The distance learning tools and web addresses.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Although as Keegan says “the ideas surrounding the educational endeavor are somewhat similar” [1], it is not easy to find a single definition of distance education. While according to North [2], a few definitions even look to define it in terms of a single technology, according to long‐distance teaching [3], others display distance education simply as a recent development of the class into a remote location [4]. However, such definitions are restrictive and fail to recognize the actual needs of distance education users. Mugridge [5] provides a better definition, describing distance education as “a form of education in which there is normally a separation between teacher and learner and thus one in which other means—the printed and written word, the telephone, computer conferencing or teleconferencing, for example—are used to bridge the physical gap”.
Many educational institutions have created solutions to their increasing educational needs through the development of distance education programs. Distance education allows educational paths to be determined by educators and students, who are separated with physical distance, using technology (e.g., audio, video, data, and written text). It is a form of education in which students, teachers, and teaching materials in different geographies are brought together through communication technology [6]. Using video, audio, active learning, simulations, and electronic advances appeals to a variety of students with multiple learning styles.
This chapter presents a review of distance learning literature; the purposes, advantages, disadvantages, and types of distance learning; and a detailed comparison of web‐based distance learning tools in education.
Research on distance education has been subject to long and numerous debates [7–10]. Distance education needs a reliable means of communication between students and lecturers. Therefore, the history of distance education begins at the point where a reliable communication method is established. Most historians date distance education to the eighteenth century, when a few lecturers began to offer what were called correspondence courses. One of the first examples of distance education was observed in 1728, when “an advertisement in the Boston Gazette named ‘Caleb Phillips’, teacher of the new method of Short Hand” was searching students for lessons to be sent weekly [11]. But technology‐based distance education started after the introduction of some devices, which are using both sight and sound, into the schools in the early 1900s.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, microwave technology was developed. So networking technology costs were reduced, and universities began to use microwave networks to take advantage of the Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS) authorized by the Federal Communications Commission [12].
Today, distance education programs have a wide range of approaches [13]. For example, independent study courses through computer networking, computer‐delivered instruction, communication between students and instructors through electronic mail, class sessions, cluster groups, undergraduate and graduate degrees through cable networks, and video courses with texts and other collateral materials are these approaches [13].
In summary, the history of distance education shows a constant state of evolution. In the historical view of distance education, a stream of new ideas and technologies has been observed. Historical development of distance education shows that nontraditional education tends to blend with traditional education while meeting the changing learning theories and developing technologies [13].
\nThe main goal of distance education is to overcome barriers of place and time. Learners may live in isolated, less‐populated and nonurban, rural areas and have no access to education. Other learners may have ready access to a private school or college but that college might not offer the course of study needed by that learner. Distance learning allows education to reach those who are not able to physically attend courses in universities [14].
One of the most important purposes of distance education is to provide an opportunity of education, often on an individual basis, to learners who are not physically present in a classroom [15]. Also, it provides equity in educational opportunities by allowing access to quality education for those who otherwise would have been denied.
\nThe aim of distance education is to provide a strong communication between students and lecturers. That\'s why there are also disadvantages as well as advantages of distance education.
The main advantage of distance learning is that the students can study wherever, whenever, and whatever he/she wants. So, it can be said that flexibility is the most important advantage of distance learning. The other advantages of distance learning are as follows:
The students have the convenience of course materials being delivered to his/her home or office.
Students may gain useful, transferable skills, such as planning and research.
Students can make their feedback easily.
There is no waste of time in transport.
Accessing students without face‐to‐face learning opportunities.
Distance learning provides just‐in‐time learning.
Distance learning is associated with technology more than face‐to‐face learning.
Distance education can reach a wider audience.
Distance learning can facilitate greater learner‐instructor interaction.
Distance learning can equalize access to education.
Distance learning makes information and lecture notes open to everyone.
Distance learning minimizes the costs of stationery.
Distance learning increases the effectiveness of education through the use of items such as sound and image.
Although distance learning has numerous benefits, it has some disadvantages that are listed as follows:
There is a lack of eye contact between the students and the lecturers.
It can be occasional Internet provider downtime.
Student must be more active in education environment.
The cost of developing course materials is too much, and it is needed more time to prepare course materials.
There is unconsciousness in the use of educational technology.
Distance learning is not suitable for undisciplined learners or inflexible instructors.
Laboratory and experimental courses cannot be given remotely.
Students who have little technological knowledge cannot follow the courses.
Students and instructors need to take technical training and support.
Some of the students cannot access the necessary facilities, such as computers, Internet, etc.
In general, distance education is collected under two main headings:
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Synchronous learning requires all students to participate the classes at the same time. The method of delivery is usually interactive and includes Internet chat sessions, teleconferences, telecourses, and web conferencing [16]. Synchronous distance education is less flexible than asynchronous distance education because synchronous distance education requires all enrolled students and the teacher to be online at a specific time. Asynchronous instructions do not require simultaneous participation of all students in the class, so it is more flexible. Asynchronous instruction gives students the freedom to interact with the material and instructor at a time that is convenient for them [16].
Internet‐based distance education has become a specific focus for at least three reasons according to the Institute for Higher Education Policy (IHEP) [17]:
First, Internet is quickly becoming the predominant technology in distance education, because of its increasing telecommunications bandwidth capabilities. Second, Internet‐based distance education especially asynchronous instruction mode allows the teaching and the learning processes to occur “at any time and any place.” Provision of the interactive learning activities at any time and any place has become the most important characteristic of this technology. Third, Internet‐based distance education is, in many ways, fundamentally different from traditional classroom‐based education.
Internet‐based distance education must have the following features [18]:
The identification and management of users
Preparation of online course contents
Managing courses
Monitoring and analyzing student behaviors
Assessment of students’ achievement status
The creation and management of interactive communication media
Computers and computer networks are rapidly becoming the preferred long‐distance communication tool, and they are evolving as a major resource in distance education. There are many computer‐based distance education tools, and the names of the major tools and their web addresses are listed in Table 1 [19].
Tools | Web addresses |
---|---|
Adobe Connect | |
AkademikLMS | |
ANGEL | |
ATutor | |
Avilar WebMentor | |
Blackboard (WebCT) | |
Bodington | |
Claroline | |
CoursePark | |
Desire2Learn | |
Dokeos | |
DotLRN | |
Drupal | |
eFront | |
Enocta | |
eStudy | |
ETUDES | |
Fle3 | |
ILIAS | |
IntraLearn SME | |
Janison Toolbox | |
Moodle | |
OLAT | |
Perculus | |
RCampus | |
Sakai | |
SimplyDigi |
The distance learning tools and web addresses.
ATutor | Blackboard | Claroline | D2L | Docebo | Dokeos | eFront | Moodle | OLAT | Sakai | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Free | Commercial | Free | Commercial | Commercial | Free but it also has commercial version | Free | Free | Free | Free | |
Yes | No | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | |
GPL | N/A | GPL | N/A | GPL | GPL | CPAL | GPL | Apache 2.0 | ECL | |
LCMS | LMS | LMS | LMS | LMS | LCMS | LMS | LMS | LMS | LMS | |
Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | |
More than 20 | More than 20 | 35 | More than 10 | More than 30 | 34 | 48 | 139 | More than 15 | More than 20 | |
N/A | More than 50 | 100 | N/A | More than 10 | More than 60 | More than 50 | 234 | More than 30 | 20 | |
PHP | N/A | PHP | PHP | PHP | PHP | PHP | PHP | Java | Java | |
Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | |
Windows, Unix | Microsoft NT | |||||||||
Windows, GNU/Linux, BSD, Unix, Mac OS X | Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X | Cross‐platform | Cross‐platform | GNU/Linux, Windows, Cent OS, Windows Server 2003 | Windows, Linux, Unix, and Mac OS X | Cross‐platform | Cross‐platform | |||
MySQL | N/A | MySQL | MySQL | MySQL | MySQL | MySQL 5+ | MySQL | MySQL, PostgreSQL | MySQL, Oracle | |
Apache, Zeus, lighttpd, Abyss, Zazou Mini Web Server, Microsoft IIS, and Jana‐Server | N/A | Apache, IIS, Wampler | N/A | Apache, IIS | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache Tomcat 7, Apache Http Server | |
Yes, but works still continue | Yes | No | No (only for Brightspace) | Yes | Yes | No, but it can be used with mobile phones and tablets | Yes | No | Yes |
The comparison of all popular learning management systems.
In this chapter, we have reviewed the most popular, widely used and well‐known learning management systems (LMSs) and included detailed comparison of these systems. Therefore, we include ATutor, Blackboard, Claroline, Desire2Learn (D2L), Docebo, Dokeos, eFront, Moodle, OLAT, and Sakai systems in this chapter. Among the others, Blackboard and Moodle are the two most well‐known web‐based learning management systems widely used in universities and higher education [19].
\nATutor is a free and open‐source course management system that has a simple and straightforward structure. It is a web‐based learning content management system (LCMS) under the GNU General Public License (GPL). It was prepared such that it can be easily used in any type of computer system and all operating systems. ATutor has been used in many universities, institutions, research centers, and educational institutions.
ATutor was implemented in Personal Home Page (PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor), and it includes facilities for teachers and students. Students can change the learning environment based on existing templates, send messages, and collaborate on courses. On the other hand, instructors can manage the courses, store files, and create workgroups. At the same time, in ATutor, people with disabilities were considered, so ATutor was arranged to use easily.
ATutor has blog, forum, photo gallery, glossary, site map, chat, directory, tests and surveys, and MyTracker tool, which tracks users’ navigational patterns. It supports Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) standards and Instructional Management Systems (IMS) packets. It is available in more than 20 languages. Some video conference softwares such as Adobe Connect, BigBlueButton, and OpenMeetings modules can be integrated in ATutor. Figure 1 shows web page for an ATutor course.
ATutor Course Web Page.
Early in 2006, owners of Blackboard Learning System and WebCT decided to join their forces and merge two companies under the existing name of one of them—Blackboard. The new entity continues to support both systems [19]. Also, Blackboard Learning System acquired Angel Learning System in May 2009. So the Blackboard Learning System is a web‐based commercial distance education system dedicated to education containing teaching resources and straightforward user hierarchy. It allows instructors to post course information and materials as well as readings and assignments.
Thanks to the flexibility of the Blackboard Learning System, it is easy to design a course curriculum or study schedules, and the continuation of education courses go on flawlessly. Not only can the teacher shift page layouts including font types or colors but also choose texts and icon links. It also facilitates interaction between users, who can have basic discussion, and offers other collaborative tools.
The idea behind the Blackboard Learning System is to let teachers deliver course content, especially adjusted to large courses at lower levels. The role of an administrator of the system is limited to conducting basic operations such as initial course and teacher registration. The administrator is not overly dependent on it as many course management tasks, such as student and course content registration or tests and statistics check, can be carried out by a teacher. The system consists of many communication and discussion features enabling active participation of students [20]. The possibility of the use of multimedia, an instructional option, is willingly utilized by teachers. Figure 2 shows the web page for a Blackboard course.
Blackboard Course Web Page.
Claroline is an open‐source e‐learning and e‐working platform. It can work on both Windows and Linux server systems. Claroline provides the ability to manage public education activities on the web and to create effective online courses. There is a large community of users and software developers worldwide.
In Claroline Learning Management System, a user has three roles. These roles are student, teacher, and administrator.
GNU/Linux, BSD, Unix, Windows (9x, ME, NT4, 2000, XP, Vista, and 7), or Mac OS X operating systems, Apache, IIS or Wampler web servers, PHP and MySQL database server should be installed on the web server where Claroline is installed. It is under the GPL.
Two language options, which are website language and course language, are available in Claroline. It has been used in more than 100 countries and translated into 35 languages. However, some languages such as Turkish are not supported completely and some sections are still awaiting translation.
Claroline has rich interaction tools such as chat, forum, and wiki, but there is no survey functionality and whiteboard application. It does not require any programming skills to install, manage, and use. It supports SCORM standards. Claroline allows user lists to be created and user statistics to be seen. User groups can be created in courses. Figure 3 shows a web page from Claroline.
Claroline Course Web Page.
Desire2Learn, which is also known as Brightspace Learning Management System, is another educational learning management system. It is based on competency education and provides a cloud‐based learning suite.
Desire2Learn is a commercial educational system that supports mobile learning and web conferencing. It also has some features such as exams, discussions, assignments, quizzes, grades, and portfolio‐based activities. D2L supports foreign languages and mathematical notations. D2L also includes a learning repository, course creation tools, an e‐portfolio module, mobile delivery, analytics, and lecture capture facilities. Figure 4 presents web page of Desire2Learn.
Desire2Learn Course Web Page.
Docebo LMS platform is a learning management system that is based on SaaS/cloud platform. With Docebo, users can organize, track, and distribute online courses for formal learning. The instructors can create users as well as groups and create reports about them. It was offered as open source but it is not available as open source for a while. Although Docebo is offered for education, now it is primarily used in the corporate sector.
Docebo is under the GPL, so it has no licensing cost. It is compatible with SCORM, Aviation Industry CBT Committee (AICC), and xAPI. It has a component‐based architecture and works with PHP and MySQL database.
Docebo has interfaces for video conferences. It is integrated with Adobe Connect, BigBlueButton, Cisco WebEx, Citrix GoToMeeting, OnSync by Digital Samba, and TeleSkill Live. Also, it has integrations with Google Apps, WordPress, and Vivocha.
Docebo is available in more than 30 languages and more than 10 countries. This platform is mobile‐ready platform, so it includes mobile learning. The features of Docebo are blogs, course catalogs, labels, and discussions. Figure 5 shows a course web page from Docebo.
Docebo Course Web Page.
Dokeos is an online and open‐source course management system that is widely known and freely available. It is also a learning content management system based on MySQL database and written in PHP language. Dokeos is based on Drupal, which is a content management system. It is available in standard and Professional (PRO) versions.
Dokeos is used in more than 60 countries, and it has been translated into 34 languages. It features a variety of e‐learning templates and e‐learning course authoring tools. The features of Dokeos are documents, announcements, tests, agendas, forums, links, tracking tools, and chats [21].
Dokeos supports mobile and cloud learning. Also, it supports SCORM, AICC and Tin Can API compliant. Portals and assessments can be used in Dokeos system; on the other hand, it has agenda, forums, discussion forums, chat, videoconference, open questions, and assignments. It is fully compatible across all browsers and platforms. Web page of Dokeos is presented in Figure 6.
Dokeos Course Web Page.
eFront is a modern learning, which is also known as a course management system or learning management systems or virtual learning environment, and an educational platform. eFront is designed to help creating online courses. It has many features such as project management, extended statistics, files management, reports generators, assignments builders, internal messaging system, forum, calendar, chat, survey, etc. It supports SCORM standards.
eFront is a multilingual platform. It offers two types of language files: machine translated and human translated. It supports 48 languages. While 18 of these languages are machine translated, 30 languages are human translated.
This learning management system is PHP based and open source. eFront runs on GNU/Linux, Microsoft Windows, and any other operating system that supports PHP 5.1+ and MySQL 5+. It is under the Common Public Attribution License (CPAL) license. eFront supports Unicode and LDAP, and uses 3‐tier architecture with low bandwidth connections.
eFront is content friendly by using presentations and videos. It has multiple types of test and questions. This course management system can collect and analyze surveys. It supports the blended learning. Some video conference software such as Adobe Connect, BigBlueButton, and OpenMeetings can be used with eFront. A sample course page is given in Figure 7.
eFront Course Web Page.
Moodle is an online course management system that is widely known and freely available. The word Moodle stands for “Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment” and was created by Martin Dougiamas who is a computer scientist and an educator at a university in Perth, Australia [22].
Moodle is a software package that it is used to create Internet‐based courses and their websites. Moodle is used in 234 countries, providing support for 139 languages, and has 88,204,960 registered users according to Moodle statistics on the Moodle website in July 2016. There are currently 10,106,758 registered courses and 70,872 active sites that have been registered from those countries.
Moodle is utilized by both institutions and individuals. The list of the former is long, including universities, high and primary schools, governmental departments, military, and healthcare organizations as well as airlines or oil companies. Homeschoolers, independent educators, and special educators are among the individual users.
Moodle, a PHP‐based open‐source online learning system, has been used since 2002 as a distance education tool, and has various versions supported by Windows, Linux, Unix, and Mac OS X operating systems. The latest version of Moodle is Moodle 3.1.1, released on 11 July 2016. Moodle is under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL). There are documents for use, training, and online help in Moodle. Moodle has 14 different activity types such as assignments, chat, choice, database, external tool, feedback, forum, glossary, lesson, quiz, SCORM, survey, Wiki, and workshop.
A number of programs, namely PHP, which is a script language embedded into html codes that work in a server‐side; MySQL, which is a database management system that can run in the background and can respond to requests, such as a high‐performance web server; and Apache, which is an open‐source software web server that is completely free and has a high performance, are required before the Moodle program is set up.
Moodle supports mobile learning, so it has its own Moodle Mobile application. Moodle Mobile supports currently 15 languages. It has responsive design for phones and tablets. Users can download and view some course resources. A course web page from Moodle is presented in Figure 8.
Moodle Course Web Page.
OLAT is an abbreviation of the words Online Learning and Training. OLAT is a Java‐based open‐source learning management system that was developed in 1999. OLAT is under the Apache 2.0 Open Source License. OLAT has forums, chat, blogs, surveys, grading and submission modules, wikis, quizzes, and discussions. It allows monitoring the effectiveness of learners and tutors.
OLAT is multilingual and available in fifteen languages. OLAT runs on Unix, Linux, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, Windows, and Mac OS X operating systems. Java SDK, Apache as a web server, Tomcat Servlet Engine as an application server, and MySQL or PostgreSQL as database are required to install OLAT. It supports SCORM, IMS Content Packaging, and OTI standards. A main web page of OLAT is displayed in Figure 9.
OLAT Course Web Page.
Sakai is a free learning system that is designed for educational institutions. It is a Java‐based LMS. It has been launched as a “Sakai Project” supported by the Mellon Foundation.
Sakai is a free and open‐source course design platform. It is web‐based and platform‐independent application with many features such as supporting training. It can run on CentOS, Debian GNU/Linux, Fedora, Gentoo Linux, Mac OS X server, Microsoft Windows, Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), Sun Solaris, SuSe Linux, and Ubuntu operating systems. It can be downloaded from the Internet for free, and it works interactively with both MySQL and Oracle database management systems.
Sakai has forums, chat rooms, message center, assignments, grade book, discussions, syllabus, wikis, and WebDAV. It is designed to present mathematical notation such that it can display LaTeX equations on most pages. Sakai is under the Educational Community License (ECL). It is available in more than 20 languages.
Some video conference software such as Adobe Connect, BigBlueButton, Kaltura, and OpenMeetings can be integrated in Sakai, and it has IMS Learning Tools Interoperability (LTI) standards. Figure 10 shows a sample web page for a course from Sakai.
Sakai Course Web Page.
In the below sections, we provide comparisons among the most similar learning management systems, and in Table 2, all comparisons of all learning management systems are summarized.
\nATutor is a PHP application and it has some registered installations such as Moodle.
ATutor seems like a down‐sized version of Moodle with a slightly more technical look than eFront. But the development on its modules are rather limited [23].
\nThe Blackboard Learning System (i.e., WebCT) ensures variety in course content and materials. In addition, the Blackboard Learning System assists students in their offline efforts. Curriculum design is supported by the two systems by providing course templates, thanks to which instructors can deliver course materials, define study schedules, and plan class activities.
Regarding communication and discussion, both Blackboard and Moodle deliver discussion forums and chat rooms together with exchange of e‐mails and files.
The Blackboard Learning System also provides private folders and internal e‐mail for students and gives them an option of making their own notes. As for performance assessment, systems incorporate assessment and grading functions.
Course administration is embraced again by both tools by facilitating uploading of student data and course data in batches. The Blackboard Learning System is also equipped with direct data interfaces. It should be noted that there are certain similarities between Blackboard and Moodle such as option of student enrollments in courses, access to discussion forums, or taking quizzes and tests.
The Blackboard Learning System and Moodle are about equal in terms of administrative features, collaboration, and instruction methods.
Other common features are supporting file upload (e.g., Word, PowerPoint, audio), being SCORM compliant, allowing grading, providing course calendar, and monitoring students’ participation.
\nThe Blackboard Learning System is superior to Sakai in terms of administrative features and course development. But in terms of collaboration and instruction methods, both are very similar.
When eFront and Blackboard are compared, it is observed that eFront is superior to Blackboard in terms of administrative features but they are about equal in terms of course development and instruction methods.
Sakai is superior to eFront in terms of collaboration.
\neFront is superior to D2L (Brightspace) in terms of administrative features but in terms of collaboration, course development and instruction methods both of them are about equal.
\nD2L (Brightspace) is superior to OLAT in terms of administrative features and course development, but for collaboration facility, both of them are about equal.
D2L (Brightspace) is superior to Sakai with respect to instruction methods used.
\nDocebo is superior to eFront with respect to administrative features and course development. But in terms of collaboration methods and instruction methods, eFront and Dokeos are very similar.
\nDokeos looks better and less complex than Moodle in terms of interface [23].
But Moodle is superior to OLAT in terms of administrative features, collaboration, course development, and instruction methods.
\nUnlike Moodle, Sakai is mainly implemented in Java and can cause some problems in older versions of browsers [23].
Moodle is superior to Sakai in terms of administrative features, collaboration, and course development.
\nSakai, similar to OLAT, is a Java‐based e‐learning system developed by an international alliance of universities, colleges, and commercial affiliates; and both have very similar properties [24].
\nAlthough most of the other e‐learning applications in this chapter are PHP based, OLAT (Online Learning and Training) is based on Java and is Apache Licensed [24].
eFront and Moodle are superior to OLAT in terms of administrative features and course development.
In this chapter, the literature about distance education and learning management systems are summarized. This chapter also presents a brief comparison of some of the most significant learning management systems used for education.
In summary, the history of distance education shows a constant state of evolution. A stream of new ideas and technologies exist in the historical view of distance education. It is also observed that nontraditional education tries to blend with traditional education while meeting the changing learning theories and developing technologies [13].
The Internet‐based distance learning model can be defined as a transmission of educational content with the use of text, image, video, and audio files over the Internet, online or offline. According to the Institute for Higher Education Policy (IHEP), the Internet‐based distance education has gained a special status for three basic reasons. First of all, the Internet has become the predominant technology in distance education, due to its increasing telecommunications bandwidth capabilities. Second, the Internet‐based distance education allows the teaching and learning process to happen “at any time and any place.” Asynchronous interactive learning environments, especially, have become the signature characteristic of this field. Finally, the Internet‐based distance education is, in many ways, fundamentally different than traditional classroom‐based education hence attractive for learners [17]. The main difference is that the Internet‐based distance education removes the physical barrier and time constraints for students and lecturers.
Within the framework of this study, the open‐source learning management systems especially Moodle are widely used particularly in universities and higher education institutions. In general, the commercial learning management systems especially Blackboard are superior to open‐source learning management systems in terms of administrative features; however, according to instruction methods that are employed, the open‐source learning management systems especially Moodle are superior to the commercial learning management systems. According to existing literatures [25], Moodle still comes out as the top used system among the open‐source LMSs. This result also supports our observations that are explained in this chapter.
The subjective hearing test, although fundamental in the study of hearing loss, depends on the active collaboration of the patient and is, therefore, subject to the patient, is very difficult to carry out in young children and impossible in babies. Current methods of objective hearing screening, known as “Electrical Response Audiometry,” are established by means of acoustic stimulation of the ear with insert earphones. This method does not exactly reproduce the natural stimulation of the ear that is carried out by sounds in our environment and which are usually transmitted through the air. With the new method we propose, using a loudspeaker, we transmit the stimulation of the ear in a natural way through the air and thus obtain results that more closely resemble natural hearing conditions [1].
The Electrical Response Audiometry quantifies and qualifies the activity of the auditory central nervous system, in the brainstem, in response to sound stimulation without the need for the active participation of the subject and in a harmless manner. This response is called “Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR)” and is registered as voltage fluctuations generated by the nervous system in response to an appropriate acoustic stimulus. For this registered response, it is necessary to extract from the electroencephalographic tracing the electrical activity coming exclusively from the auditory system [2]. The acquisition and recording of this potential require the auditory nerve stimulus to be synchronized and significant. The synchronization of the electrical activity requires very brief stimuli, which is why clicks or filtered clicks are used. This mechanical stimulus is converted in the organ of Corti into an electrical stimulus that travels along with the acoustic pathway to the auditory cerebral cortex [3, 4].
The better-registered response is now being obtained thanks to modifications in pacing parameters and response processing, together with advances in software and hardware that facilitate and simplify the register. The reduction in hardware size has allowed for less bulky equipment, facilitating mobility with the ability to be easily transported to the operating room and neonatology wards [1].
In acoustics, sound (from the Latin
Literally, sensation is defined as “the impression that a living being receives when one of its receptor organs is stimulated.” Therefore, we call the sensation produced in the organ of hearing by the vibratory movement of bodies (sound), transmitted by an elastic medium such as air, “hearing” [6].
The propagation in the air is determined as a function of temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure [7], this speed being 331.5 m/s at 0°C and 50% humidity at sea level [8]. Under these conditions, the speed of sound increases at a rate of 0.61 m/s for each degree of temperature. Therefore, in our environment, with a temperature of 22°C and a humidity of 50% at sea level, the speed of sound is 344.42 m/s [9].
The dB (decibel) is considered as a measure of intensity for the human ear. The scale that measures the dB has certain characteristics; it is logarithmic, non-linear, it is relative where 0 (zero) does not mean the absence of sound (sensation), and it is expressed with different reference levels.
The
The
The
dB SPL | Frequency in Hz |
---|---|
47 | 125 |
26.5 | 250 |
13.5 | 500 |
7.5 | 1000 |
11 | 2000 |
10.5 | 4000 |
13 | 8000 |
Correlation between dB SPL and dB HL.
Based on the principle of resonance, we hear sounds because the propagation of the wave in the air causes a displacement of the tympanic membrane. This displacement will result in mechanical transmission and amplification through the middle ear mechanisms and the displacement of the stapes plate. The stapes activates the basilar membrane that represents different elastic properties along with its length, being stiffer near the base and more elastic as it approaches the apex. Consequently, each segment of the basilar membrane is resonant at different frequencies, with high frequencies near the oval window and low frequencies at the opposite end. The organ of Corti sits on top of the basilar membrane, reproducing the movements of the basilar membrane and thus the movement of the stereocilia, resulting in electrical impulses that stimulate nerve fibers for central auditory processing. The combined action of the basilar membrane and the organ of Corti will create a spectral analysis, temporal identification, and intensity variation of the received sound wave which, transmitted through the acoustic pathway to the auditory areas of the cerebral cortex [11], will, in turn, create patterns of frequency, intensity and time, a fundamental process for decoding the communicative content of sound waves [5].
The human ear is an extraordinary receiver capable of receiving waves of very low intensity and can withstand, without being damaged, sounds a billion times more intense than its threshold of perception [1].
The auditory evoked potentials correspond to the recording, from surface electrodes, of the electrical activity of the acoustic pathway at the moment of an adapted sound stimulus. Therefore, to study this signal, it must be isolated from noise, that is unwanted electrical activities, such as electroencephalogram (EEG), electrocardiogram (ECG), and electromyogram (EMG), and the signal-to-noise ratio must be improved [12]. The electrical synchronization of these fibers requires very short stimuli, as in continuous noise, the unitary activity of the cochlear root is not synchronous [13].
From the generation of the stimulus to the activation of the cerebral cortex, approximately 300 ms elapse, a period we call “latency” [14]. However, each level of the acoustic pathway will generate a response with a different latency, which is why auditory evoked potentials will be classified according to the time segment in which we study this latency [13]. Thus:
We focus on auditory brainstem potentials, which are considered to be early auditory potentials.
The Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR) corresponds to the recording of the evoked response in the first 12 ms of the acoustic pathway and, almost 50 years after their discovery, they constitute one of the pillars in the study of hearing and the diagnosis of infantile hearing loss. The response is formed by a curve with 5–7 waves, the first five of which are perfectly defined and practically constant and are denominated by Roman numerals, I, II, III, IV, and V, with I, III, and V standing out as the most evident and constant (Figure 1) [14].
Auditory brainstem response (ABR) recording.
The origin of these different waves is not clearly defined considering the complexity of the auditory pathway and the number of synaptic steps involved in its functioning [15]. However, the location of generation of each of the responses that give rise to each of the waves has been widely agreed since the 1996 studies by Melcher et al. in the cat [16]. These are as follows [5, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]:
The auditory evoked potentials can already be performed at birth. From the first studies, an increased latency of wave V and a different morphology of the birth response curve have already been observed. The interlatency I-III and III-V are also increased, but to a lesser extent than I-V [23]. These changes recover progressively with age, with amplitudes at 3 months and latencies at 1 year equaling those of adults [24].
Some authors have described the latencies of neonates [17, 20], expressed in ms (Table 2).
Pediatric ABR normative values [17, 20] | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Age | Latency MSEC | |||
I | III | V | I-V | |
33 weeks preterm | 2.57–0.54 | 5.68–0.75 | 8.21–0.79 | 5.64–0.70 |
36 weeks preterm | 2.41–0.38 | 5.35–0.49 | 7.83–0.59 | 5.43–0.55 |
40 weeks term | 2.00–0.31 | 4.82–0.44 | 7.14–0.43 (8) | 5.14–0.40 (5.94) |
40 weeks preterm | 2.34–0.44 | 5.07–0.60 | 7.54–0.62 | 5.20–0.60 |
3 weeks term | 1.80–0.24 | 4.50–0.46 | 6.93–0.37 | 5.13–0.36 |
3 weeks preterm | 2.01–0.24 | 4.70–0.37 | 7.07–0.23 | 5.07–0.33 |
6 weeks | 1.80–0.20 | 4.40–0.30 | 6.60–0.30 | 4.90–0.30 |
12 weeks (3 m) | 1.70–0.20(2.1) | 4.30–0.30(4.9) | 6.40–0.30(7) | 4.70–0.30(5.7) |
26 weeks (6 m) | 1.70–0.20 | 4.10–0.30(4.7) | 6.20–0.30(6.8) | 4.60(0.30)5.2 |
52 weeks (1 year) | 1.70–0.20 | 4.00–0.30(4.6) | 6.00–0.30(6.6) | 4.30–0.20(4.7) |
2 years | 1.70–0.20 | 3.80–0.20 | 5.70,0.20 | 4.00–0.20 |
Normal values in pediatrics. Auditory brainstem response with 70 dB stimulus, with stimulation by insert earphones.
Increased wave I latency is interpreted as incomplete maturation of the basal cochlear zone and/or transmission of hair cells and auditory nerve fibers. An increase in the interval of interlatency, and especially I-V, is considered to be incomplete myelination of axons and increased synaptogenesis [10].
In ABRs, a transient potential is elicited in response to a click, which returns to its initial resting state because each stimulus is followed by a sufficiently long interval before the next stimulus. But if we perform the stimulus with a sufficiently fast stimulation frequency so that the response to one stimulus is not extinguished before the emission of the next stimulus, we obtain a succession of overlapping responses. The sum of these potentials results in a sinusoidal response that will have exactly the same frequency as the modulation frequency of the stimulus. These are called Auditory Steady-State Response (ASSR). Unlike transient potentials, this response will be maintained over time, as will the stimulus that provokes it [25]. Therefore, a repetitive sound at frequencies between 3 and 300 Hz evokes a steady-state response and can be said to be quasi-sinusoidal periodic responses whose amplitude and phase are maintained over time [26].
With a fast stimulation frequency range of 70–110 Hz, the overlapping transient responses are of shorter latency and generated in the brainstem similar to those of the ABR [27]. This is why they are not affected by sleep or sedation, being optimal in the study of auditory function in infants and young children [7], being this range the one used in the stimulus of our exploration.
To shorten scanning times without appreciable loss of diagnostic accuracy [25], we use multifrequency as a method of stimulating ASSRs that allows simultaneous stimulation of several frequencies, and even binaurally, requires that each tone is modulated at an identifying frequency different from the stimulation frequencies of the rest of the tones so that it can be identified later in the frequency analysis of the response [8]. We can separate in each ear the response for each frequency by evaluating the spectral component for each stimulus. In this way, we simultaneously stimulate four frequencies (500, 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz) and both ears (ASSR-MF) [28].
To establish hearing thresholds in infants and young children, we use ABR and ASSR-MF recordings together using either insertion headphone or bone conduction stimulation, however, we are not aware of normality criteria using the free field as the sound stimulus in ABR and ASSR, that is using a loudspeaker close to the patient, a stimulus more similar to natural hearing stimulation.
The aim of this study is to determine criteria for normality in ABR and ASSR recordings with free-field stimulus and to be able to apply these neurophysiological tests in patients where they cannot be performed conventionally.
We conducted a descriptive observational study of a set of cases of children aged 6–24 months from our ENT clinic at the University Hospital Santa Lucía, Cartagena (Murcia, Spain) in the period between April 2016 and January 2017 who underwent ABR and ASSR-MF using insertion earphones and ABR and ASSR-MF using free-field stimulation.
The selected patients fulfilled the criteria of normality with insertion earphones, that is with latencies and amplitudes within normality in ABR with V-wave threshold at 20 dB HL and with stabilization of responses in ASSR before 6 minutes and threshold of 20 dB HL at the four frequencies of 500, 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz. These patients, after testing with insertion headphones, were tested again with a free-field stimulus. Children outside the age range and children with some degree of hearing impairment were excluded.
Following these criteria, the children were selected and the ABR and ASSR-MF with free-field stimulus were recorded after the conventional tests with insertion headphones, in the same exploratory act, under the same conditions, using the same sound stimulus, unilateral clicks for the ABR and amplitude-modulated tones in ASSR-MF, and taking advantage of the child’s sedation. All cases were performed and recorded in the same environmental conditions, same acoustic booth, same equipment, and same explorer.
To carry out free-field stimulation, new software and hardware had to be incorporated. These modifications were carried out by the company Audiología, S.L. (Gijón, Spain), Interacoustic’s technical service and distributors, and with the brand’s permission. The modification of the software consisted of the possibility of choosing the use of loudspeakers in the stimulation menu, in this case using Phonestra © preamplified free-field loudspeakers whose potentiometer was mechanically fixed to avoid changing the gain of the tests.
The calibration of hearing thresholds with the correction coefficients of insert earphones is governed by IEC-60645-7 “Instruments for the measurement of auditory brainstem responses” [29]. We are not aware of any specific standards and correction coefficients for the realization of ABR and ASSR tests in the free field. For the calculation of correction coefficients, we based ourselves on the ISO-389 standard for the “zero” reference calculation in the calibration of audiometric equipment. Free-field pure-tone control audiometry was performed on 25 healthy individuals aged 14–38 years. An ASSR measurement was made in each subject, stimulating in a free field, with 0 dB correction. New correction coefficients for ASSR in the free field were obtained by the difference of the values recorded with the free-field tonal tests and the ASSR without correction, calculating a correction coefficient of 5 dB HL (±1.5 dB HL) in the four frequencies with respect to the correction rates with insertion headphones. The theoretical calculation was made following the “law of spherical divergence” by means of the behavior of sound in the free field which allows us to define the attenuation or variation of level between two previously defined points, r1 and r2 (RE: 1, 2). With these modifications and with the sound source (loudspeaker) 70 cm away from the ear to be tested, we performed the ABR and ASSR with free-field stimulus in the same environmental conditions, same booth, same equipment, and same explorer as with insertion headphones to control non-differential errors.
The tests were carried out in the rather quiet outpatient room, inside a booth with an acoustic attenuation of 38 dB SPL on average, which also houses the laptop and the explorer who operates the equipment.
The patient should be relaxed to reduce electrical noise as much as possible [30], with physiological sleep or, as in most of our cases, with mild sedation which we achieve with the oral administration of Chloral Hydrate at a dose of 75 mg/kg/weight which allows 2–3 hours of sedation. Chloral hydrate has very few adverse reactions and although it has a bad taste, it is well tolerated by children. The maximum dose of 2 g should not be exceeded and it cannot be used to maintain prolonged sedation due to the sedative effect of its metabolites [31].
After careful cleaning of the skin with alcohol, we use an abrasive cream to peel off light desquamation to reduce the resistance of the skin in the location of the electrodes that are placed once the child is asleep, placing the active electrode in the vertex, the reference electrode in the mastoid (right and left) and zygomatic region. After placing the electrodes, the ABR3A type earphones are inserted into the external auditory canal, held in place by a silicone cushion to hold them in place and to stagnate them in the size best suited to the canal orifice.
We stimulated with alternating clicks at a rate of 44/s with contralateral white noise masking with −30 dB HL of the stimulus intensity, using a 100 Hz high-pass filter and a 1500 Hz low-pass filter, a maximum of 4000 stimuli, a 12 ms screen window, admitting a curve quality response of 99% and a residual noise of 40 nV. The procedure is programmed using 70, 60, 40, and 20 dB HL in descending order, and the intensity can be changed manually. When it ends in one ear, it automatically starts the stimulus in the contralateral ear and we can stop the test when we consider it convenient when we have reached the threshold of wave V. In case of absence of response or poor quality of the response at 70 dB HL, we will continue with stimuli at 80, 90 or 100 dB HL until we find a graph of sufficient quality to observe amplitudes and latencies.
Once the graphs are obtained, latencies and interlatencies are measured and the results are stored for later evaluation.
We performed multi-frequency stimuli allowing us to stimulate both ears simultaneously at frequencies of 500, 1000, 2000, and 4000 with CE-Chirp© [17], the stimulation rate at 90 Hz, and a rejection level of 40 nV. The maximum stabilization time of the response was set at 6 minutes. We also stored the results.
The procedure is similar to the ABR recording with insertion earphones and is carried out after performing the tests with insertion earphones and without modifying the conditions, in the same clinical act and with the patient being selected following the inclusion and exclusion criteria, as described above. Using a stimulus through a loudspeaker, selecting in the transducer menu, placed 70 cm from the ear to be tested, with masking of contralateral white noise and storing results.
Following a similar procedure to the ASSR with insertion earphones and with the modifications described for the free field, we record the ASSR with free-field stimulus after the ABR in the free field and store the results.
Applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 54 ears of 27 selected children were studied, with a mean age of 16.7 months (SD = 5.7) and age range between 6 and 24 months, corresponding to 19 males (70.4%) and 8 females (29.6%).
Table 3 presents the latencies of waves I, III, and V (the most constant) and I-V interlatencies obtained with insertion headphone and free-field stimuli, as well as the differences between them. No significant differences were observed in the interlatency values.
Waves | Wave I | Wave III | Wave V | Interval I-V |
---|---|---|---|---|
Insertion earphones | 1.56 (SD = 0.22) | 4.09 (SD = 0.29) | 6.27 (SD = 0.19) | 4.68 (SD = 0.46) |
Free field | 3.47 (SD = 0.59) | 5.97 (SD = 0.61) | 8.22 (SD = 0.51) | 4.75 (SD = 0.36) |
Difference | 1.91 | 1.88 | 1.95 | 0.07 |
p | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |
Rho | 0.78 | 0.49 | 0.63 |
Latencies of waves I, III and V and I-V interlatencies obtained with a stimulus with insertion headphones and free field, at 70 dB HL, as well as the differences between them, p-value and rho value in between them, p-value and rho value in Spearmen’s contrast test.
SD: standard deviation; p: significance level; Spearman’s Rho: Spearman’s Rho.
We found statistically significant differences in the latency values of waves I, III, and V, p < 0.001, and Rho values of 0.78, 0.49, and 0.63, respectively. In the assessment of agreement or concordance in the distribution of mean latencies, a significant difference (p < 0.001) was observed in the Wilcoxon test for the three main waves of the ABR.
The V-wave threshold was obtained at 20 dB HL in all ears studied.
Table 4 represents the results of the thresholds obtained in the ASSR-MF recording with insertion headphone stimulus and in free field.
Frequencies | 500 | 1000 | 2000 | 4000 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Insertion earphones | 10 | 14 | 14 | 15 |
Free field | 22 | 24 | 25 | 25 |
Difference | 12 | 10 | 11 | 10 |
Results of the thresholds obtained in the ASSR-MF recording with insert earphone stimulus and in free field and the differences between the two limits (dB HL).
In the recordings with insert earphones, the 500 Hz recording was achieved in 50 of the 54 ears studied (7.41%), with responses obtained at all other frequencies. The average response stabilization time was 2.12 minutes.
In the recordings with free-field stimulus, the absence of response at 500 Hz was 22.22%, at 1000 Hz 12.96%, at 2000 Hz 5.55%, and at 4000 Hz 1.85%. The mean response stabilization time was 3.68 minutes which is an increase of 1.56 minutes over the insert phones.
The children in our study are aged between 6 and 24 months, some of them premature, so latency values may be variable. This is why we decided to apply this age range to minimize variations in latencies due to the immaturity and hypomyelination of the acoustic pathway, which maturity does not end until 12 months [18, 29].
The ABR and ASSR are usually recorded by means of earphones inserted inside the external auditory canal and using surface electrodes placed as described above. The recordings of both tests taken together will give us the hearing thresholds in intensity and frequency, which are necessary for a correct objective diagnosis of hearing loss in children.
The ABR recording is composed of a 5 to 7-wave trace, with the first five waves being the most important, called I, II, III, IV, and V and I, III, and V being the most constant [15, 16] waves that present fundamental characteristics of amplitude and latency [12, 15, 23]. The latencies generate interlatencies, time intervals between waves, the most important being interlatency I-III, III-V, and above all I-V [19, 23].
These waves disappear as the intensity of the stimulus decreases, with the V wave remaining constant, the last recording of which in intensity does not mark the threshold of the response. The average values that we have obtained in the children with normal criteria studied, using acoustic stimuli through insertion headphones, are similar to those observed in the literature [17, 20, 21, 29, 32].
Likewise, the ABR study was carried out in a similar way to that employed by other authors, using the same type of stimulus (click) [33], with a cadence of 44 stimuli/sec, lower than the critical rate of 50 st/sec [34], 2000 stimuli in monaural stimulation and with contralateral masking [35].
After stimulation and stable ASSR response, the software of the device applies the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm, which is the recording of the electroencephalographic trace corresponding to the modulated frequency of the presented tone, and calculates the estimated audiometry at frequencies of 500, 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz, so the normality criteria do not require detailed interpretation [10, 36] and therefore do not require the patient’s cooperation or the explorer’s intervention [37].
Although it is generally accepted that a stable ASSR response should not occur beyond 8–10 minutes, in our daily practice, and depending on the individual patient, we have come to accept response stabilization times of 12–14 minutes. However, in our study, we have selected cases with response stabilization of not more than 6 minutes.
We agree with the various authors that the most difficult response to record in the ASSR is the frequency of 500 Hz, with all other frequencies being fairly constant and with no differences between the two ears [10, 36, 38].
In the ASSR test, the child is in the same environment, with the same electrodes and their location on the skin as in the ABR test and with stimulation through insert earphones, the only difference being acoustic stimulation with clicks in the case of ABR and CE-Chirp in the case of ASSR. This difference does not affect the attainment of hearing thresholds, although the CE-Chirp follows a response with higher amplitude and curve quality [39].
The threshold of ASSR responses compared to hearing screening methods, such as tone audiometry or behavioral audiometry, in children has been studied by numerous authors, indicating, with minor adjustments for correction, the similarity of hearing thresholds [37, 38, 40, 41]. In our daily practice, we have found this similarity between threshold levels in older children undergoing tonal audiometry and ABR/ASSR-MF under sedation [42].
As we have already mentioned, to avoid bias, the ABR/ASSR-MF tests of the selected children, in free field (loudspeaker 70 cm away from the ear to be tested), were carried out in the same clinical act, in the same environment (cabin with acoustic attenuation), by the same explorer as in the tests with insertion earphones, first performing the stimulus with insertion earphones and then, if the child was selected, the stimulus in free field.
The performance of the tests with stimulus in the free field required the modification of the software and hardware of the equipment and its calibration, and we are not aware of any standard or correction coefficient for the performance of these tests in the free field, adjusting ourselves to the calibration performed by the company Audiología, S.L. [43].
The differences in the mean evoked latency of the ABR recording in the tests performed with insertion earphones and those in free field with 70 dB HL stimulation are presented in Table 3. We can see that the mean difference in the latency of the main waves (I, III, and V) corresponds to the delay caused by the distance at which the sound source is located (70 cm) in the free-field stimulation. In the conditions in which the test was performed, with an ambient temperature of 22°C, a humidity of 50%, and the cabin being located at sea level (Cartagena, Spain), the speed at which sound is transmitted in the air is 244.4 m/sec [9]. At this distance of 70 cm, the average delay of the arrival of the stimulus at the eardrum (receiver) from the loudspeaker (transmitter) is 2.032 ms, a delay that resembles the average difference of the latencies of the three waves I, III, and V of the ABR response tracing, taking into account possible variations of a few centimeters when placing the loudspeaker in each of the tests or due to the movements of the child’s head during the exploration.
Likewise, the interlatencies were similar in both tests, with no significant differences between them, especially in the most important interlatency I-V, interlatencies not affected by the distance of the sound source and which shows the response of the different levels of neural generators at the level of the brainstem.
The ASSR-MF thresholds obtained with a stimulus with insert earphones in our daily practice and the selected cases are similar to those found in the literature [44, 45, 46, 47], accepting normal values close to 30 dB HL, although there is a slight decrease in those obtained in free field in relation to those obtained with insert earphones, representing a difference of 10.37 dB HL. In our study, the mean response stabilization time was less than 6 minutes, with the most inconsistent response at 500 Hz, in both different stimulations, and the most constant responses at 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz.
In the literature, we have found very few studies in which free-field stimulation has been used to obtain ABR and ASSR.
Shemesh et al. carried out a study with 20 patients aged between 24 and 60 years, 10 of whom underwent ASSR recording with insertion headphones, and another 10 patients with hearing aids underwent ASSR recording with free-field stimulus, comparing the thresholds. In this work, there are hardly any indications of the calibration of the equipment, although it uses a booth with acoustic attenuation according to the ISO392-2, 1994 standard. He also recorded the ASSR with and without hearing aids, finding, logically, significant differences in the thresholds with and without hearing aids, but not, on the other hand, between the thresholds with audiometry and ASSR without hearing aids. A control group of 21–24-year-olds with normal hearing recorded audiometric thresholds below 20 dB HL at frequencies between 250 and 8000 Hz and thresholds below 20 dB in ASSR at frequencies of 500, 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz. They conclude the benefits of ASSR testing on hearing thresholds for objective assessment of the benefit of hearing aids and that it may be determinant in young uncooperative individuals [48].
Arias et al. conducted a study with 14 patients aged 2–14 years with cochlear implants to obtain ASSR-MF thresholds and behavioral audiometry. They used an Audix V, model NDOO1A USB from Neuronic, S, A., calibrated with a sound level meter model 2260 and a microphone type 4144 (Brüel & Kjaer) ensuring that the acoustic energy measured in dB SPL corresponded to its value in dB HL, but no further details are given. They did not record ABR and compared the results of ASSR thresholds with free-field stimuli with behavioral audiometry. However, the study does not give data on distance from the sound source and does not show normality thresholds as these are patients with cochlear implants and therefore profound hearing loss. They conclude that ASSR-MF recording with the free-field stimulus is useful for assessing free-field hearing thresholds in cochlear implant patients [49].
Though clinically useful, the results obtained in these studies are not comparable with those obtained in our studies since none of them examines thresholds of normality in children.
Given that there are no standards or correction coefficients for the ABR and ASSR-MF tests with free-air stimuli and the absence of sufficient literature on studies with free-field stimuli for recording early auditory evoked potentials, we consider our results as a new possibility as a determination of criteria for normality in children in whom stimulation through earphone insertion in the external auditory canal is impossible, such as children with hearing aids or implants and in those who do not cooperate in liminal or behavioral audiometry tests, such as children with down syndrome and autistic spectrum disorders.
The results obtained in this study support the usefulness of free-field stimulation as an objective method for acquiring normality criteria in ABR and ASSR tests, allowing these tests to be performed in patients who cannot be stimulated through the external auditory canal with insertion earphones, such as children with hearing aids or implantable hearing aids.
The modification of the software and hardware of the equipment currently on the market is necessary to obtain ABR and ASSR-MF recordings with free-field stimulation. The thresholds of the recordings obtained with free-field stimulation are superimposable to the thresholds obtained with current conventional insert earphones.
The method used for the collection of auditory pathway information as a measurement instrument is widely validated worldwide.
Among possible random errors, we must take into account the variability of the measurements. We cannot control the child’s head movements, even when asleep, by varying the exact distance to the loudspeaker. To minimize sampling variability, we assess the effect of chance by conducting hypothesis test.
To avoid selection bias errors, patients with perfect normal conditions with insertion earphones were selected in order to know which children without pathology could be tested with free-field stimulus.
When comparing tests performed with insert earphones and in the free field, an information bias may occur during the measurement. To avoid this bias as much as possible, we have performed the tests with the same explorer, in the same environmental conditions, with the same equipment, the same data collection, and the same processing.
Finally, there is no confounding bias as we do not want to know a cause-effect relationship in our research.
Future research should be directed toward its application in daily clinical practice with hearing-impaired children, assessing that the responses obtained with free-field stimuli are similar to the ABR/ASSR-MF values in cases of hearing pathology.
We consider the need for free-field stimulus studies in the fitting and follow-up of assistive listening devices, both conventional hearing aids and implantable devices.
The authors declare the absence of interests between the manufacturer of the equipment used (Interacoustics), the staff of the company that carried out the calibration of the equipment, and the working environment (Audiología, S.L.), or any other natural or legal person. Likewise, this work has been financed exclusively by its authors.
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We conclude this chapter by expressing personal perspective on the probable challenges and developments of the controllable synthesis of CeO2 nanomaterials for various applications.",book:{id:"5510",slug:"functionalized-nanomaterials",title:"Functionalized Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Functionalized Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Adnan Younis, Dewei Chu and Sean Li",authors:[{id:"191574",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Younis",slug:"adnan-younis",fullName:"Adnan Younis"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:3985,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]},{id:"49413",title:"Electrodeposition of Nanostructure Materials",slug:"electrodeposition-of-nanostructure-materials",totalDownloads:3733,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"We are conducting a multi-disciplinary research work that involves development of nanostructured thin films of semiconductors for different applications. Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"54226",title:"Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance for Optical Fiber-Sensing Applications",slug:"localized-surface-plasmon-resonance-for-optical-fiber-sensing-applications",totalDownloads:2265,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"It is well known that optical fiber sensors have attracted the attention of scientific community due to its intrinsic advantages, such as lightweight, small size, portability, remote sensing, immunity to electromagnetic interferences and the possibility of multiplexing several signals. This field has shown a dramatic growth thanks to the creation of sensitive thin films onto diverse optical fiber configurations. In this sense, a wide range of optical fiber devices have been successfully fabricated for monitoring biological, chemical, medical or physical parameters. In addition, the use of nanoparticles into the sensitive thin films has resulted in an enhancement in the response time, robustness or sensitivity in the optical devices, which is associated to the inherent properties of nanoparticles (high surface area ratio or porosity). Among all of them, the metallic nanoparticles are of great interest for sensing applications due to the presence of strong absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared regions, due to their localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPR). These optical resonances are due to the coupling of certain modes of the incident light to the collective oscillation of the conduction electrons of the metallic nanoparticles. The LSPR extinction bands are very useful for sensing applications as far as they can be affected by refractive index variations of the surrounding medium of the nanoparticles, and therefore, it is possible to create optical sensors with outstanding properties such as high sensitivity and optical self-reference. In this chapter, the attractive optical properties of metal nanostructures and their implementation into different optical fiber configuration for sensing or biosensing applications will be studied.",book:{id:"5721",slug:"nanoplasmonics-fundamentals-and-applications",title:"Nanoplasmonics",fullTitle:"Nanoplasmonics - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Pedro J. Rivero, Javier Goicoechea and Francisco J. Arregui",authors:[{id:"69816",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Goicoechea",slug:"javier-goicoechea",fullName:"Javier Goicoechea"},{id:"188796",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rivero",slug:"pedro-j.-rivero",fullName:"Pedro J. 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Piezoelectric materials are capable of transforming mechanical strain and vibration energy into electrical energy. This property allows opportunities for implementing renewable and sustainable energy through power harvesting and self-sustained smart sensing in buildings. As the most common construction material, plain cement paste lacks satisfactory piezoelectricity and is not efficient at harvesting the electrical energy from the ambient vibrations of a building system. In recent years, many techniques have been proposed and applied to improve the piezoelectric capacity of cement-based composite, namely admixture incorporation and physical. The successful application of piezoelectric materials for sustainable building development not only relies on understanding the mechanism of the piezoelectric properties of various building components, but also the latest developments and implementations in the building industry. Therefore, this review systematically illustrates research efforts to develop new construction materials with high piezoelectricity and energy storage capacity. In addition, this article discusses the latest techniques for utilizing the piezoelectric materials in energy harvesters, sensors and actuators for various building systems. With advanced methods for improving the cementations piezoelectricity and applying the material piezoelectricity for different building functions, more renewable and sustainable building systems are anticipated.",book:{id:"10511",slug:"multifunctional-ferroelectric-materials",title:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials",fullTitle:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials"},signatures:"B. Chandra Sekhar, B. Dhanalakshmi, B. Srinivasa Rao, S. Ramesh, K. Venkata Prasad, P.S.V. Subba Rao and B. Parvatheeswara Rao",authors:[{id:"335022",title:"Dr.",name:"B. Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sekhar",slug:"b.-chandra-sekhar",fullName:"B. 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Ramesh"},{id:"422024",title:"Dr.",name:"K.Venkata",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad",slug:"k.venkata-prasad",fullName:"K.Venkata Prasad"},{id:"422025",title:"Dr.",name:"P.S.V",middleName:null,surname:"Subba Rao",slug:"p.s.v-subba-rao",fullName:"P.S.V Subba Rao"},{id:"422026",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Parvatheeswara",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.parvatheeswara-rao",fullName:"B.Parvatheeswara Rao"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1169",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:71,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"},{id:"79236",title:"Processing Techniques with Heating Conditions for Multiferroic Systems of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3, CaTiO3 Thin Films",slug:"processing-techniques-with-heating-conditions-for-multiferroic-systems-of-bifeo3-batio3-pbtio3-catio",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101122",abstract:"In this chapter, we have report a list of synthesis methods (including both synthesis steps & heating conditions) used for thin film fabrication of perovskite ABO3 (BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3) based multiferroics (in both single-phase and composite materials). The processing of high quality multiferroic thin film have some features like epitaxial strain, physical phenomenon at atomic-level, interfacial coupling parameters to enhance device performance. Since these multiferroic thin films have ME properties such as electrical (dielectric, magnetoelectric coefficient & MC) and magnetic (ferromagnetic, magnetic susceptibility etc.) are heat sensitive, i.e. ME response at low as well as higher temperature might to enhance the device performance respect with long range ordering. The magnetoelectric coupling between ferromagnetism and ferroelectricity in multiferroic becomes suitable in the application of spintronics, memory and logic devices, and microelectronic memory or piezoelectric devices. In comparison with bulk multiferroic, the fabrication of multiferroic thin film with different structural geometries on substrate has reducible clamping effect. A brief procedure for multiferroic thin film fabrication in terms of their thermal conditions (temperature for film processing and annealing for crystallization) are described. Each synthesis methods have its own characteristic phenomenon in terms of film thickness, defects formation, crack free film, density, chip size, easier steps and availability etc. been described. A brief study towards phase structure and ME coupling for each multiferroic system of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3 is shown.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma and Manpreet Singh"},{id:"78034",title:"Quantum Physical Interpretation of Thermoelectric Properties of Ruthenate Pyrochlores",slug:"quantum-physical-interpretation-of-thermoelectric-properties-of-ruthenate-pyrochlores",totalDownloads:74,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99260",abstract:"Lead- and lead-yttrium ruthenate pyrochlores were synthesized and investigated for Seebeck coefficients, electrical- and thermal conductivity. Compounds A2B2O6.5+z with 0 ≤ z < 0.5 were defect pyrochlores and p-type conductors. The thermoelectric data were analyzed using quantum physical models to identify scattering mechanisms underlying electrical (σ) and thermal conductivity (κ) and to understand the temperature dependence of the Seebeck effect (S). In the metal-like lead ruthenates with different Pb:Ru ratios, σ (T) and the electronic thermal conductivity κe (T) were governed by ‘electron impurity scattering’, the lattice thermal conductivity κL (T) by the 3-phonon resistive process (Umklapp scattering). In the lead-yttrium ruthenate solid solutions (Pb(2-x)YxRu2O(6.5±z)), a metal–insulator transition occurred at 0.2 moles of yttrium. On the metallic side (<0.2 moles Y) ‘electron impurity scattering’ prevailed. On the semiconductor/insulator side between x = 0.2 and x = 1.0 several mechanisms were equally likely. At x > 1.5 the Mott Variable Range Hopping mechanism was active. S (T) was discussed for Pb-Y-Ru pyrochlores in terms of the effect of minority carrier excitation at lower- and a broadening of the Fermi distribution at higher temperatures. The figures of merit of all of these pyrochlores were still small (≤7.3 × 10−3).",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Sepideh Akhbarifar"},{id:"77635",title:"Optimization of Thermoelectric Properties Based on Rashba Spin Splitting",slug:"optimization-of-thermoelectric-properties-based-on-rashba-spin-splitting",totalDownloads:124,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98788",abstract:"In recent years, the application of thermoelectricity has become more and more widespread. Thermoelectric materials provide a simple and environmentally friendly solution for the direct conversion of heat to electricity. The development of higher performance thermoelectric materials and their performance optimization have become more important. Generally, to improve the ZT value, electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity must be globally optimized as a whole object. However, due to the strong coupling among ZT parameters in many cases, it is very challenging to break the bottleneck of ZT optimization currently. Beyond the traditional optimization methods (such as inducing defects, varying temperature), the Rashba effect is expected to effectively increase the S2σ and decrease the κ, thus enhancing thermoelectric performance, which provides a new strategy to develop new-generation thermoelectric materials. Although the Rashba effect has great potential in enhancing thermoelectric performance, the underlying mechanism of Rashba-type thermoelectric materials needs further research. In addition, how to introduce Rashba spin splitting into current thermoelectric materials is also of great significance to the optimization of thermoelectricity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Zhenzhen Qin"},{id:"75364",title:"Challenges in Improving Performance of Oxide Thermoelectrics Using Defect Engineering",slug:"challenges-in-improving-performance-of-oxide-thermoelectrics-using-defect-engineering",totalDownloads:214,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96278",abstract:"Oxide thermoelectric materials are considered promising for high-temperature thermoelectric applications in terms of low cost, temperature stability, reversible reaction, and so on. Oxide materials have been intensively studied to suppress the defects and electronic charge carriers for many electronic device applications, but the studies with a high concentration of defects are limited. It desires to improve thermoelectric performance by enhancing its charge transport and lowering its lattice thermal conductivity. For this purpose, here, we modified the stoichiometry of cation and anion vacancies in two different systems to regulate the carrier concentration and explored their thermoelectric properties. Both cation and anion vacancies act as a donor of charge carriers and act as phonon scattering centers, decoupling the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jamil Ur Rahman, Gul Rahman and Soonil Lee"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",slug:"cecilia-cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"gil-goncalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",slug:"johann-f.-osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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