Nondual Well-Being - The Evolution of Happiness

Abstract

In the last fifty years there has been a growing scientific interest in what makes up happiness. Life areas such as relationships, work, or money were investigated however it was found that they only partially predicted happiness. More subjective factors such as cognition and affect were explored, and the term subjective well-being (SWB) became popular. However, because SWB was based on fluctuating mental states and changing life conditions, it was always unstable, and on average people reported themselves mostly happy but not completely happy. In response we ask what it takes to be fully happy. This chapter explores the possibility of whether happiness can be a stable attribute of a fully functional human being. We turn to traditional mindfulness and the ancient wisdom traditions who assert we can achieve lasting happiness and ask what are the psychological mechanisms that can be drawn from them. Their claim that the sense of self is constructed and responsible for the fluctuations in happiness is explored, and a model of robust happiness is considered.

1. Introduction

Serious research into happiness only began in the 1970s. Major life areas such as relationships, work, money, health, and leisure were explored along with a plethora of minor ones [1]. However, as the research developed it became clear that happiness and its causes was very elusive. Researchers found that the life areas that made a difference only made up a small percentage of happiness ranging from 5 to 8% [1, 2] up to 15% [3]. This led researchers to see that life circumstances had a counter-intuitively small impact. And the reason for this was that happiness was more influenced by mental factors.

Researchers began to move their emphasis to more subjective processes like cognition and affect [4]. Over time the consensus was that happiness was a compound of objective conditions and subjective processes [5]. The term subjective well-being (SWB) assumed popularity [6], and included the role of emotions, and a range of mental or cognitive processes that evaluated life conditions to deliver satisfaction with one’s life [7].

The way that people regulated their happiness was seen to be an inbuilt biological mechanism that responded to challenging events. For example, theories like adaptation level theory [8], the hedonic treadmill model [9], and the Dynamic Equilibrium Model [10], attempted to explain that people can maintain a relatively stable level of well-being, by adapting to distressing events so they can return to their previous levels of happiness [11].

Happiness was seen to be under a type of homeostatic control, but within a set-point, that made sure that people mostly return to their previous view of themselves and their lives [12]. When life events have an impact [13], it seems like we have an autonomous self-regulating system of internal buffers (e.g., reframing), and external buffers (e.g., social support) that kick in and recalibrate us back to baseline [14].

However, when people are asked how satisfied they with their life, people generally report themselves to be only three-quarters satisfied [15]. Whilst of course there is a range, it is curious why the typical approach to happiness only delivers a partially satisfied outcome. Hence in view of the research that interventions can impact happiness [16], we ask are there any approaches that deliver a fully satisfied result. That is, could people increase their self-reported happiness beyond the 75% norm, up to 100% satisfied.

This chapter explores whether happiness can be an unchanging attribute of a fully functional human being. For some reason this inquiry is missed in the research focus, and instead the bar is lowered to focus more on topics like how to build resilience and strengthen adaptation to crisis. Whilst building and maintaining mental health should be a key concern in clinical research, it is somewhat surprising that there is a comparative paucity of research into the upper end of well-being. Is it because the dominant paradigm currently does not have any viable concepts or methodologies that could deliver a 100% satisfied human being?

This concern is shared by some authors who criticise the limited parameters of the dominant models of happiness. For example, Vittersø [17] asserts that the conventional evaluation of subjective well-being (SWB) misses important dimensions such as openness, growth, and indeed self-actualisation. It is reasonable to ask why, in the dominant models in psychological research, we cannot find a construct of happiness that includes the full continuum from fluctuating to stable and uninterrupted well-being. To not address this may be to leave us with a less than optimal paradigm that misses the fullness of human potential.

This new discussion addresses a possible gap in the well-being literature – whether it is possible to experience SWB, or more commonly happiness, that does not fluctuate in response to life changes. As such we define happiness as the experience of well-being that does not fluctuate in response to changing life conditions. That is can someone not just develop resilience to fluctuating life conditions but can also transcend these and be happy for no reason. Like Aristotle’s argument that all things have a function, and their meaning is found in the full expression of that function [18], when we are fully happy, could that be when we find our meaning?

Should we be content with partial happiness if we have potential for more. And if so, what is the upper end of human potential when it comes to happiness? Is it in fact possible that the type of enduring well-being that we are looking at may be able to transcend its relationship to life conditions, rather than be derived from them? If so, what could uninterrupted or fully satisfied happiness look like, and what are the mechanisms for its achievement?

To expand our current model of happiness, we would benefit from taking a multidisciplinary approach that offers new vantage points [19]. One such avenue is the very exploration of the paradigms that argue for the nondual or enlightened states, as it is these methodologies that propose that they can deliver uninterrupted well-being or happiness that transcends the status of our life conditions.

For example, if we turn to the mindfulness field that has attracted much attention in recent years, we find that its source, traditional mindfulness, and its paradigm of enlightenment, argues for the possibility of uninterrupted happiness [20]. It maintains, however, that the sense of a self that is core in psychological theory, is in fact the very thing responsible for such fluctuations in well-being. It argues that it is unnecessarily constructed, and when it misidentifies with the biological drives to minimise pain and maximise pleasure, it becomes at the mercy of our fluctuating life conditions. As they rise and fall, so too does our happiness.

By contrast enlightenment is a dissolving of the sense of self that misidentifies with impermanent phenomena. This in turn is seen to deliver an experience that is not subject to change, one that has transcended the impact of life conditions, and as such is ongoingly happy. Seen as an endpoint of training [21], enlightenment we could say fits the description of full satisfaction (100%) and as such transcends the normal setpoint range (75%) of only partially satisfied well-being.

This literature documents advanced practitioners (long term meditators) who attain very different ‘states’ than the typical assumptions of conventional well-being or happiness. For example, advanced exponents of the contemplative traditions report being able to disengage from distracting mental processes [22] and enter self-transcendent states [23] not affected by life conditions. Documented as transpersonal [24], anomalous [25], nondual [26], mystical [27] or religious experiences [28] it seems of benefit to turn our focus to these advanced states, as they are most relevant to our inquiry.

One of our difficulties, however, is their differing points of reference and nomenclature. As such it may be of value to highlight their common ground. Essentially, these states all refer to both a dissolution of the sense of a separate self and a perception of oneness or sense of connectedness to others and one’s surroundings [29]. Awakening to what is commonly called the “nondual” experience (not derived from relative conditions hence not dualistic in nature), is typically seen to result from the incremental removing of cognitive, perceptual, and sensory layers [30], leading to a mystical state of consciousness [31].

Joseph Campbell’s [32] hero’s journey is a secular approach that outlines what he sees as the requisite stages of development leading to this nondual experience. In his model, 17 stages are organised into three sections: departure, initiation, and return, during which the budding hero undergoes a moral, mental, emotional, physical, and finally spiritual transformation. Transpersonal theorists such as Maslow present it as a journey towards the progressive dissolution of the ego, leading to the pinnacle - self-realisation or a “self-less” state [33].

However, whilst there is certainly literature on these states and stages [34], conventional research into well-being and happiness does not yet have model that leads to them [35]. By contrast, the traditional origins of mindfulness, Buddhist psychology, has undergone much scientific scrutiny in recent years [36, 37], and is well positioned for this inquiry. And yet all the ancient wisdom traditions have also been studying the fundamentals of human happiness, usually for millennia. And when we explore their paradigms, we find the same claims that full satisfaction is the actualisation of our human potential.

Common to all these traditions is the claim that their most actualised practitioners, have achieved high levels of well-being and often super functionality [38]. Sometimes described as saints, mystics, rinpoches or avatars, the terms they use might instead are “at peace”, “content”, “perfect”. In the meditation and yoga traditions, mastery is mapped by a progression through these stages of spiritual development, leading to the perfection of human potential or enlightenment. And to back this up, these traditions all propose methods to achieve these qualities.

If we look at early mythical literature there is often a delineation between humans and gods, and to assume any personal power would be to commit hubris and guarantee your demise. However, this is typically not the case in the religious traditions, in fact, whilst religions may be millennia old and littered with similar stories of great feats, they offer a method of perfection for humans to follow (e.g., the way of the bodhisattva) which is often grounded in a methodology that is repeatable or testable [39]. And it appears that science is now entering a dialogue with these traditions to understand and test them [40].

One drawback however is there is not a clear link between these traditional notions of “nondual” happiness and our conventional paradigms of well-being. As pointed out by Sahdra et al. [41], whilst there may overlap, the mechanisms that underpin these nondual states, have no clear equivalent in conventional theory. If they could be better understood, they may assist us in finding a way to access the potential for uninterrupted happiness. Furthermore, it is possible, that once better acquainted with their content, that we will be able to evaluate the potential of their methods and explore how to assimilate them into western models.

2. Metaphysics and empiricism

However, before we can investigate these methodologies, we must address the often-antithetical relationship between religion and science, and the western materialist or pragmatist scientific approach to claims of perfection, or full satisfaction of our potential. Akin to the phenomenon of the tall poppy syndrome, where anyone that stands taller than others serves as a threat to be cut down, we instead need to cultivate a curiosity towards the opportunities of perfection offered by such methodologies.

Whilst currently mindfulness is being scientifically scrutinised, the investigation of other traditions and their advanced practices, with a few exceptions, is receiving little attention [42, 43]. One of the challenges is the scientific method or the data gathering approach often inherent in research. That is, the materialist or reductionist premise that if it cannot be verified it does not exist “Of that which we can’t speak about, we should remain silent” ([44], p. 189).

The challenge with scientific scrutiny is that it is necessarily limited to the evaluation of phenomena (and the sophistication of its instruments), and in the case of mindfulness, although some of its neuroscientific correlates may be able to be measured, the ultimate state and its subsequent attributes are non-conceptual and non-phenomenological. St Augustine aptly highlighted this quandary in the fifth century by famously saying “Si comprehendis, non est Deus” or “If you understood him, it would not be God” [45]. Psychology has always careered between the art and science of experience in its attempt to negotiate the intangible realm of thought (cognitivism) and the tangible world of behaviour (radical behaviourism). If we are to investigate the possibility of perfection, or completely happy, we will need to explore claims that, whilst possibly maybe quite natural, are not currently easy to verify.

Buddhist scholar Alan Wallace makes some salient comments relevant to such an inquiry: “In Buddhism, these are not miracles in the sense of being supernatural events, any more than the discovery and amazing uses of lasers are miraculous-however they may appear to those ignorant of the nature and potentials of light. Such contemplatives claim to have realized the nature and potentials of consciousness far beyond anything known in contemporary science. What may appear supernatural to a scientist, or a layperson may seem perfectly natural to an advanced contemplative, much as certain technological advances may appear miraculous to a contemplative” ([46], p. 103). Interestingly as early as the thirteenth century medieval Christian theologians were grappling with this same issue and ended up making the distinction between ‘miracles’ (miracula) and ‘marvels’ (mirabilia). Marvels were defined as having natural causes that were not understood, whilst miracles were unusual events produced by God’s power [47].

The modern materialist position about consciousness is that mind is only the result of physiological processes; that each person’s consciousness is a discrete and separate entity; communication is only possible through the physiological senses; and that consciousness dwells only within the time/space continuum [48]. As such research is typically conducted within the constraints of this paradigm. Nevertheless, like the burgeoning field of mindfulness there is also a growing amount of theory, empirical observation and now neuroscience research [49] within the parapsychology literature that also does not fit within this model [50]. In view of that, and to investigate the nondual, advanced altered states of consciousness, and their consequent attributes, current consciousness paradigms need ongoing investigation and revision.

The Dalai Lama, offers some guiding principles to the study of mindfulness [51], including scientific responsibility. “I am well aware, however, of the danger of tying spiritual belief to any scientific system…Great vigilance must be maintained at all times when dealing in areas about which we do not have great understanding. This, of course, is where science can help.” He then goes on to also encourage open mindedness towards states achieved through advanced practice “After all, we consider things to be mysterious only when we do not understand them. Through mental training, we have developed techniques to do things which science cannot yet adequately explain” ([52], pp. 230–243). Considering the above qualifications, we now move to a brief investigation of the theories proposed by major religious practices, in an attempt to forward the inquiry into the science of happiness.

3. Traditional happiness

There are quite distinct differences in both the presentations and methodologies for achieving happiness across the major religious traditions. Whilst all acknowledge the possibility of individuals being able to realise perfection, the authorship for the cause of the experience is divided between an act of grace and human effort. For example, in the Jewish tradition [53], of the varieties of Jewish mysticism, the 12th century Kabbalah is the most well-known [54], and sees itself as revealing the mystical tradition of the written and oral Torah. Of its three schools, the lesser known and approved “practical” school explores the mystical practices and the possibilities of perfected union with the divine [55]. For only those completely pure of intent, practical Kabbalah involved using practical methods that strove to achieve a mystical union with God.

In the Christian scriptures, whilst we are most cognisant of the documentation of Jesus’ level of mastery and example of perfection, he also says that this is possible for others: “I tell you the solemn truth, the person who believes in me will perform the miraculous deeds that I am doing and will perform greater deeds than these” (John 14:12, New English Translation, [56]). In subsequent Christology (theology concerned with the relationship between Jesus’ human and divine nature), hypostatic union (the union of humanity and divinity in one individual) are seen as indivisible in Jesus [57], and the invitation to some sharing of this union or perfection is indicated by texts such as “For behold, the Kingdom of God is within you” (Luke 17:12, 21st Century King James Version [58]). However, it also proposes a dissolution of the self for this to occur: “I have been crucified with Christ, and it is no longer I who live, but Christ lives in me.” (Galatians, 2:20, New English Translation, [56]).

In the Buddhist tradition the Buddha achieved, through meditative effort, the state of enlightenment, hence the distinction of human and divine is not made. In this context there is access to complete mastery of the human condition, with the Buddha reportedly telling off an accomplished practitioner for unnecessarily levitating to retrieve a bowl [59]. In the Tibetan Buddhist esoteric school of Zchogchen, the first step of training is “Treckcho” or the perception of the view of “rigpa” or emptiness of all phenomena including the existence of an independently existing self [60]. However, if the master has determined that the student has achieved a sufficient state of ego-lessness then they are able to proceed to the advanced practice of “Togal” or skilful means where they train in mastery over matter.

In Islam the prophet Muhammad is presented as perfected, and the text of the Koran itself is believed to be a miraculous act of Allah, based on its unique structure and scientific predictions [61]. In the Islamic sect of Sufism there is a proliferation of mystics credited with a high level of mastery, along with a methodology for their attainment, (Zikr or “Divine remembrance”) that can be followed to achieve their outcomes [62]. In Sufism “Fanaa” is seen as the annihilation of the ego or “to die before one dies”, and is seen as a recognition of the unity of God and the individual self.

The great Hindu text, the Yoga Sutras by Patanjali, devotes one of his four chapters to mastery of the physical realm, and his eight limbs of yoga culminate in samadhi, absorption or union. In the Hindu tradition such mastery is viewed as natural milestone on the path of a yogi with spiritual development seen as parallel with increasing control over the material and spiritual worlds [63]. However, the ultimate goal is the achievement of enlightenment or “moksha”, the reuniting with Brahman, which is the unchanging, infinite divine consciousness that permeates everything. Again, generated through dissolution of clinging to the sense of self, it proposes to deliver an absence of suffering, and the state of “paripurna-brahmanubhava” or self-knowledge, peace, and bliss (paripurna is the Sanskrit word for complete, perfect or whole).

A common feature across all the traditions is that such mastery ultimately turns its efforts for the benefit of others – a type of self-less enlightenment or union with everything. This is distinct from the common notion of happiness that seems to refer to one’s own psychological state, and instead leans more towards altruism or heroism [64]. This, one could argue is reminiscent of philanthropy where, once one is not struggling, attention moves on to others. In this next section, as we are looking at the psychological correlates of happiness, we will confine ourselves to two traditions that are well known for their systematic methods – the meditation tradition of Buddhism and the yoga tradition of Hinduism.

4. Buddhist psychology

Buddhism has spawned different approaches since its origins however all forms; the Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana, assert the possible perfection of the practitioner, known respectively as the arahant, bodhisattva and mahasiddha [65]. The four noble truths remain the foundation: life is empty of inherent satisfaction; the source of suffering is craving for satisfaction from something that cannot provide it; suffering ceases when such craving ends; and there is a method to achieve this, the eightfold path. This method itself has eight parts: right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration [66].

As a result of practice there is a progressive reduction in upsetting emotional states, inaccurate thinking and an increase in mental balance and positive emotions. Over time a practitioner gets to perceive the impermanent nature of mental and physical phenomena (anicca), and the lack of an abiding self (anatta) [67]. This state of enlightenment is the end goal to which the method aims, hence Buddhist psychology seeks to demonstrate that all suffering emanates from an ignorance (avidya) of reality as it is, and upon realising this, distress dissipates and a self-less way of experiencing the world called enlightenment (bodhi) is gradually revealed [21].

In the advanced or final stages practitioners are also seen to develop what could be seen as special abilities in comparison to normal functioning. These aptitudes are seen as a natural outcome of seeing through the illusion that the subjective self, and the objective phenomena, are separate and inherently existing outside of perception. In some of the early texts (Pali Nikayas and Vinaya) which Theravadin Buddhism holds to be authoritative (buddhavacana), five yogic powers are described as attainable. Known as the abhinnas or ‘higher knowledges’ they are attainable by practitioners who have passed the fourth of eight “dhyana” (Sanskrit) or “jhana” (Pali) states, which are levels of concentration and meditative absorption. The levels of jhana in themselves are an extraordinary account of progression up the ladder of mental control.

The Buddha in several sutras exhorts his disciples to develop the jhana states, and the first four figure in the training of right concentration in the eightfold path [68]. However, the average person does not typically enter the first level of mental control portrayed by these states [69], hence current research on happiness is unlikely to have considered such potential. And yet if we are to explore the human capacity for uninterrupted happiness, it seems critical to be acquainted with the advanced states of mindfulness, levels assumed as pre-requisite for serious practitioners [70].

Of the eight jhana states, in brief first jhana (joy) is the state of continuous concentration with no interruptions and pleasant sensations in the background. In second jhana (contentment) one lets go of the previous physical and emotional pleasure and moves to motionless, quiet contentment. Third jhana (utter peacefulness) is a sense of equanimity with no positive or negative feeling and an all pervading, peaceful one-pointedness of mind. In fourth jhana (infinity of space) there is the experience of absorption without form, attention shifts beyond the body as if watching oneself, and the self is experienced as the expanse of empty space.

In the Buddhist tradition it appears that, at a minimum, the practitioner must have progressed past the first four ‘material’ jhanas before mental abilities start to manifest [71, 72]. The remaining four jhanas, during which abilities may develop are: fifth jhana (infinity of consciousness) - awareness that infinite space includes your own consciousness and attention shifts to infinite consciousness (oneness with nature and existence); sixth jhana (no-thingness) - realisation that infinite consciousness is empty of inherent existence, and all is impermanent and changing; seventh jhana (neither perception nor non-perception) - little recognition of what is happening (but not unaware) and has gone beyond the duality of perception nor non-perception; and eighth jhana (cessation) - cessation of consciousness with only subtle perception remaining (can appear unconscious), yet perfectly one with everything.

It is thought that six levels of material mastery can arise once one has progressed through these advanced stages of mindfulness [73]. These seemingly fantastical outcomes are the result of long-term training of adepts, and whilst modern day mindfulness does not touch on these topics, they serve to demonstrate the human potential such ancient traditions assume of their masters. These levels of mastery include: 1) performing miracles (psychokinesis), 2) celestial hearing (clairaudience); 3) knowledge of thoughts (telepathy); 4) knowledge of past and future (knowledge beyond time); 5) celestial vision (clairvoyance), and finally 6) Eradication of all defilements (end of suffering).

Seen as the realisation of enlightenment or nibbāṇa, the latter is seen as the attainment of most value, as the practitioner has transcended the cycle of birth and death and is seen to be perfected [74]. The full expression of these attributes is understood to be reached after having attained the highest spiritual state of samadhi or perfected union. Seen to be under the complete control of the practitioner [20], they are also seen as a natural expression of human capacity. As is evident, the ceiling set for the human potential for happiness is far above the adaptation and resilience models of SWB. As such it seems critical if we are serious about unpacking the causes and conditions of happiness, that we make a concerted effort to consult and translate such traditions for mainstream application.

5. Hinduism and happiness

Like Buddhist philosophy, the Hindu traditions have several schools of thought, of which yoga is one. Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras are seen as the seminal text and outline the eight limbs of yoga which is an articulation of a graded progression from gross to subtle practices leading the aspirant to submerge into oneness (samadhi). It is again seen from this state of samadhi that abilities beyond normal functioning (siddhis) or mastery of life areas (what we could tentatively correlate with quality of life) can develop [75, 76]. They are not considered as miraculous as there is no interference with the laws of nature but rather, they show mental mastery over matter and are part of how nature works [59].

In the model offered in the Yoga Sutras, step by step instructions of practice (tapas) and detachment (vairagya) are provided to remove five conditions (kleshas) that are the cause of unhappiness: ignorance, egoism, attachment, aversion, and clinging to life [77]. Patanjali explained eight practises or limbs to overcome life’s difficulties: yama (five ethical practices), niyama (five spiritual disciplines), asana (multiple body postures), pranayama (breath control), pratyahara (sense control), dharana (concentration), dhyana (contemplation), and again finally samadhi (absorption) [78].

In the third chapter of the Yoga Sutras, if a practitioner perfects the above practices, different levels of mastery can develop which could be classified under three categories: mind- body control, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis [79]. Specifically, the eight major abilities or primary siddhis (ashta siddhi) are described as: reducing one’s body if required (even to the size of an atom); expanding one’s body to an infinitely large size; becoming infinitely heavy; becoming almost weightless; ability to be anywhere at will; realising whatever one desires; supremacy over nature; control of natural forces; and complete happiness.

In another seminal Hindu text, the Bhagavata Purana, Krishna describes ten more secondary signs of mastery that indicate a perfected master [80]: being undisturbed by hunger, thirst, and other bodily appetites; hearing things far away; seeing things far away; moving the body wherever thought goes (teleportation/astral projection); assuming any form desired; entering the bodies of others; dying when one desires; witnessing and participating with other being/in other realms; perfect accomplishment of what one intends; and unimpeded orders or commands.

By mastering the recommended practices, the practitioner or yogi is seen to be able to progressively acquire greater control of mind and body, and ultimately become self-realised or perfected (kaivalya) which is always the primary goal [78]. Like Buddhism, it is seen that along the way to the final stage of samadhi or ego-less absorption, such life mastery can develop, however the complete set of abilities cannot unfold until the perfection of the practitioner. It is thought that when the practitioner is unwavering, pure, untouchable, and blissful, then all our human potential opens out with restriction.

Considering the broad claims of the historical traditions, it is relevant to speculate how verifiable and how translatable are these models to western psychology. Whilst there is now a growing literature that documents relevant empirical findings [81, 82], we are talking about advanced meditators. One of the constraints we face is that, as some Buddhist texts say about the fully perfected end of the continuum, one in a thousand of a thousand of a thousand attain such levels [74]. Whilst such attainments and practices are seen as relevant and may be exhibited in some individuals today [83], it is critical to find some common ground with these traditions and our western concepts of happiness.

6. Nondual well-being

The common goal of the above traditions is the deconstruction of a false sense of self, leading to an enduring trait of happiness – what we could call nondual well-being. In the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, a highly accomplished practitioner, or bodhisattva, first dissolves this default sense of self (also described as awakening or enlightenment), but then continues the path of purification, to seek perfect enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings [84].

Considering this, it seems that one construct that can bring us closer to this dialogue, is nondual well-being. Whilst still comparatively rare, deconstructing the sense of self is seen to be within the grasp of a serious practitioner, and can be experienced along the path to the previously mentioned extraordinary states and their consummation in perfect enlightenment [85, 86]. It is this lower hanging fruit, though uncommon, that needs further investigation.

To achieve this outcome involves the use of deconstruction methods to dissolve the sense of self [87]. Their primary target is cognitive reification, or our default propensity to relate to thoughts as objective realities [88]. By dismantling the apparently real entities of “I” (subject), “mind” or “things” (object), the practitioner can see them for what they are, mental or material phenomena, empty of inherent existence. These methods, if successfully practised, can lead to an ego-less experience, which is altruistic or self-less, as the sense of self is perceived as substance-less [89].

Once the false subject-object dualism is deconstructed, what is left is simply naked awareness, stripped of the unnecessary projection or superimposing of a self. With nothing to be affected by any mental phenomena arising within it, it can maintain its untouched nature [90]. Also described as a unitary state of consciousness [31], this “self-less” or nondual way of experiencing and relating to the world, is not detached and dry, but in the perception of nonduality or oneness, experiences a profound connectedness to people and the surroundings.

However, such a dissolving of the sense of self is in direct contrast with conventional notions of the self, traditional psychology, or personal growth, which aim to build a robust individual with a strong sense of self, sense of place, purpose, and boundary. Instead, it is seen that, in the early stages of human development, a sense of self is necessarily constructed and needs to be perceived as a subject that exists independently of objects [91]. And yet, it is this very construction that is seen as false and is the mental step that stops us from experiencing a natural state of self-less awareness or enlightenment [29, 92].

The notion of uninterrupted happiness or nondual well-being is currently beyond the assumed set-point ceilings (on average 75% satisfied) in conventional psychology. And yet the happiness outcome of this approach leaves people, on average, only partially satisfied. There is no ceiling of 100% satisfied, no room in the paradigm for perfection. In contrast the happiness proposed by the mystical or advanced teachings of all the ancient traditions, offers the possibility of an untouchable psychological state, but what underpins all of them is the dissolving of the self, not the building of the self.

In view of this conceptual difference and the difference in outcomes, it is recommended that the role of the sense of self in relation to happiness take centre stage in the research into happiness. For example, it would be of value to explore what might be the path for the transition from conventional SWB to nondual well-being. What are the processes and practices to replace the default dualism of subject-object perception with the “no-self” processing of the nondual experience? Similarly, like all growth, performance or development, there may be stages that need to be identified. As the experience progresses from presumably intermittent but increasing experiences of the falling away of the projected subject-object division [93], over time one would assume that practitioners would increase the frequency, duration, and intensity of these the nondual states until it stabilises [94].

The development of this capacity for nondual or uninterrupted happiness carries extraordinary implications in terms of the dominant psychological paradigm of well-being and happiness. The so-called enlightenment of Buddhist psychology is genuinely seen as the end of suffering, and a secular reconceptualization of the same outcome is well overdue. However, as Sogyal Rinpoche [60] highlights, if it is to be truly scientific and investigative it must be “shorn of dogma, fundamentalism, exclusivity, complex metaphysics, and culturally exotic paraphernalia, a path at once simple and profound, a path that does not need to be practiced in ashrams or monasteries but one that can be integrated with ordinary life and practice anywhere” (p. 151).

7. Discussion

There were two questions posed in this inquiry: can humans be full satisfied, or experience complete happiness versus partial happiness; and are there any approaches or disciplines that point us in that direction. We were seeking a model of well-being that is not subject to fluctuations, as opposed to the dominant construct of SWB, where scores typically only improve within a limited set range that is only partially satisfied being [95]. That is can someone develop an experience of well-being that does fluctuate in response to changing life circumstances (nondual well-being).

What we discovered is that the nondual approaches, as presented by the ancient wisdom or mystical traditions within all major religions, offer both method and claim that this is possible. However, to achieve this we come up against paradigmatic differences between traditional religious approaches and conventional psychological constructs of the self. What is clear is that practitioners in the fields of religion and psychology, when it comes to happiness, have conducted their investigations with little attempt at translation, and as such their relative insights or claims require further investigation. As such a more multidisciplinary is recommended so that any relevant constructs seen as fundamental to the attainment of happiness, are integrated into the psychological literature [96]. Whilst some work has been done such as the integration of mindfulness and cognitive-behavioural therapy [97], investigation into the theory and practices of nondualism is critical.

What seems called for is a collaborative relationship between the researchers of the dominant model of well-being, SWB, and the practitioners and researchers from the origins of mindfulness, as found in the Buddhist and Hindu paradigms. The first directional recommendation is a deep dive into the primary point of difference, the notion of the self. Pivotal to the nondual approach is the role that identification with a sense of self has upon happiness, and due to its influence, upon cognitive processing [29].

From a philosophical perspective there has already been much inquiry into the intangible quality seemingly inherent in tangible things. For example, in Western philosophy, Aristotle in the Categories distinguished between the essential versus accidental or optional properties of objects [98]. Aristotle proposed that all things had an essential nature of being or “ousia”, such that if it did not exist, then any of its observable or changeable characteristics would be unable to exist.

The term emptiness or “sunyata” bears some resemblance to this in Eastern philosophy. Seen as the ultimate reality, ground, or substratum of all that can be observed, it is conceptualised as an uncreated and indestructible [99]. However, the concept of sunyata also includes the understanding that all things are empty of intrinsic existence including awareness itself. The Dalai Lama [100] cautions that the term emptiness implies that everything, whether it is objective (material) or subjective (mental) does not have an immutable essence, or intrinsic reality that is independent of its form.

As the foundations of much of both our Western science and theology (St Thomas Aquinas) were greatly informed by Aristotelian logic, there already exist conceptual frameworks that may be relevant to this detente. As such this existent and rich inquiry could be explored in service of a dialogue with Eastern thought on the varying concepts of the self, and their respective utility or relevance to the experience of uninterrupted well-being.

In the construction of a cohesive psychological model, it is possible that there could almost be two stages that bear further inquiry. The first or introductory level may still be able to incorporate some of the comprehensive work already done around developmental theory. For example, this could include psychological stage theories that map out normal process of development where each of the requisite stages are met. Relevant theories that might be considered could include Maslow’s [33] hierarchy of needs, Erikson’s [101] psychosocial development, Kohlberg’s [102] moral development, Fischer’s cognitive development [103], Bowlby’s theory of attachment [104] or Bandura’s social learning theory [105].

This first stage of development, including the construction of a sense of self, could be seen, akin to Piaget’s [106] theory of cognitive development, as a necessary foundation for subsequent stages. For example, in Piaget’s preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), children exhibit egocentrism, or the inability to see another person’s experience as different from theirs. However, in the concrete operational stage of cognitive development (7 to 12 years) they develop the capacity to see past their own experience and explore hypothetical and abstract concepts they have not experienced yet. In a like manner, there may be some utility in the initial development of a sense of self that, whilst delivering partial or event-based happiness, is still developing skills in how to minimise pain and maximise pleasure.

In the second stage, once sufficient skills were learned, the limitations of the first stage could be surpassed, namely the now redundant identification with a sense of self. This could then issue in the paradigm and practices for the deconstruction of that sense, allowing for the delivering of well-being or happiness not derived from mental or material phenomena. Whilst these observations include an integration of current paradigms, there may not be a need for such a hybrid model if a more continuous one was able to be operationalised to incorporate natural human development.

The next recommendation is to explore the various training models employed in the nondual approaches that assist practitioners to move through the beginner, intermediate and advanced stages [21, 107]. For example, like in Tibetan Buddhism, practitioners could be taught at the introductory level to notice mental and physical phenomena objectively without attachment, and to deconstruct the tendency to separate subject and object. With mastery they could move to an intermediate level where they would be trained to observe neutrally and non-judgmentally all phenomena without the optional sense of a “self”. This with practice could lead to the intermittent experience of the dissolution of the sense of a “self”. Finally, the practitioner could be trained in the suite of meditation practices [31] that would assist in attaining a sustained non-judgmental attention towards all phenomena, leading to an abiding nondual experience of well-being [108]. At the completion of this stage ongoing well-being or happiness is not at the mercy of changing life conditions, but pivots more from an impartial state of awareness that is spontaneously happy in itself.

Such a collaborative investigation, if able to cohesively translate and incorporate distinctions from the nondual traditions, could have significant clinical, research and economic implications, as we would have a model of well-being and happiness that is not susceptible to breakdown in response to life conditions. In view of the relationship between well-being, symptom checklists, and health status [109, 110], such robust well-being would necessarily impact policy and healthcare budgets, as ultimately there would be less presentations within allied health services, and reduced resource allocation to relevant health sectors.

Finally, in view of the growth in self-mastery that is claimed to come with nondual well-being, it could expand our understanding of human potential beyond the assumed levels norms of human functioning [17, 81], which may have wide-ranging implications for society. Such a comprehensive construct of well-being seems to allow for an individual to be fully functional in life, whilst having an experience of happiness independent of them.

This invitation for more dialogue is well expressed by Sedlmeier et al. [111]: “We believe every effort should be made to extract precise psychological theories that are relevant for meditation from both the Hindu and Buddhist approaches.” (p. 1162). It also echoes an earlier, and somewhat unheeded call by the father of psychology William James who commented “The great field for new discoveries,’ said a scientific friend to me the other day, ‘is always the ‘unclassified residuum.’ Round about the accredited and orderly facts of every science there ever floats a sort of dust-cloud of exceptional observations, of occurrences minute and irregular and seldom met with, which it always proves easier to ignore than to attend to. … Anyone will renovate his science who will steadily look after the irregular phenomena” [112].

A comprehensive paradigm that can operationalise a “full life satisfaction” construct, what provisionally could be called “enlightenment psychology” or “nondual well-being” needs to be a key concern for human society [113]. We could start by taking inspiration from Bhutan’s Gross Domestic Happiness (GDH) hybrid construct [114], that puts happiness as the key ingredient in policy. Such a portrayal of a fully satisfied individual contrasts with the currently research-based representation of Diener, Suh, Lucas & Smith’s [6] original profile, conservative, middle class and partially satisfied.

By contrast we could explore, in mainstream language and constructs, the sentiments of another ancient mystic St Irenaeus [115] who wrote in 150 A.D., “Gloria enim Dei vivens homo” (p. 283), translated as the glory of God is man fully alive. It could be argued that our human potential has been identified many centuries ago and yet still not suspected by our scientific disciplines. In view of a world in need of selfless people that are happy for no reason, it is time that this dialogue becomes a central concern in the research into human happiness.