open land, roadside, riverside, slopes	Ullah et al. [16]
Praxelis clematidea	fleabane	South America	roadside, wasteland, farmland, grassland	Intanon et al. [17]
Solidago canadensis	Canada goldenrod	North America	river beach, wasteland, roadside, farmland side	Tian et al. [18]
Tithonia diversifolia	tree marigold	Mexico	river beach, roadside, farmland	Jiao et al. [19]
Ageratum houstonianum	flossflower	Tropical America	forest edge, riverside, farmland, grassland	El Hadidy et al. [20]
Crassocephalum crepidioides	redflower ragleaf	Africa	underwood, bushes, beside ditches	Xie et al. [21]
Erigeron bonariensis	Brazilian fleabane	South America	roadside, river embankment, hillside, countryside	Qasem et al. [22]
Galinsoga parviflora	gallant soldier	South America	roadside, open space	Ripanda et al. [23]
Galinsoga quadriradiata	gallant soldier	Mexico	forest, roadside	Liu et al. [24]
Sphagneticola trilobata	wedelia	Tropical America	seaside, waterside, limestone areas	Zhang et al. [25]
Xanthium italicum	Italian cocklebur	Europe, North America	wasteland, waterside, farmland	Shi et al. [26]
Xanthium spinosum	spiny cocklebur	America	roadside, wasteland, farmland	Dudás et al. [27]
Bidens bipinnata	Spanish needles	America	wastelands, hillsides, fields	Zhuang et al. [28]
Coreopsis lanceolata	lanceleaf coreopsis	USA	woods, mountains	Kim et al. [29]
Cosmos sulphureus	sulfur cosmos	Mexico	pastoral, sandy land	Liu et al. [30]
Cyclachaena xanthiifolia	giant false ragweed	North America	highway, the manure pile	Abramova & Nurmieva [31]
Erigeron philadelphicus	Philadelphia fleabane	North America	roadside, wilderness, hillside, orchard, forest	Xu et al. [32]
Tagetes minuta	wild marigold	Tropical America	alpine areas	Moghaddam et al. [33]
Tagetes patula	French marigold	Mexico	grassland, forest, garden	Prebeg et al. [34]
Tragopogon dubius	western salsify	Central Asia, Europe	river beach, wasteland, field edge	Jordon-Thaden et al. [35]
Xanthium mongolicum	Mongolian cocklebur	Mexico	roadside, ditchside, field edge, grassland	Han et al. [36]
Cichorium intybus	chicory	Europe, West Central Asia, North Africa	wasteland, prairie, field, slope	Gazwi et al. [37]
Eclipta prostrata	false daisy	America	riverside, fieldside, roadside	Timalsina & Devkota [38]
Erechtites hieraciifolius	pilewort	Tropical America	understory, hillsides, shrubs, wetlands	Hung et al. [39]
Erechtites valerianifolius	American burnweed	Tropical America	fieldside, roadside	Funez et al. [40]
Glebionis carinata	corn marigold	Morocco	pastoral, wasteland	Mircea et al. [41]
Helianthus tuberosus	Jerusalem artichoke	North America	ruins, houseside, roadside	Phongphan et al. [42]
Senecio vulgaris	common groundsel	Europe	grassland, hillside, roadside	Ebadi & Eftekharian [43]
Silybum marianum	milk thistle	West Asia, North Africa, Southern Europe	open space, wasteland, roadside	Hossain et al. [44]
Soliva anthemifolia	annual sowthistle	South America	wasteland, field	Ghoshal et al. [45]
Sonchus asper	prickly sowthistle	Europe, the Mediterranean	hillside, forest edge, waterside	Sidhu et al. [46]
Sonchus oleraceus	common sowthistle	Europe,d the Mediterranean	forest, field, open space	Choudhary et al. [47]
Taraxacum officinale	dandelion	Europe	grassland, forest, field, roadside	Watanabe et al. [48]
Zinnia peruviana	Peruvian zinnia	Mexico	hillside, grass, roadside	Mohamed et al. [49]
Acanthospermum hispidum	bristly starbur	South America	flat slopes, riversides, ditchsides, roadsides	Sukholozova et al. [50]
Acmella oleracea	paracress	South America	fieldside, roadside	Kato-Noguchi et al. [51]
Anthemis arvensis	corn mayweed	Europe	roadside	Wozniak et al. [52]
Anthemis tinctoria	yellow chamomile	Europe	parks, fields	Orlando et al. [53]
Aster subulatu var. cubensis	Cuban aster	Caribbean	seaside, wetland	Cheng et al. [54]
Calyptocarpus vialis	straggler daisy	Cuba, Mexico and the United States	wilderness, cultivated land, roadside, houseside	Lal et al. [55]
Centaurea cyanus	cornflower	Europe	wasteland, field	Palma-Bautista et al. [56]
Centaurea diffusa	diffuse knapweed	West Asia, Europe	wasteland, field	Keever et al. [57]
Centaurea maculosa	spotted knapweed	Europe	wasteland, field	Mummey et al. [58]
Coreopsis basalis	goldenmane tickseed	North America	parks, gardens	Crawford & Smith [59]
Coreopsis grandiflora	large-flowered tickseed	USA	wasteland, mountains	Huang et al. [60]
Coreopsis tinctoria	golden tickseed	USA	wasteland, mountains, field	Jiang et al. [61]

Table 1.

Informations on the 60 most important species of Compositae weeds.

Figure 1.

Main reasons for the global invasion success of Compositae weeds. Five important reasons can be responsible for explaining the strong invasiveness of Compositae weeds, including reproductive strategies, ecological adaptations, genetic diversity, enemy release, and human activities.

Compositae weeds are recognized for their invasive tendencies, presenting significant challenges such as decreased biodiversity and habitat degradation [64]. These invasive plants possess traits like rapid growth, prolific seed production, and adaptability to various environmental conditions, which enable them to outcompete native vegetation and dominate ecosystems [65]. The spread of invasive Compositae weeds is facilitated by human activities, habitat disturbances, and the absence of natural predators in new habitats [66]. Effective control measures, including mechanical removal and targeted herbicide application, are essential to manage their invasion and safeguard native ecosystems from further disruption [67, 68].

Compositae weeds display a wide range of life forms, including annuals, biennials, and perennials [69]. They are characterized by their composite flower heads, which consist of multiple individual flowers on a single head [70]. Compositae weeds have become widely distributed around the world due to their excellent adaptability to different environments and their high reproduction rates [71]. As a result, many species within this family have been introduced to new areas, where they often outcompete and displace native species [72]. For example, Italian cocklebur (Figure 2). Understanding the reasons behind their invasiveness is crucial for effective management and conservation practices.

Figure 2.

The current invasion status of Compositae plant X. italicum in China. Four habitat types can be invaded by the alien Compositae plant X. italicum, including farmland, reservoirs, ditches, and wasteland.

2. Methodology

The China National Knowledge Infrastructure, PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science search engines were used in the literature collection [73]. Only journal articles and reviews that were published English after 2000 in this study [74]. The search terms and strategies are as follows: TS = (“biological invasions*”) OR TI = (“Compositae/Asteraceae weeds*”) OR TI = (“strong invasiveness*”) OR TI = (“successful invasion*”) [75].

3. Reasons for the strong invasiveness of Compositae weeds

3.1 Reproductive strategies

One of the key factors contributing to the invasiveness of Compositae weeds is their unique reproductive strategies. Many species within this family produce large quantities of small, lightweight seeds that are easily dispersed over long distances by wind or water [76]. Additionally, their ability to asexual reproduction, self-pollinate, and insect pollination allows them to rapidly colonize new habitats [77]. These reproductive characteristics provide Compositae weeds with a competitive advantage, allowing them to establish and dominate over other native weed species. Such as Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Solidago Canadensis, and Ageratina adenophora.

3.2 Ecological adaptations

Compositae weeds exhibit various ecological adaptations that contribute to their invasiveness. They are known for their ability to thrive in disturbed habitats, such as roadsides, fields, and forests. Their wide tolerance to different soil types, pH levels, and moisture conditions also enables them to occupy diverse ecological niches [78]. Furthermore, Compositae weeds often possess allelopathic compounds that inhibit the growth of neighboring weeds, further enhancing their ability to outcompete native species [79]. Such as Helianthus annuus, Senecio jacobaea, and Acroptilon repens.

3.3 Genetic diversity

Genetic diversity plays a crucial role in the invasiveness of Compositae weeds. Species within this family often have high genetic variability, which allows them to adapt to new environments and overcome biotic and abiotic stresses [80]. This genetic diversity also increases the chances of hybridization and the formation of novel genotypes with increased invasiveness. Additionally, the presence of polyploid species within Compositae contributes to their ability to occupy new habitats and rapidly expand their range, such as Conyza bonariensis, Erigeron philadelphicus, and Conyza canadensis.

3.4 Enemy release

In their native range, Compositae weeds coexist with specialized herbivores, diseases, and pathogens, regulating their population growth [81]. However, when introduced to new geographic regions, they often escape from their natural enemies, enabling population growth without significant constraints. This lack of natural enemies can lead to uncontrolled proliferation and invasion of Compositae weeds, posing a threat to native biodiversity, such as Cirsium vulgare, Solidago canadensis, and Ambrosia artemisiifolia.

3.5 Human activities

Human activities such as agriculture, horticulture, and international trade have significantly facilitated the spread of Compositae weeds [82]. For example, their introduction as ornamental weeds has resulted in accidental escapes and subsequent invasions in many parts of the world. Furthermore, the disturbance of natural ecosystems through land clearing, urbanization, and climate change creates favorable conditions for the establishment and spread of invasive Compositae species [83]. Prevention measures to control their introduction and spread should be implemented to minimize their impact on native biodiversity, such as Acroptilon repens, Ambrosia artemisiifolia, and Solidago canadensis.

4. Future management strategies of Compositae plant invasions

Effective management strategies for controlling invasive weeds typically involve a combination of prevention, early detection, eradication, and ongoing monitoring. Prevention efforts include implementing strict regulations on the importation and sale of potentially invasive Compositae species, as well as raising public awareness about the risks associated with introducing non-native Compositae plants into natural ecosystems [84].

Early detection is crucial for addressing invasive Compositae weeds before they become established and widespread. This involves training volunteers and professionals to identify invasive Compositae plants and implementing surveillance programs to quickly detect and respond to new invasions [85].

Eradication methods vary depending on the invasive Compositae species and the extent of the invasion but may include mechanical methods such as hand-pulling, mowing, or cutting, as well as chemical control methods like herbicide application. Biological control, using natural enemies such as insects or pathogens to suppress invasive Compositae weeds, can also be an effective long-term strategy when implemented carefully to minimize unintended consequences [86, 87, 88, 89].

Ongoing monitoring and management are essential to prevent the re-establishment and spread of invasive Compositae plants. This includes regular surveys to detect and treat new invasions, as well as restoration efforts to rehabilitate areas impacted by invasive weeds and promote the recovery of native plant communities [90].

Collaboration among government agencies, land managers, researchers, and the public is critical for successful invasive Compositae weeds management. By implementing integrated and adaptive management approaches, we can work toward reducing the impact of invasive Compositae weeds and preserving the health and biodiversity of our local ecosystems, especially in agricultural production areas [91].

5. Conclusions

Here, we present a list of the 60 most important Compositae invasive weeds around the world and discuss the reasons why they are so invasive. The aggressive invasiveness of Compositae weeds can be attributed to a combination of factors such as their reproductive strategies, ecological adaptations, genetic diversity, enemy release, and the influence of human activities. Understanding the mechanisms driving their invasiveness is essential for managing and controlling the spread of these species. Further research is needed to assess the impacts of different control measures and develop effective strategies to prevent the further spread of invasive Compositae weeds and protect native ecosystems.

Acknowledgments

This work is supported by the Central Public-Interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund of China (fund No. 1610012024003).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author contribution statement

H. Yang and J.S. Tang collected the data and H. Yang wrote the manuscript, and J.S. Tang revised the manuscript.