From Somalia with Love: Unveiling Al-Shabaab’s Recruitment Strategies, Power Projection, and the Somali Government’s Countermeasures

Abstract

This chapter delves into the complexities of terrorism, focusing on the recruitment strategies and power projection of Al-Shabaab. It explores the multifaceted dynamics behind Al-Shabaab’s recruitment, examining how the group exploits socio-economic grievances, religious beliefs, and clan dynamics to attract recruits. The implications of recruitment for Al-Shabaab’s power projection are analyzed, highlighting its territorial control and ability to impose extremist ideologies. Additionally, the effectiveness of the Somali government’s counterterrorism efforts is considered in light of the difficulties presented by scarce resources, unstable political conditions, and the influence of clan dynamics. The chapter underscores the need for comprehensive approaches encompassing military interventions, socio-economic development, good governance, and community resilience to counter Al-Shabaab’s influence effectively. By providing nuanced insights, this chapter contributes to understanding the intricate dynamics of Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies. It informs policymakers and researchers in their efforts to combat terrorism and foster stability in the Horn of Africa.

1. Introduction

Although terrorism has emerged as one of the most pressing problems of our day, academics and policymakers are just starting to grasp how and why it operates. Much has been written and rewritten on the origins of terror, the motivations of terrorists, and counterterror responses. Jessica Stern has examined the grievances that give rise to terrorism and the networks, money, and operations that allow terrorist organizations to thrive [1]. Likewise, Alan Krueger, David Laitin, Jitka Maleckova, and Alberto Abadie, for example, have traced the effects of poverty, education, and political freedom on terrorist recruitment [2, 3, 4]. In Africa, literature on terrorism is rift with the financing of terrorism on the continent, the impact of terrorism on national development, the link between terrorism and globalization [5, 6, 7], as well as the direct impact on state-building [8]. While there is still a great deal of uncertainty in academia as to how terrorists interact and gain popular or mass support, how their relationships are negotiated, as well as which motives are ultimately going to lead to them gaining acceptance or rejection with some sections or a large section of a population or its global supporters [9], what is lacking, however, is a clear understanding of the more significant strategic games terrorists, especially in the global south, adopt to interact with local scenes to recruit, how they employ the strategies to project power and respective governmental responses and its inherent challenges to counter the recruitment strategies of terror groups.

Moreover, even though much has been documented on how terrorists exploit and utilize the ideology of jihadism, or at least their militant zeal, to assert their own goals and objectives, no scholarship can claim to know the entirety of this ideology from a scholarly perspective. In the past four decades, Africa has arguably witnessed the most violent extremist attacks in the world. Terrorism in countries such as Somalia, Nigeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Sudan, Niger, and Kenya, among others, linked to militant Islamist groups like Al-Shabaab, Al-Qaeda in the Maghreb, Boko Haram, and Islamic State (IS) in West Africa Province, etc., has increased exponentially. The continent is reeling from a wave of violence that has claimed several lives in the last 10 years, displaced millions of people, targeted government officials and traditional leaders, closed thousands of schools, and severely restricted economic activities.

In the volatile and complex landscape of Somalia, which is the focus of this chapter, Al-Shabaab has emerged as a prominent militant group, posing significant security threats within Somalia and the broader Horn of Africa (HOA). The group has demonstrated remarkable proficiency in recruiting individuals from diverse backgrounds, exploiting grievances, religious beliefs, and socio-economic vulnerabilities. This chapter delves into the intricate dynamics of Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies and their implications for the group’s power projection. It also examines the efforts undertaken by the Somali government to counter these recruitment strategies, shedding light on the challenges it faces in dismantling Al-Shabaab’s influence. Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies have been critical to the group’s success and longevity. Understanding how and why individuals are drawn into its ranks is essential in comprehending the extent of its power and reach. This chapter seeks to unravel the various tactics employed by Al-Shabaab to recruit new members, including exploiting socio-economic grievances, ideological indoctrination, and the manipulation of clan dynamics, among others. The influx of recruits bolsters the group’s fighting force and enables it to expand its influence through increased territorial control and the execution of complex attacks. By analyzing these strategies, we gain insights into how recruitment feeds into Al-Shabaab’s power projection and offers critical insights into the group’s overall strategies, dynamics and mechanisms that sustain and expand the group’s operational capabilities.

The projection of power by Al-Shabaab extends far beyond its military actions. The chapter also examines how recruitment plays a pivotal role in bolstering the group’s influence, enabling it to establish control over territories, undermine governance structures, and impose its extremist ideology on local populations. The chapter examines Somalia as a case study and illuminates the linkages between recruitment strategies and Al-Shabaab’s ability to project power within Somalia and the HOA. While Al-Shabaab’s recruitment efforts have proved formidable, the Somali government has not remained passive in the face of this threat. Initiatives to counter Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies have been implemented, encompassing a range of approaches, including security operations, community engagement, and rehabilitation programs for former fighters. However, these initiatives have been met with substantial challenges. This chapter critically assesses the effectiveness of the Somali government’s initiatives, considering factors such as limited resources, political instability, and the pervasive influence of clan dynamics, which hinder comprehensive counterterrorism efforts. By exploring Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies, their implications for power projection, and the Somali government’s response, this chapter contributes to a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics in the HOA. It underscores the need for comprehensive and multifaceted approaches to addressing the recruitment challenge, emphasizing the importance of not only military interventions but also socio-economic development, good governance, and community resilience in countering the influence of Al-Shabaab.

Through a rigorous and comprehensive analysis of the aforementioned thematic areas in this chapter, the chapter seeks to provide a nuanced perspective on the complex landscape of counterterrorism efforts in Somalia. By shedding light on these crucial aspects of Al-Shabaab, the chapter aims to inform policymakers, researchers, and practitioners involved in combating terrorism and fostering stability in the region to better understand the complexities of Al-Shabaab’s recruitment drive and the broader implications for subregional security and stability. Furthermore, understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing effective counterterrorism strategies and promoting long-term peace and stability in the HOA. It shall also contribute to a better understanding of the ongoing struggle between the extremist group and the authorities seeking to restore stability and peace in Somalia. It further underscores the importance of a comprehensive approach that addresses the root causes of radicalization, strengthens governance structures, and enhances the capacity of local communities to resist the allure of extremism.

2. Somalia in perspective

In the HOA, Somalia holds a significant strategic position due to its location. The Gulf of Aden borders it to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, Ethiopia to the west, and Kenya to the southwest. This proximity to major maritime trade routes, such as the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, makes Somalia a crucial intersection for international shipping and trade. The persistent political instability and governance challenges in Somalia have had profound and wide-ranging consequences, both domestically and regionally. The collapse of the central government in 1991 marked a turning point in Somalia’s history, leading to a prolonged period of statelessness and insecurity [10]. Following the overthrow of the central government, clan-based militias and warlords vying for control of the country’s resources and resources led to Somalia becoming a fragmented and divided nation. This power vacuum created a breeding ground for violence and lawlessness as various factions competed for control over territories and resources. The absence of effective governance mechanisms and the rule of law allowed armed groups to flourish, further exacerbating the security situation. The proliferation of armed groups, including militias and terrorist organizations like Al-Shabaab, emerged due to the governance vacuum. These groups took advantage of the weak state institutions and lack of security forces to assert their control over a large swath of the country and impose their versions of order. Al-Shabaab, in particular, capitalized on the power vacuum and exploited grievances, ideological motivations, and local dynamics to establish itself as a significant security threat in Somalia and the HOA. The absence of effective governance structures also hindered the provision of essential services and development initiatives. Without a functioning government, essential services such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure development suffered, further exacerbating the challenges faced by the Somali population.

The lack of investment in human capital and economic development perpetuated cycles of poverty and limited opportunities for the Somali people. The consequences of Somalia’s insecurities extend beyond its borders and have regional implications [11]. Armed groups, including Al-Shabaab, have posed security threats to neighboring countries, particularly Kenya and Ethiopia. Cross-border attacks, acts of terrorism, and recruiting of foreign fighters have heightened regional concerns and necessitated regional and international collaborative efforts to address the challenges. The African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), comprised of troops primarily from neighboring countries, has played a crucial role in supporting the Somali government’s efforts to combat armed groups and restore stability [12, 13]. While the UN, along with other international partners, have facilitated political processes and provided humanitarian assistance to alleviate the Somali people’s suffering, Somalia’s path to stability and effective governance remains complex and arduous. The challenges of clan divisions, political fragmentation, weak institutions, corruption, and the influence of armed groups continue to hinder progress. Rebuilding state institutions, promoting inclusive governance, and strengthening the rule of law are essential components of long-term stability and security in Somalia.

Additionally, piracy off the coast of Somalia has been a significant challenge, further compounding the insecurities faced by the country [14, 15]. Somalia’s long coastline stretching along the Indian Ocean and its strategic location near major shipping routes, such as the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, have made it a hotspot for pirate attacks on commercial vessels. The rise of piracy in the region has had detrimental effects on international maritime trade, leading to increased costs, disruptions to shipping routes, and concerns over maritime security [16, 17]. The activities of Somali pirates have resulted in significant economic losses for regional and international stakeholders. Shipping companies have been forced to increase insurance premiums and take costly precautionary measures to safeguard their vessels and crew. The hijacking and ransom demands associated with piracy have impacted the shipping industry and the global economy, as the cost of goods transported through these routes has increased. Furthermore, the presence of pirates has created a climate of fear and insecurity, deterring investments and tourism in the region. Moreover, the insecurities in Somalia have led to profound humanitarian crises. Widespread poverty, limited access to essential services, and the displacement of populations are prevalent issues stemming from prolonged conflict and instability. The breakdown of governance structures and the absence of effective state institutions have impeded development efforts and hindered the provision of essential services such as healthcare, education, and clean water.

Efforts to address the insecurities in Somalia have involved regional and international interventions to stabilize the country and counter the threats posed by extremist groups. One prominent intervention is the AMISOM, established in 2007 with the mandate to support the Somali government in restoring security and stability. AMISOM comprises troops primarily from neighboring countries such as Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Burundi and has played a significant role in combating extremist groups like Al-Shabaab [18]. AMISOM’s presence has helped to weaken the influence of Al-Shabaab and create an enabling environment for the Somali government to extend its authority and governance structures across the country. The mission has conducted joint military operations with the Somali National Army, providing training, logistical support, and operational coordination to enhance the capacity of Somali security forces. AMISOM’s efforts have contributed to the liberation of major towns and territories from Al-Shabaab’s control, thereby creating space for stabilization and reconstruction. In addition to regional interventions, the UN has played a crucial role in addressing the insecurities in Somalia. The UN has facilitated political processes and peace negotiations, aiming to foster dialog and reconciliation among various Somali stakeholders [19]. These efforts have sought to establish inclusive governance structures, promote democratic practices, and address the root causes of the conflict. Additionally, the international community has generously donated humanitarian aid to lessen the suffering of the Somali population suffering from insecurities. Humanitarian organizations have delivered food aid, healthcare services, clean water, and shelter to those in need. These interventions have been critical in addressing the population’s immediate humanitarian needs and mitigating the crisis’s impact.

However, despite these efforts, addressing the insecurities in Somalia remains a complex and ongoing challenge. Political reconciliation among various Somali factions remains elusive, and establishing effective and accountable governance structures is still a work in progress. Security sector reform, including the professionalization and capacity-building of the Somali security forces, remains a priority to ensure long-term stability and counter the influence of armed groups. Economic development is another crucial aspect that requires attention. Creating sustainable livelihood opportunities, improving infrastructure, and promoting inclusive growth are essential to address the underlying socio-economic grievances contributing to insecurity. High unemployment levels, poverty, and limited access to essential services undermine stability and provide fertile ground for radicalization and recruitment by extremist groups. Challenges such as corruption, limited resources, and infrastructure deficits pose obstacles to the Somali government’s comprehensively addressing insecurities. The absence of strong state institutions and the legacy of clan-based politics further complicate the process of building a stable and prosperous Somalia. Addressing the insecurities in Somalia requires a comprehensive and multi-dimensional approach involving political reconciliation, institution building, security sector reform, economic development, and providing essential services [20]. Regional cooperation, supported by the international community, is crucial to achieving lasting peace and stability in Somalia. While progress has been made, sustained efforts are needed to overcome the challenges and create conditions for a peaceful and prosperous future for the Somali people and the broader HOA.

3. What do we know of Al-Shabaab?

Al-Shabaab, an Islamist extremist group, emerged in the early 2000s as an offshoot of Somalia’s Islamic Courts Union (ICU). The ICU was a coalition of Sharia-based Islamic courts that aimed to establish a stable and Islamic governance system in Somalia. Al-Shabaab, which means “The Youth” or “The Youthful” in Arabic, initially functioned as the armed wing of the ICU [21], emphasizing the group’s ability to attract and mobilize young individuals towards its cause. Initially, Al-Shabaab aimed to establish an IS in Somalia based on a strict interpretation of Sharia law. However, the group has since evolved and expanded its objectives, seeking to project power beyond Somalia’s borders. The group’s origins can be traced back to the power vacuum created in Somalia following the collapse of the Said Barre regime in 1991. The ensuing political instability, clan conflicts, and absence of a functioning central government allowed various armed factions and extremist groups to flourish in the country. Al-Shabaab emerged to establish an IS in Somalia under strict Sharia law amidst this chaotic environment. Al-Shabaab comprising largely of youth, became an imminent threat to global intelligence services and Somalia’s neighboring countries in 2006 when it successfully, with the blessing and support of ICU, expelled Somalia’s Transitional Federal Government (TFG) from the country’s capital and seat of government in Mogadishu [22, 23].

The country’s seat of government was relocated to Baidoa, with Members of Parliament and the Cabinet relocating to Scandinavia and neighboring Kenya. Some to the Gulf States. Since splintering from its founding group the ICU in 2007, al-Shabaab has become synonymous with terror throughout the HOA and Eastern Africa and controls more territory than any other political entity in Somalia. On March 18, 2008, the US Department of State designated it a Foreign Terrorist Organization [24]. The primary aim of Al-Shabaab has been to overthrow the Somali government, which it considers to be illegitimate and lacking Islamic legitimacy. Al-Shabaab seeks to establish a fundamentalist Islamic regime based on its interpretation of Salafi-jihadist ideology. The group’s leadership has expressed a desire to create an Islamic caliphate similar to the IS or the Taliban’s regime in Afghanistan [25]. Al-Shabaab’s objectives extend beyond Somalia’s borders. It has aligned with transnational jihadist movements and has been associated with Al-Qaeda.

The group has waged a protracted insurgency against the federal government and AMISOM forces, aiming to overthrow the government and establish its version of an Islamist state [26, 27]. The group has employed various brutal tactics to achieve its objectives, causing immense suffering and hindering the country’s efforts to stabilize and rebuild institutions. One of the primary tactics utilized by Al-Shabaab is suicide bombings, which have become a signature method of attack. Suicide bombers, often indoctrinated and coerced individuals, infiltrate crowded areas such as markets, checkpoints, and government buildings, detonating explosives strapped to their bodies. These bombings have resulted in significant casualties among civilians, government officials, security forces, and AMISOM troops, spreading fear and undermining public trust in state institutions. Al-Shabaab has also extensively used vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices (VBIEDs) as a potent weapon. These attacks involve using vehicles laden with explosives, driven by suicide bombers, or remotely detonated to target high-profile locations or security installations. The group has targeted military bases, government facilities, and even hotels frequented by international actors, inflicting heavy casualties and causing substantial damage.

In addition to bombings, Al-Shabaab carries out targeted assassinations of government officials, military officers, community leaders, and individuals deemed to be collaborating with the government or AMISOM forces. These assassinations serve multiple purposes for the group, including instilling fear, eroding trust in state authorities, and discouraging potential supporters of the government. Assassinations often occur in public spaces, further spreading terror among the population. Armed assaults by Al-Shabaab fighters on military bases, police stations, and other security outposts are also common. The group utilizes its combat capabilities to overrun and seize control of strategic locations, thereby weakening the state’s control and projecting its power. These assaults involve intense gun battles, resulting in casualties and exacerbating the cycle of violence and instability. The consequences of Al-Shabaab’s attacks in Somalia have been devastating. The civilian population bears the brunt of the violence, with numerous lives lost and communities uprooted due to insecurity. The attacks have disrupted economic activities, hindering development and exacerbating poverty. Moreover, the targeting of government officials and security forces undermines the functioning of state institutions, hindering efforts to establish effective governance, deliver public services, and maintain law and order.

Al-Shabaab has conducted a series of high-profile attacks in Kenya, exemplified by the Westgate Mall attack in 2013 and the Garissa University attack in 2015. These incidents were stark reminders of the group’s ability to extend its reach outside the boundaries of Somalia. Kenya being actively involved in AMISOM and holding strategic importance in the region, Kenya has become a frequent target for Al-Shabaab’s attacks. The attacks carried out by Al-Shabaab in Kenya serve multiple objectives. First and foremost, they aim to destabilize the country, creating an atmosphere of fear and insecurity that can undermine societal harmony and impede development. By targeting crowded public spaces like shopping malls and universities, the group seeks to sow terror among the population and generate a sense of vulnerability.

Furthermore, Al-Shabaab’s attacks in Kenya fuel intercommunal tensions by exploiting existing fault lines within the society. The group often seeks to exploit religious, ethnic, or regional divisions to deepen conflicts and create discord. By exacerbating these tensions, Al-Shabaab hopes to weaken Kenya’s resolve in its support for AMISOM and erode the country’s unity. It is important to note that Al-Shabaab’s influence, and attacks are not limited to Somalia and Kenya alone. The group has extended its reach to other countries in the HOA region, such as Uganda and Ethiopia. These attacks are primarily retaliatory in nature, as both Uganda and Ethiopia have contributed troops to AMISOM. Al-Shabaab aims to punish these countries for their involvement in counterinsurgency operations and deter them from further participation. The regional activities of Al-Shabaab underscore the group’s broader agenda of spreading its extremist ideology and disrupting regional stability. The group seeks to demonstrate its reach, influence, and ability to challenge regional security efforts by conducting attacks in multiple countries. Al-Shabaab aims to create an environment of fear and insecurity across the HOA, thereby undermining peace, development, and cooperation efforts.

4. Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies

Like many extremist groups, Al-Shabaab adopts many strategies to recruit fighters into its ranks. These tactics are referred to as “pull factor”, “driver”, “enabler,” and “strategy.” They come in tangible or intangible reward systems, including but not limited to financial benefits, personal empowerment, or protections contextualized within the individual’s religious, economic, and social needs. Among the key strategies employed by Al-Shabaab to sustain its influence and recruitment efforts is a comprehensive social embedding approach within the daily lives of ordinary Somalis. This strategy extends to those residing in Somalia and Nairobi’s central business district, particularly in East Leigh, a significant economic and community centre for displaced Somalis. The root of terrorism lies not only in individual terrorists but also in the contextual factors that shape their actions and the larger society in which they operate [28]. In the case of Al-Shabaab, Somalia’s status as one of the world’s poorest countries and a failed state plays a significant role. Widespread poverty and limited economic opportunities make any means of earning a livelihood attractive, even if it involves joining a terrorist organization. Al-Shabaab has implemented a system that provides its militants with real wages. Al-Shabaab is estimated to pay fighters and low-ranking officers monthly salaries ranging from $60 to $200 (ibid). It is important to note that these figures are estimates but reflect the organization’s practice of compensating its combat forces.

Additionally, Al-Shabaab employs many well-paid civilians who perform various administrative and specialized tasks alongside the combat forces. The group also recruits teenagers who may not fully integrate into the organization. Young men in Kenya refer to al-Shabaab as a “business,” and the local Somali population views membership as a means of support. Individuals are offered between US$1000 (£640) and US$650 to join al-Shabaab [29]. According to a young Somali individual, the advantages of joining al-Shabaab can be summed up as follows: “Simply carrying a gun and patrolling the streets was an effortless task compared to labour-intensive jobs like construction work” [30]. This perception stems from the belief that possessing a firearm enables them to provide for their well-being and support their families. These individuals carry out activities such as targeting adults, extorting business owners, or gathering intelligence on behalf of the group, and they receive financial compensation for their participation in jihadist operations. By understanding Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategy within the context of Somalia, it becomes evident that the organization exploits socio-economic factors, such as poverty and limited opportunities, to attract individuals seeking economic relief and stability. Al-Shabaab’s provision of financial incentives and employment opportunities, combined with its ability to embed itself within local communities, contribute to its recruitment efforts and the perpetuation of its activities.

The group provides advantages to everyone within it ranks, even suicide bombers. Before suicide bombers undertake bombing attacks, they are given large sums of money. Afterwards, al-Shabaab fighters return to their families to mourn with them and present them with another sum of money (the number is never specified, but it is generally several thousands of dollars). As pointed out earlier, in East Leigh in Nairobi, Kenya, Al-Shabaab has gained goodwill with many people and businesses in that commercial district. In addition to the propaganda videos the East Leigh studios create for al-Shabaab, several other stores also sell them. Most businesses there are believed to be owned or operated by al-Shabaab, enabling al-Shabaab to spread awareness of their cause and strengthen their status within the community [31]. The question that begs for an answer is if Somalia had a stable economy and peace, would Al- Shabaab’s economic incentive programs have been as successful as they are now? It is also imperative to remember that al-Shabaab emerged in the 21st century in a country and within a subregion plagued by poverty and insecurity for nearly 50 years.

Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategy also heavily relies on religious radicalism to garner support, both domestically and among the Somali diaspora. In Somali society, adopting a devout Islamic lifestyle has proven to be an effective method of Islamic radicalization, both in the past and present [32]. Prior to the formation of Al-Shabaab, the tumultuous period of the 1990s and the early 2000s, characterized by chaos and violence, created a chaotic environment in which many former members of militias were either compelled or enticed to embrace an extremist doctrine of Islam known as “Wahhabism.” This ideology, today, provides a framework that justifies violence and militant jihad. Some of these radicalized fighters, including Somalis holding foreign passports, who are not overtly affiliated with Al-Shabaab, travel to Somalia to fight for Islam and seek martyrdom as “Mujahideen” or those engaged in jihad. Al-Shabaab capitalizes on the aspirations of these individuals by offering them the opportunity to fulfill their desires and aspirations to fight for their religious beliefs. The group sends them to the conflict’s front lines against the Kenyan and Somali government forces. By providing a platform for these radicalized individuals to participate in armed jihad, Al-Shabaab positions itself as a champion of Islam, frames the fight as a holy war, and appeals to the religious zeal of recruits, who see joining the group as a means of serving a higher purpose, and further attract individuals who are driven by religious fervor and a desire to defend and propagate their extremist interpretation of Islam.

This religious radicalization serves as a potent recruitment tool for Al-Shabaab. It exploits Somali society’s deeply ingrained religious beliefs and values, tapping into a sense of duty and righteousness among potential recruits [33]. The group offers them a sense of belonging and purpose, enabling them to channel their religious fervor into violent action. It is important to note that while religious radicalism plays a significant role in Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategy, other factors are also at play, such as socio-political grievances and lack of economic opportunities. However, the group’s ability to exploit religious ideologies and provide a platform for individuals to express their radicalized beliefs is a crucial component of its recruitment efforts. Understanding the power of religious radicalization in shaping Al-Shabaab’s recruitment dynamics is crucial. By addressing the underlying factors that contribute to the susceptibility of individuals to extremist ideologies, such as socio-political grievances and lack of economic opportunities mentioned above, it becomes possible to counter the appeal of such groups and prevent the recruitment and radicalization of individuals in the first place. Copious efforts should focus on promoting religious tolerance, education, and socio-economic development to undermine the conditions that foster religious radicalization and support for extremist organizations like Al-Shabaab.

Al-Shabaab also places a significant amount of emphasis on using various online platforms to communicate with and recruit young people outside the group’s immediate vicinity. It media group is known as “al-Kata’ib. Foundation.” It also employs the Twitter account @HSMPress to provide the group’s version of events, motivate recruits, and establish an alternative narrative; where the mainstream media might report losses, al-Shabaab records victories [34, 35]. Citing a case in point of the potency of social media to Al-Shabaab’s operations, in 2009, for example the group released an online video entitled “At Your Service, oh Osama,” targeted at recruiting members and sympathizers of al-Qaeda. The video featured footage of Osama bin Laden, the leader of al-Qaeda at the time. The video praised bin Laden and called on Muslims to join the fight against the West. The video’s release was part of Al-Shabaab’s efforts to recruit new members and expand its influence beyond Somalia. Social media has allowed the group to reach a wider audience and recruit new members. However, it has also made it easier for authorities to track and monitor the group’s activities [36, 37]. As a result of al-Shabaab’s online visibility, about 43 out of the 85-member executive council of al-Shabaab are foreigners [33]. Millat Ibrahim is the name of the online magazine that al-Shabaab publishes. Its purpose is to disseminate the al-Tawhid wal-Jihad ideology. The website of al-Shabaab is used to disseminate jihadist sermons, images and videos of attacks, chat rooms, discussion boards, and in some cases, guides on various military strategies or bombing operations. Al-Shabaab has successfully recruited hundreds of foreign fighters from countries and regions such as Sweden, Australia, the United Kingdom, the US, South Asia, and the Middle East through online media [26, 38].

Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategy also capitalizes on its confrontation of Somalia’s longstanding socio-political status quo, which has resulted in widespread disillusionment among various segments of Somali society. Somalia has been embroiled in internal conflicts for over four decades, with senior statesmen and “old guards” who were once key players in the early stages of the conflict now struggling to find lasting solutions. Despite the recognition and legitimacy bestowed upon these senior leaders by the global community and a significant portion of the population, their inability to end the conflict in its initial years has led to a bleak future for the younger generation. Somali youth grapple with a profound identity crisis as they were raised to respect their clans, but these clans have shattered their hopes for a better future. The younger population harbors deep animosity towards the old political leaders, whom they have followed for years but perceive as having failed to improve their circumstances. This resentment is compounded by economic dissatisfaction among young adults who have graduated from tertiary institutions in Mogadishu but struggle to secure employment in their respective fields. This economic frustration contributes to the existing political resentment within the country.

Al-Shabaab exploits this prevailing disillusionment and discontentment among the Somali youth. The group offers an alternative narrative that promises change, empowerment, and a means to rectify the grievances faced by the younger generation [39]. By presenting itself as a force capable of challenging the established political order and addressing the failures of the old guard, Al-Shabaab appeals to the frustrations and aspirations of disillusioned youth. Through its recruitment strategy, Al-Shabaab offers a sense of purpose, belonging, and the prospect of actively reshaping the future of Somalia. By tapping into the deep-seated grievances and frustrations of the younger generation, the group attracts recruits from various walks of life who seek a radical departure from the existing socio-political landscape. Simply put, Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategy takes advantage of the disillusionment and animosity that Somali youth feel towards the established political leadership and their inability to resolve longstanding conflicts. By positioning itself as a catalyst for change and offering an outlet for grievances, the group appeals to the aspirations and frustrations of the younger generation. Al-Shabaab’s recruitment efforts exploit the prevailing socio-political circumstances and economic dissatisfaction to attract recruits seeking a radical shift in Somalia’s trajectory.

The group offers a new way to be a part of something larger than one’s immediate surroundings and a potential that may open doors to a more expansive world than the one the previous generation established. Its religious ideology obliterates any historical debates about Fiqh and shari’a, allowing youth to believe that their interpretation of Islam is correct and that they can therefore confront whoever, including religious leaders and political elites, whose actions and inactions derail their progress and the development of the state. As Roy [40] explained, the Salafi approach enable believers to break themselves off from their local setting and seek a less parochial environment. Al-Shabaab, by this, provides an alternative for these issues, and it also empowers its recruits as soon as they endorse its ideology. By this, the group provides another avenue to globalization and a way for the youth to exercise their faith in whatever situation. Ultimately, as the group confronts the generational statuesque, they directly confront the senior political leaders, politicians, and tribal elders who have controlled and dominated the Somali political space for many years.

5. How Al-Shabaab employs recruitment strategies to enhance its power projection: a critical analysis

Al-Shabaab’s strategy of becoming socially embedded in the daily lives of ordinary Somalis is a critical component of the group’s power projection within and outside Somalia. By offering incentives to recruits and old militants, Al-Shabaab is able to maintain and expand its operational capacity, allowing it to control vast swathes of territory in Somalia and carry out attacks both within the country and beyond its borders. The group’s control over various economic activities in Somalia, such as the taxation of goods and services, the control of trade routes, and the exploitation of natural resources, makes it possible to offer incentives to recruits and veteran militants. By leveraging these economic activities, Al-Shabaab is able to generate revenue that it can use to fund its operations and provide incentives to its members. At the same time, by becoming socially embedded in the daily lives of ordinary Somalis, Al-Shabaab is able to gain high levels of popular support and acceptance. This support is crucial to the group’s ability to maintain its operational capacity and expand its influence, as it allows Al-Shabaab to recruit new members, raise funds, and conduct attacks with the support of local communities.

Also, religious radicalism has long been critical to Al-Shabaab’s power projection in Somalia. The group uses a radical interpretation of Islam as the basis for its ideology, and it has been successful in using this ideology to attract recruits and gain popular support among many Somalis. One of the key ways that Al-Shabaab uses religious radicalism is by presenting itself as the true defender of Islam in the country. The group argues that the Somali government is a Western-backed, secular regime that opposes Islamic values and practices. Al-Shabaab portrays itself as the only group that can protect Somalis from the corrupt and oppressive government and the influence of Western powers. The group also uses religious radicalism to justify its violent attacks against civilians and government targets. The group argues that it is engaged in a holy war against the enemies of Islam and that violence is necessary to defend the faith and defeat those who seek to destroy it. By framing its violence in religious terms, Al-Shabaab has been able to rally support among Somalis who feel the group is fighting for their interests and faith. In addition to its use of religious rhetoric, Al-Shabaab has also established a strict interpretation of Islamic law in the areas under its control.

The group has enforced its interpretation of Sharia law through the use of courts and other judicial bodies, and it has punished those who violate its rules with harsh penalties, including amputations, floggings, and executions. By enforcing its strict interpretation of Islamic law, Al-Shabaab has been able to present itself as a legitimate Islamic authority in the areas under its control. Al-Shabaab’s use of religious radicalism as a tool for power projection in Somalia has been successful in helping the group gain popular support and expand its influence both within and outside Somalia. It has allowed it to form alliances with other international extremist groups as earlier noted, including al-Qaeda and other jihadist organizations. These alliances have helped provide the group with funding, training, and other resources necessary for its survival and expansion. However, it is essential to note that the group’s violence and harsh interpretation of Islamic law have also led to widespread condemnation from other Muslim groups and the international community.

Al-Shabaab’s confrontation with Somalia’s age-old socio-political status quo is crucial for its power projection in the country. The group has long sought to establish a new Islamic social and political order in Somalia, and this vision serves as a rallying cry for its supporters and potential recruits. By positioning itself as a champion of traditional Islamic values, Al-Shabaab is able to appeal to those who are dissatisfied with the country’s current political system and feel disenfranchised by the government’s perceived corruption and ineffectiveness. The goal of Al-Shabaab is to replace Somalia’s current secular government with an Islamic one based on Sharia law. The group seeks to discredit the Somali government by portraying it as corrupt and un-Islamic. This narrative has resonated with many Somalis disillusioned with the state’s inability to provide essential services and security. The group often presents itself as the defender of the Somali people against foreign influence, including Western intervention and African Union troops. It portrays itself as the only force that can restore order, justice, and stability in the country, arguing that the existing socio-political order in Somalia is corrupt, unjust, and illegitimate. The group accuses the government of being controlled by foreign powers and, therefore, not representing the interests of the Somali people.

Al-Shabaab also employs other tactics to project power, including targeted assassinations of government officials and attacks on government installations, which have weakened the state’s ability to govern effectively. The group has also sought to create an alternative governance system, with its courts, schools, and social services, providing a sense of order and stability in controlled areas. In addition, Al-Shabaab has targeted traditional leaders, such as clan elders, who have played a significant role in Somali society for centuries. By undermining the authority of these traditional leaders, the group has sought to weaken Somali society’s social fabric, allowing it to gain greater control over local communities. Besides exploiting clan divisions and grievances, the group employs violence and intimidation to impose its socio-political agenda in areas under its control. The group enforces a strict interpretation of Islamic law and imposes its justice system, punishing those who violate its rules with harsh penalties, including amputations, floggings, and executions. Al-Shabaab’s use of violence and intimidation to impose its socio-political order creates a sense of fear and insecurity among the population, making it difficult for the central government to exert its authority in these areas.

6. Somali government’s counter initiatives to Al-Shabaab recruitment strategies

The Somali government recognizes that promoting good governance is crucial to countering Al-Shabaab’s recruitment efforts. Through the government’s quest to establish an effective governance structure, provide essential services to the population, and ensure the rule of law, the government aims to address the underlying grievances and vulnerabilities that make individuals susceptible to Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies. However, several challenges hinder the successful implementation of this strategy. One of the primary challenges is the limited capacity and resources of the Somali government [41]. Rebuilding institutions and establishing good governance practices in a country that has experienced decades of conflict and instability is daunting. The government faces significant challenges in terms of human and financial resources and technical expertise. Insufficient funding and a lack of trained personnel hinder the government’s ability to effectively implement governance reforms and provide essential services to the population [42]. Corruption and patronage networks pose another significant obstacle. Widespread corruption erodes public trust in the government and undermines its legitimacy. Al-Shabaab exploits this perception of corruption and inefficiency to present itself as an alternative authority that can deliver justice and services. Overcoming corruption and building transparent institutions is crucial to countering Al-Shabaab’s narrative and gaining the trust of the Somali people.

The security situation is another major challenge. Al-Shabaab’s continued presence and attacks disrupt governance efforts and impede the government’s ability to extend its authority and provide services in certain regions. The lack of security creates an environment where Al-Shabaab can operate and recruit more easily, undermining the government’s efforts to promote good governance and stability. Furthermore, Somali society’s clan dynamics and power struggles complicate governance efforts [43, 44]. Clan affiliations play a significant role in politics and decision-making processes, which hinder the establishment of inclusive and representative governance structures. Overcoming these divisions and building a unified government representing all Somali citizens’ interests is complex and delicate. Also, the government’s ability to deliver tangible improvements in the lives of the Somali people is crucial for countering Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies. Economic development, job creation, and basic services are essential in addressing the socio-economic grievances that make individuals vulnerable to recruitment. However, limited resources and competing priorities make it challenging for the government to meet the expectations and urgent needs of the population. While promoting good governance is a crucial strategy to counter Al-Shabaab’s recruitment efforts, the Somali government faces several challenges in its implementation. The key hurdles are addressing corruption, building institutional capacity, navigating clan dynamics, and ensuring security. Overcoming these challenges requires sustained commitment from the government, coordinated international support, and a comprehensive approach that integrates security, development, and governance initiatives.

Another cardinal strategy explored by the Somali government to counter Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies includes the government’s effort to promote economic development and job creation for the Somali youth [39]. By addressing the economic grievances and socio-economic factors contributing to vulnerability and marginalization, the government aims to undermine Al-Shabaab’s recruitment efforts and offer viable alternatives to stop potential recruits from joining the extremist group. This involves implementing policies and programs that foster an enabling environment for business development, stimulate economic growth, attract investment, generate employment opportunities, and empower individuals, particularly the youth. By creating a conducive business environment, supporting entrepreneurship with business training, access to microfinance, the provision of start-up capital, and investing in key sectors such as agriculture, infrastructure, and trade, the government aims to encourage entrepreneurship and self-employment and address the root causes of economic grievances that Al-Shabaab exploits for recruitment purposes. Another aspect of the government’s strategy is to invest in infrastructure development and essential services. This includes improving access to education, healthcare, water, and electricity, particularly in rural areas more susceptible to Al-Shabaab’s influence. By investing in infrastructure, the government aims to improve living conditions, enhance social well-being, and create an environment that discourages individuals from joining extremist groups out of desperation or a lack of opportunities.

However, there are significant challenges to implementing this strategy. One of the major obstacles is the need for more resources and infrastructure in Somalia. Decades of conflict and instability have severely damaged the country’s economy and infrastructure, making it difficult to attract investment, create jobs, and provide adequate services. The lack of basic infrastructure, such as roads, electricity, and water supply, hinders economic development and hampers the government’s efforts to provide sustainable economic opportunities. Another challenge is the prevalence of clan-based patronage networks and corruption. These practices create barriers to fair economic opportunities, as access to resources and opportunities may be limited to certain clans or individuals with political connections. Overcoming these challenges requires concerted efforts to promote transparency, accountability, and meritocracy in economic development initiatives. Addressing corruption and ensuring a level playing field for all individuals and businesses is crucial for the strategy’s success. The security situation in Somalia also poses a significant challenge to providing economic opportunities. Al-Shabaab’s continued presence and attacks disrupt economic activities and instil fear among potential investors and entrepreneurs. The government needs to prioritize security and stability to create an enabling environment for economic growth. This requires strengthening security forces, enhancing intelligence capabilities, and cooperating with regional and international partners to counter the threat of terrorism. It is important to emphasize that addressing the root causes of economic marginalization and inequality is a complex task that requires a multi-faceted approach. It should address issues such as poverty, unequal distribution of resources, lack of access to education and skills training, and social exclusion. The Somali government needs to design comprehensive programs that focus on poverty alleviation, vocational training, education, and social welfare to ensure that economic opportunities are accessible to all segments of society.

The prospect of investing heavily in education and promoting youth empowerment programs is another important initiative the Somali administration has been exploring to counter Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies [45]. It is the conviction of the Somali government that if it can provide the youth with access to quality education and create opportunities to develop their skills, the government will be able to empower young people, provide them with alternative pathways for personal growth, social integration, development, enhance their prospects for a better future, and reduce their vulnerability to extremist ideologies. Like most governments across the globe, the Somali government acknowledges that education plays a vital role in shaping the minds of young people and providing them with the necessary skills and knowledge for a brighter future. The government has been focusing on improving access to quality education, rebuilding schools, training teachers, and developing curriculum frameworks that promote critical thinking, tolerance, and civic engagement. By strengthening the education system, the government aims to equip young individuals with the tools they need to pursue meaningful opportunities and resist the allure of extremist ideologies.

Furthermore, promoting youth empowerment programs is integral to the government’s strategy. These programs aim to engage young people in constructive activities, enhance their leadership skills, and provide them with personal and professional development opportunities. Youth empowerment initiatives include entrepreneurship training, vocational skills development, mentorship programs, sports and arts activities, and community engagement projects [46]. By involving young individuals in positive endeavors, the government seeks to empower them to become active participants in society, fostering a sense of belonging and purpose that counters the appeal of joining extremist groups like Al-Shabaab.

Similar to the government’s strategies discussed above, there are challenges in implementing this strategy too. Al-Shabaab’s presence and continued attacks disrupt educational activities and threaten teachers, students, and educational infrastructure. The government needs to ensure the safety and security of educational institutions to create a conducive environment for learning and youth engagement. Secondly, resource constraints and limited funding for education and youth programs hinder the government’s efforts. Somalia faces significant economic challenges, and allocating sufficient resources to education and youth empowerment can take time and effort. The government must mobilize domestic and international support to secure the necessary funding for education infrastructure, teacher training, and youth programs. Another challenge is the need for a comprehensive approach to address the underlying factors that make young people susceptible to recruitment by extremist groups. These factors include poverty, unemployment, social exclusion, and lack of opportunities. The government must collaborate with various stakeholders, including civil society organizations, community leaders, and international partners, to design holistic programs that address these socioeconomic issues and provide comprehensive support for youth empowerment. Overcoming challenges related to security, resource constraints, and comprehensive intervention is essential to maximize the impact of education and promote youth empowerment programs as a strategy to create a more inclusive and prosperous future for Somalia.

7. Conclusion

The complex recruitment dynamics and power projection of extremist groups like Al-Shabaab in Somalia require a comprehensive and multifaceted approach to countering them. Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies have been crucial to the group’s resilience and expansion. The group has attracted individuals from diverse backgrounds by exploiting socio-economic grievances, ideological indoctrination, and clan dynamics. Understanding these recruitment tactics provides valuable insights into Al-Shabaab’s power projection capabilities and operational mechanisms. Additionally, the group’s influence extends beyond military actions, with recruitment enabling territorial control and the imposition of its extremist ideology. The Somali government has not been passive in countering Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies. It has implemented initiatives encompassing security operations, community engagement, and rehabilitation programs for former fighters. However, numerous challenges, including limited resources, political instability, and clan dynamics, have hindered the effectiveness of these efforts. Overcoming these challenges necessitates adopting holistic and diverse strategies that address not only military interventions but also socio-economic development, good governance, and community resilience.

By delving into the intricacies of Al-Shabaab’s recruitment strategies, power projection, and the Somali government’s response, this chapter contributes to a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics in the HOA. It highlights the need for comprehensive approaches that tackle the root causes of radicalization, strengthen governance structures, and empower local communities to resist extremism. Such an understanding is vital for developing effective counterterrorism strategies and promoting long-term peace and stability in Somalia and the HOA. This chapter aims to inform policymakers, researchers, and practitioners involved in combating terrorism and fostering regional stability. By shedding light on the recruitment drive of Al-Shabaab and its broader implications for subregional security, it provides valuable insights for addressing the ongoing struggle between extremist groups and the authorities seeking to restore peace and stability. It underscores the importance of a comprehensive approach that addresses the underlying factors driving radicalization and builds the capacity of local communities. Through such efforts, long-term peace and stability can be achieved in Somalia and similar contexts worldwide.