\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8262",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The New Forms of Social Exclusion",title:"The New Forms of Social Exclusion",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This is the first book that broadly delves into the theme of social exclusion and how it has changed through culture and society. It represents a very important, innovative, and current attempt to describe new forms of social exclusion in society and takes into account the contribution of different disciplines with different points of view. The authors offer a very interesting and novel contribution to the field of new forms of social exclusion, reporting their theoretical perspectives, the original results of their research, and their discussions. "Exclusion is always dangerous. Inclusion is the only safety if we are to have a peaceful world." Pearl S. Buck',isbn:"978-1-83880-609-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-608-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-507-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78246",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"the-new-forms-of-social-exclusion",numberOfPages:86,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"29bf235aa7659d3651183fe9ea49dc0d",bookSignature:"Rosalba Morese and Sara Palermo",publishedDate:"June 5th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8262.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4334,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:34,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 3rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 24th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 11th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 10th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",middleName:null,surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/214435/images/system/214435.jpg",biography:"Rosalba Morese, born in Italy, holds a bachelor\\'s degree in psychology at the University of Parma and a Ph.D. in neuroscience at the University of Turin. She aims to develop new techniques and approaches in cognitive science and social neuroscience. She is an expert in experimental neuroscience, neuroeconomics, psychophysiology, and cognitive and social neuroscience. She performs neuroimaging studies in social contexts in order to investigate neural correlates involved during social interactions, such as, social exclusion, social support, empathy, communicative intention, social decision-making, in-group and out-group settings, etc. She currently works at Università della Svizzera italiana, Lugano, Switzerland.\n\nFor more information: http://usi.to/xuj",institutionString:"Faculty of Biomedical Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Universita della Svizzera Italiana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233998/images/system/233998.png",biography:"Sara Palermo has an MSc in clinical psychology and a PhD in experimental neuroscience. She is specialty chief editor of Frontiers in Psychology, Neuropsychology, and scientific director of the Italian National Institute of Philanthropy, Filantropolis. She is a member of the Italian Society of Neuropsychology, the Italian Association of Psychogeriatrics, the Italian Society of Neurology for Dementia, and the Society for Interdisciplinary Placebo Studies. She was a member of the European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Ageing (EIP AHA), for which she was involved in Action Group A3: Action for Prevention of Functional Decline and Frailty. Dr Palermo works as a researcher at the Department of Psychology - University of Turin (Italy) and as Scientific Consultant at the Fondazione IRCCS, Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta (FINCB), Milan, Italy.",institutionString:"University of Turin, Italy & The Foundation of the Carlo Besta Neurological Institute IRCCS",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"278",title:"Social Psychology",slug:"social-psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"66985",title:"Introductory Chapter: Do You Feel Bad if I Exclude You? 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In this chapter, it is defined as a possible ability of an individual or a group to face, manage, and anticipate a possible problem. This concept of vulnerability is associated with that of risk factor for social isolation, and therefore to situations that can also lead to illness and lack of mental and physical health. It can have its roots in poverty, in social exclusion, in ethnicity, in disability or simply in disease or specific developmental phases in life. All these aspects reflect very important vulnerability factors among biological, psychological, social, and behavioral variables. To date, no one has highlighted together two critical moments in life in which this brain area undergoes important variations: adolescence, in which its development occurs, and old age, in which this area goes into cognitive decline with the relative loss of many higher cognitive functions. This knowledge can help to better understand the forms of exclusion due to vulnerability in order to develop new forms of social inclusion.",signatures:"Rosalba Morese, Sara Palermo, Matteo Defedele, Juri Nervo and Alberto Borraccino",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66422",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66422",authors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"},{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"},{id:"218983",title:"BSc.",name:"Juri",surname:"Nervo",slug:"juri-nervo",fullName:"Juri Nervo"},{id:"218984",title:"MSc.",name:"Matteo",surname:"Defedele",slug:"matteo-defedele",fullName:"Matteo Defedele"},{id:"266453",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Borraccino",slug:"alberto-borraccino",fullName:"Alberto Borraccino"}],corrections:null},{id:"63833",title:"Living in Italy in an Anti-Immigrant Scenario: New Challenges for Muslim Second Generations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81280",slug:"living-in-italy-in-an-anti-immigrant-scenario-new-challenges-for-muslim-second-generations",totalDownloads:836,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Analysing whether and how the transition from the first to the second generation transforms adherence to Islam in Italy, a Catholic country which is undergoing a Lively immigration and Muslim-welcoming debate, is extremely interesting. The growing presence of Muslims in Italy stresses relations with ‘diversity’, especially in those areas where the incidence of migrants coming from Maghreb is higher and where there is an Arabic presence visible through ethnic shops, women wearing the chador and men wearing long robes. In these areas, the issues of control and safety have been on the agenda for many years. On the other hand, according to Muslim organizations there is a common interest in presenting a ‘moderate Islam’. There is a specific will and interest of the youngest Muslim generations to demonstrate their propensity to promote integration, using both old (debates, meetings, etc.) and new (websites, blog, etc.) policy tools.",signatures:"Roberta Ricucci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63833",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63833",authors:[{id:"258433",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Roberta",surname:"Ricucci",slug:"roberta-ricucci",fullName:"Roberta Ricucci"}],corrections:null},{id:"63724",title:"Social Exclusion and Territorial Dispossession: A Reflection on Mining Activity in Peru and Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80689",slug:"social-exclusion-and-territorial-dispossession-a-reflection-on-mining-activity-in-peru-and-mexico",totalDownloads:732,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"From the social struggles that are found all over the globe, it is important to try to analyze the territorial dispossession suffered by the peasant communities, by the transnational mining companies. For this, we rely on categories such as accumulation through elimination in order to know if social exclusion is an event in the development of capitalism or responds to an abrupt struggle between labor and capital. In this sense, we are interested in focusing our study on two cases that are found in Peru and Mexico. In such regions, social mobilization has not only developed as a generalized form of rejection of mining but also accounts for the contradictions of the mining industry.",signatures:"John Kenny Acuña Villavicencio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63724",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63724",authors:[{id:"259795",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kenny",surname:"Acuña Villavicencio",slug:"j.-kenny-acuna-villavicencio",fullName:"J. 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However, one applies words related to the spirit level, while another adapts words related to the physical level. The female or male desirability can be expressed by using metaphor. 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The mammary gland has a stroma rich in adipose cells and glandular epithelium that origins a lobule-alveolar system, in which terminal there are alveolar epithelial cells involved in milk production. The mammary gland development, as well as its fundamental structure is very similar among different species, with little differences in function, architecture, and number of glands. For example, in rodents, the branches are few and disperse, whereas ruminants have more branches and they are concentrated in the terminal of alveoli [1]. This gland undergoes cyclic changes that make it reach its maximal development in lactation. This is a unique model of cyclic morphogenesis in adults, with four characteristic steps replicated in each pregnancy and which ends with its involution in menopause. The four phases of mammary gland maturity in adulthood are proliferative phase, secretory differentiation phase, secretory activation phase, and lactation phase [2, 3]. Although breast development begins during embryogenesis, it is during pregnancy when terminal maturation of the gland occurs, developing a lobule-alveolar system characterized by branching of the galactophorous ducts and the differentiation of terminal buds to alveoli. Growth of mammary gland is stimulated during pregnancy by the mammotrophic combination of steroids (estrogen, progesterone, and corticosteroids) and polypeptide hormones (prolactin, growth hormone, and placental lactogen). The four phases of breast differentiation that occur after conception have clear histological differences, as can be seen in Figure 1. In the first phase, there is an increase in the amount of glandular tissue, associated with an increase in the number of acini. The second phase is defined by the beginning of lipid synthesis and by its accumulation inside mammary epithelial cells (MEC). The third phase is characterized by the presence of differentiated MEC, capable of producing and secreting all the constituents of milk, which results in a dilation of the alveoli and the presence of an eosinophilic secretion that occupies the acinar lumen. The final phase of mammary gland development is called the lactation phase, and it is the stage in which breastfeeding is established [2]. At this stage, milk secretion is continuous, which is associated with a greater degree of dilation of the alveoli and the presence of milk secretion in the acinar lumen. The process of mammary gland involution starts after weaning and develops in two stages. The first step is a reversible first phase, which lasts a few days, and is due to the release of local breast factors that trigger apoptosis of the secretory epithelia. The second phase, the remodeling, involves the replacing of the lobule-alveolar structures by adipose tissue, degradation of the extracellular matrix and its basal lamina, and the remodeling of adipose tissue [4].
Histological characteristics of mammary morphogenesis in adults. (a) virgin; (b) proliferative phase; (c) secretory differentiation phase; (d) secretory activation phase; (e) lactation phase; and (f) early involution. Hematoxylin and eosin staining, bar 50 μm [
Glucose supply to the mammary gland is pivotal to maintain the high rate of proliferation of glandular epithelium in pregnancy and the continuous production of lactose, fat acids, and proteins during lactation [6]. Studies in cows demonstrate that between 60 and 85% of plasmatic glucose is distributed to the mammary gland during lactation and that duodenal glucose injection increases mammary gland glucose uptake and lactose synthesis glucose supply to the mammary gland during lactation, whereas the inhibition of this process or the renal reabsorption of glucose decreased them [7, 8]. On the other hand, in rodents, glucose uptake of the mammary gland duplicates 2 days before delivery, and it remains high during all lactation period, and in humans, 30% of glucose intake is used to lactose production in established lactation [9]. The whole organism adapts to the synthesis of milk; the initial negative energy balance is reversed by greater hepatic gluconeogenesis and decreased peripheral glucose use [10].
The necessity of glucose supply for the proliferation of MEC is very important to lactation persistency, being, together with secretory activity, the two factors that define the lactation curve and peak [4, 11]. In rodents, milk production is mainly associated with a high proliferation of MEC, whereas in cows it is principally due to the increase in secretory activity per cell [12]. In general, MEC proliferation is low in virgin and early pregnancy (5%) in mice, where it has been associated with stem cell renewing, but it persists throughout lactation period, associated with cell replacement, with low net growth, associated with the expression of Ki67 [5, 11]. For example, in cows, the MEC replacement reaches 50%, whereas in rodents it is lower than 25% [11]. When lactation declines, proliferation decreases, and it is exceeded by apoptosis rate, but also the secretory activity by cell decreases [11]. In particular, in humans, mammary growth for lactation starts at week 20 of pregnancy, whereas in mice it starts at day 12 of pregnancy. Studies in mice have established that DNA content increases from the middle of pregnancy until day 5 of lactation, doubling every 6 days, maintaining a net proliferation rate of only 0.3% during lactation, due to parallel apoptosis and loss of cells in milk [13].
The glucose transporters already identified in mammary epithelial cells of rodents, humans, and ruminants are facilitative glucose transporters GLUT1, GLUT8, and GLUT12, SGLT1, and the bidirectional sugar transporter SWEET1 (sugars will eventually be exported transporter) [7, 8, 14, 15, 16] (Figure 2). The GLUT transporters were initially identified due to the capacity of MEC to transport 3-O-methyl-D-Glucose and inhibition of this by cytochalasin B [17, 18, 19]. There are differences in the location and magnitude of peak expression of glucose transporters due to differences between species in the prevalence of cell proliferation or secretory activity [8, 20, 21]. In cows, the increase in the expression of GLUTs is in order of magnitude greater than in rodents, which reflects that its secretory activity is highly dependent on the expression of glucose transporters [6, 14]. The maximum expression of GLUT1 observed was between late pregnancy and late lactation, reaching an increase of 5-fold at the protein level and 50-fold at mRNA level [5, 15, 17, 18, 22]. The increase in GLUT8 expression is lower, but it follows the same pattern, associated with cytokeratin 18 and Ki67 expression and MEC proliferation [5, 8]. However, some studies also found an increase of GLUT1 expression in MEC in early pregnancy, which could be related to the start of lipid synthesis in secretory activation phase, when sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP), a transcription factor, appears, or to stem cell renewal [2, 5, 10, 23]. Although the majority of authors found over 60% of GLUT1 expression in plasma membrane in rat lactating gland, some studies found it almost exclusively at intracellular level [5, 19, 20, 24]. Interestingly, in early weaning of BalB/BalC mice, GLUT1 is also concentrated intracellularly, but, due to a decrease in lactation at this step, that could be associated with its accumulation in proteasomal compartment or to apoptotic bodies phagocyted by other epithelial cells acting as nonprofessional phagocytes [5, 25].
Glucose uptake in mammary epithelial cell. Distribution of glucose transporters and glucose concentration in different compartments is detailed. MEC, mammary epithelial cells; myoMEC, mammary myoepithelial cells; GLUT, facilitative glucose transporter; SGLT, sodium-glucose cotransporter; SWEET, sugars will eventually be exported transporter.
The intracellular concentration of glucose in the MEC is mainly determined by its incorporation by GLUT1 transporters in the basolateral membrane and by the activity of the cytosolic hexokinases, which transform glucose into glucose-6-phosphate [2, 23]. The induction of the expression of hexokinase II in the cytoplasm of MEC during the period of breastfeeding is essential in the determination of intracellular glucose levels, because this enzyme has low glucose affinity (Km 0.3 mM) [26]. On the other hand, glucose is also transported to the lumen of the alveolus, through GLUT12, reaching a concentration of 1.5 mM in milk, equivalent to the concentration found in the cytoplasm of the MEC [20, 26].
The first evidence of lactose synthesis in the Golgi of mammary alveolar cells dates back to 1980, when it was associated with the activity of galactosyltransferase and the presence of lactalbumin and bivalent metals such as manganese and calcium [27]. The lactose synthase (LS) synthetizes lactose (beta 1,4-galactoglucose) from UDP-galactose and glucose, and it is located specifically in trans-Golgi. The LS is an enzymatic complex of galactosyltransferase and LALB. LALB is only found in mammary epithelial cells, allowing galactosyltransferase to be specific for the formation of this disaccharide, making galactosyltransferase add galactose to glucose at even low concentration of glucose, increasing its affinity to this carbohydrate 1000-fold [23, 27]. In others cells, galactosyltransferase adds galactose to N-acetylglucosamine glycoconjugates, but in MEC, LALB changes substrate specificity from N-acetylglucosamine to glucose. In fact, the lactose synthesis depends directly on the amount of LALB associated with the galactosyltransferase that is inserted in the inner face of the Golgi apparatus membrane [28]. The LALB knockout produces a viscous, low-lactose milk difficult to remove from the mammary gland, highlighting the osmotic role of lactose in milk yield [29].
LALB expression increases immediately after delivery in pig and rodents and is regulated by lactogenic hormones [30, 31, 32]. LS has a Km of 1.5 mM for glucose and 60 μM for UDP-galactose; thus, the limiting stage in lactose synthesis is the availability of glucose in the Golgi [2, 23, 27]. Lactose synthesis begins in the first third of pregnancy but increases considerably after childbirth, as levels of placental sex steroids decrease, which has an inhibitory effect on lactose synthesis [1]. Lactose production remains relatively constant throughout the entire lactation process thanks to the action of prolactin and other lactogenic hormones and the stimulation associated with mammary gland emptying. The lactose is secreted in the milk together with LALB, α, β, and κ caseins, β-lactoglobulin, others nutrients, and immunomodulatory molecules [1]. Lactose represents around 5% of the milk content in all species, which revealed that is a highly conserved process. Also lactose is an osmotically active molecule, defining the water content in milk, which is in average 80% [1, 7]. In cows, in particular, milk is 5.0% lactose, 3.4% fat, and 2.3% protein. In seals, the lactose content of milk is minimal, and fat is predominant (50%), followed by 6.0% protein. This could be explained because pups need to double their weight in only 4 days to survive adverse environmental conditions [1]. On the other hand, human milk has a similar fat content to cow milk (3.7%), less protein content (1.0%), and more lactose (7.0 v/s. 5.0%). Donkeys presents similar content of macronutrients in milk to human, with 7.4% lactose, 2.0% protein, and 0.4% fat [9].
The first studies related to glucose transport to the Golgi of MEC concluded that this was mediated by GLUT and SGLT transporters, since the transport of monosaccharides was inhibited by phloretin and phlorizin, known inhibitors of both types of transporters [33]. These vesicles present stereospecificity for several monosaccharides, such as D-glucose, L-glucose, D-xylose, 2-deoxy-D-glucose, and D-fructose. Moreover, the vesicles showed low permeability for glucosamine, a substrate of the GLUT1 transporter; for this reason, we assume that another glucose transporter is involved in the incorporation of glucose into this organelle. A decade later, another GLUT was identified in Golgi vesicles of MEC of late-lactating mice through Western blotting and binding studies of cytochalasin B, co-localizing with 110-kDa coatomer-associated protein β-COP [19, 24]. Interestingly, the results revealed that there is a second cytochalasin B-sensitive glucose transporter, which could correspond to GLUT8, cloned after such studies [34, 35]. In our last study, we were able to identify GLUT8 in the Golgi of lactating MEC in mice, co-localized with LALB, 58 K Golgi protein, and Golgi membrane-associated protein 130 [5]. Additionally, SGLT1 was identified in the Golgi of MEC from lactating cows, but no functional studies have been performed [23]. As SGLT is an active transporter that mobilize glucose thanks to electrochemical sodium gradient at the plasma membrane, more studies related to ion gradient between cytoplasm and inside the Golgi should be performed to really know the contribution of this transporter to glucose uptake into the Golgi of MEC. In Figure 3, we show glucose transporters present in the Golgi of mammary epithelial cell and their association with lactose synthesis.
Glucose transporters in the Golgi of mammary epithelial cell associated with lactose synthesis. Distributions of glucose transporters in this organelle are detailed. MEC, mammary epithelial cells; GLUT, facilitative glucose transporter; LS, lactose synthase; LALB, lactalbumin; GS, galactosyltransferase.
In summary, the reports highlight a variable increase in the expression of GLUT1, GLUT8, and GLUT12 in pregnancy and/or lactation in different models, including rodents and ruminants, but their responsibility in glucose uptake in the Golgi of mammary epithelial cells, an essential step to lactose synthesis, is not clear [8, 24, 36]. Moreover, although GLUT8 has been co-localized with Golgi proteins in MEC and in different compartments of endomembrane system in other cell types, GLUT1 has been found in the Golgi of MEC only in some of the species and strains studied, and its intracellular localization had been associated with mitochondria, which in not part of endomembrane system [5, 24, 33, 37]. In particular, GLUT8 has been found in late endosome and reticulum.
The lactose synthesis depends principally on lactogenic hormones and glucose uptake in the Golgi of MEC. It starts in the first third of pregnancy, increasing considerately after parturition, when placental sexual steroid hormones decrease and lactogenic hormones increase [30, 31, 32]. The principal lactogenic hormone is prolactin, which is stimulated by suckling. The milk production also has been associated with the removal of an inhibitory agent of secretory activity of MEC in milk. Other factors involved in milk production are light and sexual hormones. The increase in light photoperiod from 16 to 18 h increases milk production, due to prolactin via insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) and somatotropin, whereas pregnancy decreases milk production, due to an increase in estrogens [8]. There is still controversy over the role of LS in milk production. In particular, LALB knockout mice were unable to produce milk, and lactogenic hormones change LALB expression only in particular species. For example, in humans, prolactin increases LALB mRNA, but in rabbits it decreases it, and in other species it does not produce any change [20, 24]. Also, it has been proposed that hexokinase and the different enzymes involved in glucose transformation to UDP-galactose are important for lactose synthesis [7].
As it has been described, the limiting stage in lactose synthesis is the availability of glucose in the Golgi [27], but a combination of lactogenic hormones failed to induce their expression in bovine mammary explants [22, 30]. There are not changes in GLUT8 or GLUT12 expression in response to insulin, leptin, growth hormone, or glucose, but estradiol and progesterone increase GLUT1 in MEC [15, 17, 19, 38]. GLUT1 was redistributed to an intracellular compartment, presumably the Golgi, in response to prolactin and hydrocortisone, associated with phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) and protein kinase C (PKC) pathways and STAT5 binding to its promotor [39, 40, 41]. The upregulation of GLUT1 in pregnancy and lactation also has been associated with an increase in serotonin via 5’adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and hypoxia via HIF1α [22, 28]. On the other hand, serotonin increased GLUT8 in the mammary gland and hypoxia and lipopolysaccharide decrease it [10]. GLUT8 is internalized in response to insulin in trophodermic cells and changed its expression in insulin-sensitive tissues, such as the liver and kidney, but failed to produce effects in adipocytes and neuroblast cells [42, 43, 44]. Some carbohydrates also produce changes in location and expression of GLUT8, i.e., glucose induces GLUT8 trafficking from the Golgi to the reticulum of hippocampal cells in rats and upregulates it in 3T3-L1 adipocytes [42, 45]. On the other hand, fructose downregulates GLUT8 expression in colon tissue and CaCo-2 colon carcinoma cells but increases its expression in hepatocytes, where it is located in the plasma membrane [46, 47, 48]. GLUT8 promoter has a binding sequence to transcription factor NF1, which has been associated with the response of GLUT4 to insulin and cyclic adenosyl monophosphate (cAMP) [42, 49].
Mammals rely exclusively on milk supply from the mammary gland to survive at an early age. The proliferation of mammary epithelial cells and mammary establishment depend on glucose supply to the gland, whereas lactose synthesis depends directly on glucose entry into the Golgi of MEC, which is conjugated with UDP-galactose by lactose synthase to produce the disaccharide lactose. MEC presents polarized expression of GLUT1, SGLT1, and GLUT12 in its plasma membrane and also expresses GLUT1, GLUT8, and SGLT1 in the Golgi. Hormones and oxygen tension regulate the expression of these transporters; however, further studies are necessary to explore the effects of light/dark cycles and suckling in their expression, since these are factors involved in milk production. Additionally, the kinetics of transporters involved in glucose uptake in the Golgi or cytoplasm of MEC also needs to be explored. Understanding the regulation and function of glucose transporters will be useful to improve efficiency of milk yield in both, humans and cattle.
The authors would like to thank Fredy Díaz of Interactive Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine at Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile, for drawing the figures we designed and the Vice-Rectory for Research and Post-grade at Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción for partial finance of this publication.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
MEC | mammary epithelial cell |
GLUT | facilitative glucose transporter |
SGLT | sodium-glucose transporter |
SWEET | sugars will eventually be exported transporter |
LALB | lactalbumin |
LS | lactose synthase |
SREBP | sterol regulatory element-binding protein |
Km | Michaelis-Menten kinetic constant |
β-COP | 110-kDa coatomer-associated protein |
AMPK | 5’ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase |
PI3K | phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase |
cAMP | cyclic adenosyl monophosphate |
NF1 | nuclear factor 1 |
STAT5 | signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 |
PKC | protein kinase C |
The prostate is an accessory gland whose primary function is to provide 20% of seminal fluid [1, 2]. Therefore, its location is decisive for developing benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), the most common disease in older men. Furthermore, its prevalence increases proportionally with the increasing age of the individual [3], the main complication being lower urinary tract symptoms, which directly impacts patients’ quality of life (QOL), producing sadness and depression [4].
Although it is an age-related etiology, multiple factors intervene in its development, such as metabolic syndrome, inflammation, hormonal changes, and growth factors, which influence and regulate the development of this pathology [3, 5, 6, 7]. BPH is not a condition with a high mortality rate; its high prevalence is related to complications of severe lower urinary symptoms, including sexual dysfunction, which notoriously affects the QOL of the elderly [2]. Although it is well characterized, its etiology is poorly understood. It is known that androgens play a permissive role [7]. The imbalance between the levels of androgens and estrogens plays a decisive role in developing BPH and cancer [6]. In addition, other factors have emerged, with growth factors responsible for cell differentiation and proliferation, playing a decisive role in the development of BPH [6]. Furthermore, some studies have suggested the participation of other nonsteroidal hormones and proinflammatory cytokines in stimulating the growth of prostate epithelial tissue, contributing to the hyperproliferative process that accompanies BPH [8, 9].
Due to this, different combined treatments are used to reduce symptoms and improve the patient’s health. Although alternative therapies have shown improvements in “
This disease cannot be prevented. However, it has been reported that the modulation of certain habits can decrease BPH incidence. Among these are obesity, diet, physical activity, and the consumption of alcohol and tobacco, which can directly influence the development of this etiology [4, 11].
Due to the high incidence of this etiology in the elderly, it is essential to provide updated information on this pathology. Therefore, this chapter aims to provide recent information on BPH development in older men.
The prostate is an accessory sex gland that has an approximate volume of 20–30 g, which is reached between 18 and 20 years. One of its primary functions is to contribute approximately 20% of the secretions from the seminal fluid, together with those produced by the seminal vesicles and the bulbourethral glands [1, 2].
It has a very particular ubication in the lower pelvis, below the bladder. It is related in front with the pubis and behind with the rectum. It is shaped like an inverted cone, with a base of 4 cm in transverse diameter, 2 cm in the anteroposterior direction, and 3 cm in its vertical diameters. It is crossed in its vertical axis by the urethra and, in a more horizontal and posterior plane, by the ejaculatory ducts [2].
Histologically, three well-defined prostate areas have been reported: the transition zone (5%), located near the urethra surrounding the periurethral space; the central zone (25%), where the main ducts of the seminal vesicles and the prostate are found; and the peripheral zone (70%), the widest, which is palpable during the digitorrectal examination, being the site where 90% of prostate cancers (PC) are generated [3]. The periurethral area of the transition zone consists of two separate glands that lie immediately posterior to the periprostatic sphincter. Furthermore, a characteristic that is unique to the prostate gland in humans is that it is surrounded by the prostate capsule, which is formed by a thin layer of fibromuscular tissue that continues with the stroma, limiting the growth of the gland [5].
BPH is a hyperplastic process that results in the growth of epithelial and stromal cells located in the periurethral area of the submucosa and transitional zone of the prostate, the leading site where BPH develops. The elongation of this area is accompanied by changes in the tissue’s stromal/muscular characteristics [5]. It has a prevalence of 26.2% worldwide, which has remained constant in the last two decades [6]. It is considered the most common benign tumor in men over 40 years of age, representing the second cause of surgical intervention and the first of consultation with a specialist (urologist) [2].
Although it is an age-related disease, there are other associated risk factors: race, diet, obesity, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, alcohol consumption, urinary tract infections (UTIs), and physical inactivity [3, 5, 6, 7].
Moreover, there are hereditary factors associated with BPH. In this sense, a relative risk increase of 3.3 has been demonstrated in monozygotic vs. dizygotic twins, in addition to a higher risk of incidence in siblings with an early onset of the disease. Similarly, some specific genetic risk factors have been evidenced. For example, the loss of the Y chromosome and the presence of variants of type II 5α-reductase gene are included [6, 7].
Interestingly, it has been reported that involution of the prostate is related to an alteration of the immune system; the presence of bacteriuria increases with age in men with a sixfold increase in the number of white blood cells in the prostate secretions of those with BPH than in those without, as well as a presence of bacteria in the 36.7% of the cases [12]. The first symptoms appear in the average 40 years, a period after which growth becomes significant; some reports indicate that the annual growth can be from 40 to 90% between 40 and 50 years. Of the total number of people who develop BPH, approximately between 10 and 41% will present lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS), which increases in severity with age, being the prostatic capsule, the structure involved in development; limiting the growth of the prostate gland causes an increase in urethral resistance and the symptoms associated with LUTS [5, 6].
Among its main symptoms is the low frequency in urinary flow, the feeling of emptying and filling, in addition to post-void symptoms and those related to voiding volume [13]. Moreover, it has been reported that the severity of discomfort caused by LUTS is related to various sexual problems. It has been reported that the lengthening of the transitional zone is associated with a decrease in sexual desire and function, the ejaculatory process, as well as incontinence (on some occasions), which causes a significant impact on the patients’ QOL [5, 6].
LUTS have been reported to have a combination of voiding, filling, and post-void symptoms. All these are present in different degrees of severity. However, voiding symptoms are the most prevalent, while filling symptoms are the most annoying and interfere with patients’ QOL [2, 13].
Filling symptoms include urgency, nocturia, frequency, and urge urinary incontinence; voiding consists of weak stream, urination in drip, intermittent stream, delay, effort, and voiding drip; post-void symptoms include the sensation of incomplete voiding and post-void dribbling [2].
The prevalence of LUTS increases with age, reporting 0–20% in men aged 40–60 years; in 70-year-old men, the frequency of moderate-to-severe symptoms is three times higher than in young men [13]; over 20% of men over 60 years of age will have complications from LUTS, a situation that will exceed 40% in those over 70 years of age, which will significantly affect the QOL [7], being one of the main complications, those related to erectile dysfunction (ED), which is generally associated with severe symptoms of LUTS.
ED is a chronic condition manifested by the inability to achieve/maintain an erection during sexual behavior to have satisfactory sexual function. This condition is directly related to age. Therefore, it follows a very narrow pattern with the development of BPH and the appearance of LUTS [2].
Different causes associated with ED have been described, including psychological and organic. This last includes anatomical or hormonal defects, degeneration, impaired vasodilation of the penile vessels, and in some instances, a combination of both. Therefore, people with cardiovascular or neurodegenerative diseases are more likely to develop ED [2].
Furthermore, a multicenter study in several countries, including the United States, Italy, Netherlands, Germany, Spain, and England, showed that more than 50% of men suffered from sexual dysfunction due to LUTS. Similarly, the study showed an incidence of erection problems in 49% of men aged 50–80 years, suggesting LUTS as independent risk factors for the appearance of ED [2].
The role of androgens in the development of the etiology of BPH has not yet been fully elucidated, so the evidence found shows contrasting results. However, in general, it is known that the normal growth and function of the prostate gland are dependent on the presence of testicular androgens. In this sense, it is known that, in the prostate, testosterone (T) is converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) through the action of the enzyme 5α-reductase type II, the primary androgen in this tissue, because it has a 10-fold higher affinity for androgen receptors (AR) than T [6, 8].
Surprisingly, it has been shown that DHT levels remain elevated in the older men (90% of its production being of prostate origin and 10% of adrenal origin), while peripheral circulating levels of T decrease with age [5, 6, 8]. Therefore, the effects associated with BPH are attributed to the autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine actions of DHT rather than T [7].
The action mechanism of androgens is carried out by binding to specific AR, which is expressed mainly within the lumen of epithelial cells and in a low proportion in prostate stromal cells. Interestingly, it has been shown that, like DHT, AR is upregulated in tissue with BPH compared with normal tissues. In addition, it has been shown that a deficiency in type II 5α-reductase enzyme does not produce the elongation associated with BPH, with an effect like that observed in eunuchs or patients with hypogonadism, in which the hyperplastic change characteristic of this pathology did not occur. However, until now, there is insufficient evidence about the importance of elevated DHT and AR in the etiology of BPH [6, 12].
Estrogens are steroid hormones synthesized mainly in the testes through the biotransformation of T to estradiol (E2) by the action of the aromatase enzyme. Once synthesized, it travels through the circulation to exert its activity in different tissues [1, 6].
They are mainly involved in female physiology; however, in men, one of the most studied estrogenic effects is the negative feedback on the secretion of T. This effect is associated with the inhibition of the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) at the pituitary gland, affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad axis (HPG) in charge of stimulating testicular Leydig cells to produce T. Because of this, there will be a decrease in T levels, as well as its active metabolite, DHT [1].
These effects are mediated by binding to specific estrogen receptors (ER; ER α and β), with direct implications in the pathophysiology of the prostate. Evidence shows that REα promotes proliferation, in contrast to REβ, which has a pro-apoptotic effect, behaving as a protective factor in BPH and PC. This effect could be due to the ER location since REα is mainly within the prostatic stromal tissue, while REβ is primarily at the basal epithelial cells [1, 6].
However, when estrogen exposure is excessive, it is correlated with susceptibility to both benign and malignant hyperproliferative disorders. This seems to be the result of changes in the expression pattern of steroid hormone receptors in the epithelium, which goes from being a predominantly androgen-dependent tissue to one with greater sensitivity to estrogens and, therefore, more susceptible to the development of the BPH [1, 6].
Growth factors (GFs) are small peptide molecules that have a central role in regulating growth, differentiation, and programmed cell death. These are released mainly by stromal cells in the prostate, acting through autocrine/paracrine communication mechanisms to regulate prostate cell homeostasis [5, 6]. Among these factors, which DHT stimulates, are transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and epidermal growth factor (EGF); On the one hand, TGF-β is an inhibitor of epithelial cell growth, in contrast to FGF and EGF, which stimulates cell growth and differentiation [5, 6].
Interestingly, there is a close relationship between GFs and steroid hormones in the development of BPH; the activation of the AR leads to the increase of the GFs responsible for cell proliferation. Specifically, it has been shown that in AR-expressing fibroblast cells, FGF is overexpressed. Similarly, it has been reported that TGF induces the differentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts in the stroma, regulating the response of epithelial cells to insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which increases the stromal cell proliferation observed in BPH [6].
Therefore, insulin also plays a vital role in establishing BPH; the evidence shows a higher incidence in diabetic patients. This effect is related to the previously discussed IGF-1 levels [3]. Similarly, it has been reported that patients with metabolic syndrome (hypertension, dyslipidemia, glucose intolerance, obesity, insulin resistance, etc.) have higher prostate volumes than those without it; a similar situation is observed in obese patients (with a high content of fatty tissue), hypertensive, and in those with low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) [7].
Prolactin (PRL) is a protein hormone synthesized mainly in the adenohypophysis and whose regulation is carried out by topical inhibition of dopamine. It is synthesized in different tissues, including the mammary gland, the ovary, testes, seminal glands, and the prostate. PRL participates in a wide variety of physiological processes, including the regulation of metabolism, behavior, reproduction cell growth, differentiation, and proliferation [9, 14].
The mechanism by which PRL performs its effects is by binding to a specific membrane receptor, the prolactin receptors (PRLR), which belong to the class I cytokine receptor family, and share homology with the growth hormone receptor (GHR) and the thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor (TRHR) [14]. Under normal conditions, PRL has been shown to increase androgen production in the prostate and the conversion of T to its metabolite DHT. Similarly, “
On the other hand, some reports indicate that PRL levels increase in patients with BPH, suggesting that it can directly stimulate the development of this pathology [9, 12]. Specifically, it has been shown that prostate androgen receptors and PRL are increased in patients with BPH without finding a direct association with T, highlighting the relationship between PRL and BPH development [15].
Recently, evidence has emerged on the participation of inflammatory processes in BPH development. In this sense, at the preclinical level, it has been shown that proinflammatory cytokines can stimulate the growth of prostate epithelial cells. Furthermore, this process is highly associated with leukocyte infiltration observed in patients with this etiology [8].
Although it is not known precisely how the inflammatory process originates, the presence of bacteria (
The initial stimulus causes the activation of T lymphocytes, as well as the release of cytokines and interleukins (IL) responsible for cell damage, as well as a cascade activation of different factors, among which are the increase in the expression of IL-15 in stromal cells; IL-17 on T cells; interferon-γ in basal and stromal cells and IL-8 in epithelial cells; events that promote a process of chronic inflammation whose consequence is the increase in the volume of the prostate gland. Interestingly, this process can cause the appearance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the release of the GFs mentioned previously. Furthermore, IL-8 can induce the production of local growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) involved in tissue angiogenesis, an effect that causes neovascularization to provide the oxygen supply to proliferating cells, which has a determining role in the pathophysiology of BPH [3, 7, 10].
Furthermore, the chronic inflammation observed in BPH has been associated with greater positive regulation of cyclooxygenase 2 in the glandular epithelium, causing the release of proinflammatory prostaglandins responsible for prostate cell proliferation. Similarly, inflammatory cells have been reported in tissue from patients with BPH; T lymphocytes were positive in 81% of the specimens; B lymphocytes were positive in 52%; while macrophages were positive in 82% of these specimen [7, 16]. Therefore, inflammatory processes are decisive in developing BPH.
Diagnosis for BPH requires at least physical examination, laboratory testing, and other testings.
Due to the high presence of androgens in BPH, the primary therapies used in its treatment are the 5α-reductase enzyme inhibitors (5ARIs), which block T’s conversion into DHT. Finasteride, and Dutasteride are the most used at the clinical level. Finasteride blocks the activity of type II 5α-reductase enzyme at the prostate stroma, while Dutasteride blocks type I at the prostate epithelium. These drugs make it possible to improve urinary flow and decrease prostate volume with a reduction of between 20 and 25% in prostate volume and 40 and 60% in PSA levels in approximately 6 months to 1 year [6, 8, 17, 18].
In the specific case of lower urinary tract complications, the treatment will depend on the severity of the symptoms. In mild cases, only follow-up is recommended. In moderate cases, the treatment of choice is alpha-adrenergic antagonists or “alpha-blockers” since these can improve and relieve LUTS and urinary flow. In contrast, in severe cases, treatment may require surgical intervention and pharmacological treatment that includes the combination of alpha-blockers, 5ARIs, antimuscarinics, and phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors (I-PDE5) [13, 17]. Specifically, muscarinic receptor antagonists (MRAs) have been considered adequate (in combination with alpha-blockers) in patients with filling symptoms. At the same time, I-PDE5 (Sildenafil, Tadalafil, and Vardenafil) is known for its efficacy in treating ED and increasing urinary flow. Similarly, several clinical studies have shown that the combination of alpha-blockers and I-PDE5 has been more effective for ED and improved urinary tract symptoms in patients with BPH [3, 8, 18]. Furthermore, blockers are used in the case of complications caused by the alteration of the IGF-1 axis, with metformin being the effective treatment to reduce cell proliferation in BPH [3].
Although the use of phytotherapy does not have sufficient evidence to be validated, the use of alternatives (supplements) has shown efficacy in reducing prostate volume, being the “saw palmetto,” which has demonstrated antiproliferative, antiandrogenic, and anti-inflammatory activity; however, there is not enough evidence to support its use in patients with BPH [8, 18]. Similarly, the use of polyphenols and vitamin D receptor agonists has been suggested to reduce BPH symptoms associated with inflammation [3].
Finally, 20–30% of men who reach the age of 80 require surgical intervention [10]. Also, it is considered for those patients in whom pharmacological treatment has failed or who have severe complications of LUTS. For decades, transurethral prostatic resection (TURP) and transurethral prostatic incision (TUIP) were the most common endoscopic procedures when the prostate measures less than 80 g, and prostatectomy, when the gland exceeds 80 g, effectively improving LUTS symptoms [3, 7, 8, 10].
In addition, new technological tools have emerged to treat urinary flow obstruction (blockage) caused by BPH. Among these are laser therapies; holmium or thulium laser enucleation of the prostate (HoLEP and ThuLEP) is the endoscopic procedure of choice regardless of prostate size; however, HoLEP is the gold standard procedure. Photoselective vaporization of the prostate (PVP) is a minimally invasive procedure that uses lasers to clean excess prostate tissue associated with enlarged prostate, reestablishing urinary flow, and improving BPH symptoms. Other new technologies minimize the sexual side effects. For example, prostatic urethral lift (urolift) is used to insert an implant that compresses the prostate, dilating the urethra. While the steam therapy procedure (rezum), also called water vapor thermal therapy (WVTT), uses steam injections to remove obstructive tissue without damaging the urethra. All these technologies are included in the American Urological Association (AUA) guide for treating BPH [8, 19].
Benign prostatic hyperplasia represents a current challenge in public health, since not only is it a nonpreventable disease, so the treatments mentioned above only arrest the growth of the prostate and reduce its clinical symptoms. However, it has been shown that modifying certain habits can improve the patient’s health [11].
BPH is the most common disease in older men. Its prevalence increases proportionally with age. The main complication is the lower urinary tract symptoms, directly impacting patients’ health. Its etiology is poorly understood, but we know that the increase in the ratio of estrogens/androgens plays a decisive role in developing BPH and cancer. In addition, growth factors, nonsteroidal hormones, and proinflammatory cytokines stimulate the growth and neovascularization of prostate epithelial tissue, contributing to the hyperproliferative process that accompanies BPH. Although it is not a preventive or curative disease, different combined treatments reduce symptoms and improve patients’ QOL. Moreover, it has been reported that the modulation of diet, obesity, physical activity, and consumption of alcohol and tobacco can improve the clinical symptoms of BPH acting as protective factors. The knowledge of this topic is essential to reduce the clinical symptoms associated with BPH in men.
The author thanks the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACyT) for the supporting and funding.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
benign prostatic hyperplasia quality of life prostate cancer urinary tract infections lower urinary tract symptoms erectile dysfunction testosterone dihydrotestosterone androgen receptors estradiol luteinizing hormone hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad axis estrogen receptors α and β growth factors transforming growth factor-beta fibroblast growth factor epidermal growth factor insulin-like growth factor 1 high-density lipoprotein prolactin prolactin receptors growth hormone receptors thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor interleukins reactive oxygen species vascular endothelial growth factor International Prosthetic Symptoms Score digotorrectal examination prostate-specific antigen 5α-reductase enzyme inhibitors phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors muscarinic receptor antagonist transurethral prostatic resection transurethral prostatic incision holmium or thulium laser enucleation of the prostate photoselective vaporization of the prostate water vapor thermal therapy American Urological Association body mass index
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Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5151",title:"Alternative Crops and Cropping Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da773fc0f1b6cc2c98a5633e81f921ea",slug:"alternative-crops-and-cropping-systems",bookSignature:"Petr Konvalina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5151.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77330",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Konvalina",slug:"petr-konvalina",fullName:"Petr Konvalina"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:26,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"40178",doi:"10.5772/52583",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:22947,totalCrossrefCites:77,totalDimensionsCites:142,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"45745",doi:"10.5772/56824",title:"Current Advances on Genetic Resistance to Rice Blast Disease",slug:"current-advances-on-genetic-resistance-to-rice-blast-disease",totalDownloads:4507,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:57,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Xueyan Wang, Seonghee Lee, Jichun Wang, Jianbing Ma, Tracy\nBianco and Yulin Jia",authors:[{id:"168971",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulin",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",slug:"yulin-jia",fullName:"Yulin Jia"}]},{id:"45540",doi:"10.5772/56621",title:"Genes and QTLs for Rice Grain Quality Improvement",slug:"genes-and-qtls-for-rice-grain-quality-improvement",totalDownloads:3706,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Jinsong Bao",authors:[{id:"52135",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinsong",middleName:null,surname:"Bao",slug:"jinsong-bao",fullName:"Jinsong Bao"}]},{id:"44012",doi:"10.5772/53611",title:"Genetic Dissection of Blackleg Resistance Loci in Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.)",slug:"genetic-dissection-of-blackleg-resistance-loci-in-rapeseed-brassica-napus-l-",totalDownloads:3414,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Harsh Raman, Rosy Raman and Nick Larkan",authors:[{id:"76347",title:"Dr.",name:"Harsh",middleName:null,surname:"Raman",slug:"harsh-raman",fullName:"Harsh Raman"},{id:"166451",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosy",middleName:null,surname:"Raman",slug:"rosy-raman",fullName:"Rosy Raman"},{id:"166452",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicholas",middleName:null,surname:"Larkan",slug:"nicholas-larkan",fullName:"Nicholas Larkan"}]},{id:"61116",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75944",title:"Landraces and Crop Genetic Improvement",slug:"landraces-and-crop-genetic-improvement",totalDownloads:2110,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Landraces are repository of gene pool that enrich biodiversity and maintain and stabilize ecosystem in a sustainable way to make it functional. Cultivation of traditional crops in different regions of the world, aside maintaining biodiversity in agriculture, also avails humanity of regulatory services such as nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, control of soil erosion, reduction of greenhouse gas emission and control of hydrological processes. However, man through over-exploitation of some plant species with utter neglect to some other either deliberately or otherwise through modern agricultural systems that promote cultivation of a few high-input and high-yielding crop species caused disaffection to biodiversity with consequences of reduction in its regulatory services. In this chapter, different landraces of crops are examined, their usefulness in the maintenance of genetic diversity is explored, and implications of their depletion are discussed.",book:{id:"6317",slug:"rediscovery-of-landraces-as-a-resource-for-the-future",title:"Rediscovery of Landraces as a Resource for the Future",fullTitle:"Rediscovery of Landraces as a Resource for the Future"},signatures:"Musibau A. Azeez, Amos O. Adubi and Felicia A. Durodola",authors:[{id:"228835",title:"Dr.",name:"Musibau",middleName:null,surname:"Azeez",slug:"musibau-azeez",fullName:"Musibau Azeez"},{id:"240210",title:"MSc.",name:"Felicia",middleName:null,surname:"Durodola",slug:"felicia-durodola",fullName:"Felicia Durodola"},{id:"240213",title:"MSc.",name:"Amos",middleName:null,surname:"Adubi",slug:"amos-adubi",fullName:"Amos Adubi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"40178",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:22919,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:140,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"60074",title:"Pollen Germination in vitro",slug:"pollen-germination-in-vitro",totalDownloads:2714,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Pollen germination in vitro is a reliable method to test the pollen viability. It also addresses many basic questions in sexual reproduction and particularly useful in wide hybridization. Many pollen germination medium ranging from simple sugars to complex one having vitamins, growth regulators, etc. in addition to various minerals have been standardized to germinate pollen artificially. The different media, successful pollen germination methods, procedures from pollen germination studies with wheat, rye, brinjal, pigeonpea and its wild relatives are discussed.",book:{id:"6659",slug:"pollination-in-plants",title:"Pollination in Plants",fullTitle:"Pollination in Plants"},signatures:"Jayaprakash P",authors:[{id:"235465",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"P",slug:"jayaprakash-p",fullName:"Jayaprakash P"}]},{id:"62376",title:"Genotype × Environment Interaction: A Prerequisite for Tomato Variety Development",slug:"genotype-environment-interaction-a-prerequisite-for-tomato-variety-development",totalDownloads:2262,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the second most important vegetable crop in the world due to its high level of nutrition particularly in vitamins and antioxidants. It is grown in several ecologies of the world due to its adaptability and ease of cultivation. Besides field conditions, tomatoes are grown in controlled environments which range from hydroponics and simple high tunnel structures to highly automated screen houses in advanced countries. However, the yield and quality of the fruits are highly influenced by the environment. This results in unpredictable performances in different growing environments in terms of quality, a phenomenon known as genotype by environment (G × E) interaction which confounds selection efficiency. Various approaches are employed by plant breeders to evaluate and address the challenges posed by genotype by environment interaction. This chapter discusses various field and controlled environments for growing tomatoes and the effect of these environments on the performance of the crop. The various types of genotype × environment interactions and their effect of the tomato plant are discussed. Finally, efforts are made to suggest ways and methods of mitigating the confounding effects of genotype × environment interaction including statistical approaches.",book:{id:"6422",slug:"recent-advances-in-tomato-breeding-and-production",title:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production"},signatures:"Michael Kwabena Osei, Benjamin Annor, Joseph Adjebeng-\nDanquah, Agyemang Danquah, Eric Danquah, Essie Blay and Hans\nAdu-Dapaah",authors:[{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"217531",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Michael Kwabena",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"michael-kwabena-osei",fullName:"Michael Kwabena Osei"},{id:"217760",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Adjebeng-Danquah",slug:"joseph-adjebeng-danquah",fullName:"Joseph Adjebeng-Danquah"},{id:"217768",title:"MSc.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Annor",slug:"benjamin-annor",fullName:"Benjamin Annor"},{id:"247378",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"eric-y.-danquah",fullName:"Eric Y. Danquah"},{id:"248095",title:"Prof.",name:"Essie",middleName:null,surname:"Blay",slug:"essie-blay",fullName:"Essie Blay"},{id:"248096",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Adu-Dapaah",slug:"hans-adu-dapaah",fullName:"Hans Adu-Dapaah"}]},{id:"45153",title:"Irrigation of Sandy Soils, Basics and Scheduling",slug:"irrigation-of-sandy-soils-basics-and-scheduling",totalDownloads:5584,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"3357",slug:"crop-production",title:"Crop Production",fullTitle:"Crop Production"},signatures:"Mohamed S. Alhammadi and Ali M. Al-Shrouf",authors:[{id:"78245",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:"Salman",surname:"Alhammadi",slug:"mohamed-alhammadi",fullName:"Mohamed Alhammadi"},{id:"159904",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shrouf",slug:"ali-al-shrouf",fullName:"Ali Al-Shrouf"}]},{id:"58553",title:"Water Stress: Morphological and Anatomical Changes in Soybean (Glycine max L.) Plants",slug:"water-stress-morphological-and-anatomical-changes-in-soybean-glycine-max-l-plants",totalDownloads:1793,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Water stress is one of the most important physiological stress factors that adversely affect soybeans in many critical aspects of their growth and metabolism. Soybean’s growth, development and productivity are severely diminished, when soil or cell water potential becomes inadequate to sustain metabolic functioning. However, little has been done to gather comprehensive information regarding the specific changes that occur in water-stressed plants at the anatomical and morphological level. In this study, deviations in root growth, shoot growth, stomatal conductance, yield components and anatomical features are reported. Treatments with two levels of water stress imposed by reducing irrigation (once in 7 days or once in 15 days) revealed that, all cultivars (Dundee, LS 677, LS 678, TGx 1740-2F, TGx 1835-10E and Peking) were highly susceptible to prolonged water stress, exhibiting severe dehydration and death. A 15.0 and 30.0% survival frequency was obtained in plants irrigated once in 7 days; LS 677 and Peking, respectively. Unlike many other stresses, water deficit did not only affect the density of stomata, but, photosynthesis was affected by the lower levels of tissue CO2. These results suggest that, balanced biochemical, physiological, anatomical and morphological regulations are necessary for increased growth and yields in soybean.",book:{id:"6377",slug:"plant-abiotic-stress-and-responses-to-climate-change",title:"Plant, Abiotic Stress and Responses to Climate Change",fullTitle:"Plant, Abiotic Stress and Responses to Climate Change"},signatures:"Phetole Mangena",authors:[{id:"191391",title:"Mr.",name:"Phetole",middleName:null,surname:"Mangena",slug:"phetole-mangena",fullName:"Phetole Mangena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"311",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. 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She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"81566",title:"New and Emerging Technologies for Integrative Ambulatory Autonomic Assessment and Intervention as a Catalyst in the Synergy of Remote Geocoded Biosensing, Algorithmic Networked Cloud Computing, Deep Learning, and Regenerative/Biomic Medicine: Further Real",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104092",signatures:"Robert L. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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