Pharmacological action of different citrus species (studies in vitro and in vivo).
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"},{slug:"suf-and-intechopen-announce-collaboration-20200331",title:"SUF and IntechOpen Announce Collaboration"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"101",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Laser Scanning, Theory and Applications",title:"Laser Scanning",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Ever since the invention of laser by Schawlow and Townes in 1958, various innovative ideas of laser-based applications emerge very year. At the same time, scientists and engineers keep on improving laser's power density, size, and cost which patch up the gap between theories and implementations. More importantly, our everyday life is changed and influenced by lasers even though we may not be fully aware of its existence. For example, it is there in cross-continent phone calls, price tag scanning in supermarkets, pointers in the classrooms, printers in the offices, accurate metal cutting in machine shops, etc. In this volume, we focus the recent developments related to laser scanning, a very powerful technique used in features detection and measurement. We invited researchers who do fundamental works in laser scanning theories or apply the principles of laser scanning to tackle problems encountered in medicine, geodesic survey, biology and archaeology. 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After graduating from University of Pennsylvania, he worked as a postdoc fellow in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng-Kung Univeristy, Tainan, Taiwan for one year. Since 1996 he has been an Associate Professor in the Institute of Undersea Technology, Kao-Hsiung, Taiwan. 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The genus Citrus belongs to family Rutaceae, which is characterized by trees and bushes. Fruits of this genus, such as oranges, lemons, and tangerines, are widely cultivated in the tropical and subtropical areas of the world [1].
\nIn medicine, Citrus fruits are used in the treatment of various diseases. Research shows that the intake of Citrus fruits can reduce the incidence of gastric cancer [2]. In addition, some isolated compounds from these fruits have effects on the central nervous system. For example, limonene, which is present in high concentrations in Citrus aurantium, showed a strong anxiolytic effect when tested in both animals and humans [3, 4].
\nTo further understand the therapeutic potential of different Citrus species, we carried out a survey of in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrating their pharmacological actions, and summarized them in this chapter.
The species C. aurantium L., popularly known as bitter orange, laranjeira‐amarga, or laranjeira‐cavalo, is a native plant of Southeast Asia, a region that corresponds to China and India. It was first introduced to Syria and Egypt by the Arabs and was subsequently brought to Europe [1]. In the medieval times, it was widely used in the Mediterranean region as a cardiac and vascular stimulant, digestive, sedative, tranquilizer, appetite stimulant, general tonic, and antidote against poisons [5]. In traditional Chinese medicine, bitter orange is used as a gastrointestinal stimulant and general tonic [6].
\nEthnopharmacological studies in Brazilian communities (documentation of the empirical uses of medicinal plants in traditional communities) describe the popular use of C. aurantium L. fruit peels, flowers, and leaves in the treatment of the central nervous system disorders such as insomnia, anxiety, and hysteria [7, 8]. Another study reports that tea made from the leaves of C. aurantium L. can relieve stomach cramps and constipation, combat stomach acidity, and relieve fever, while tea from the seeds is reported to control diabetes [9].
\nStudies have focused on the investigation of C. aurantium L. effects on the central nervous system, especially its anxiolytic effect. Several studies on animals and humans have demonstrated the anxiolytic effect of this species. For example, the essential oil obtained from C. aurantium L. peels was found to show an anxiolytic effect on rats after a single dose, denoted by an increase in the residence time in the open arms of the elevated plus maze [10]. In addition, anxiolytic activity was observed in experimental models of generalized anxiety and obsessive‐compulsive disorder. At the same time, the mice did not show any signs of motor impairment, even after 15 consecutive days of treatment [7].
\nIn a study conducted by Leite et al., 12 rats were evaluated in two models of anxiety: elevated plus maze and open field maze models. The rats were previously made to inhale the essential oil from C. aurantium L. at concentrations of 1.0, 2.5, and 5.0% for 7 min in an acrylic box. The authors observed a decrease in the emotional reactivity of the animals in both experimental models, suggesting a possible central action [11]. Moreover, the results of another study strongly suggest the involvement of 5‐HT 1a receptor, a subtype of serotonin receptors, in its anxiolytic activity, suggesting a potential mechanism by which C. aurantium L. affects the central nervous system [12].
\nClinical trials testing the anxiolytic effect of C. aurantium have also demonstrated satisfactory results. In a certain study, preoperative patients received distilled C. aurantium L. flower 2 h before the procedure, then the STAI scale was used for anxiety evaluation. In comparison to the control group, the patients from experimental group showed a reduction in preoperative anxiety [13]. In another study, patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia inhaled essential oil of C. aurantium L. before the procedure of medullary material collection. The results indicated that the patients subjected to this intervention showed a decrease in the anxiety levels and remained relaxed during the procedure. In addition, C. aurantium L. oil, even at a single exposure, showed an activity comparable to that of the anxiolytic used as the positive control. This ensures its efficacy in controlling anxiety in patients subjected to unpleasant diagnostic procedures [3].
\nIts anxiolytic effect was also tested before labor. In a certain study, 18–35‐year‐old primiparous women were subjected to aromatherapy with C. aurantium L. oil during labor, and the results showed a significant reduction in the anxiety during labor in those women. Another clinical trial conducted on 126 primiparous women investigated the effects of aromatherapy with C. aurantium L. on pain during the first stage of labor. The women received 4 ml of C. aurantium L. in distilled water soaked in gauzes every 30 min. The results showed pain relief in the women subjected to this procedure. When asked whether aromatherapy using C. aurantium L. was satisfactory or not, 88.1% of the participants said that they were satisfied with the method applied and 92.1% said that they would use this method in future procedures. These studies show that aromatherapy with C. aurantium L. is a simple, inexpensive, and noninvasive intervention that can be beneficial for pregnant women [14]. However, because vaginal birth is a painful and serious process that is often feared by primiparous women, further studies are still required [15].
\nSeveral studies have been conducted to identify other possible actions of C. aurantium L. constituents, other than their effects on the central nervous system. Researchers isolated the flavonoids such as nobiletin, naringin, and hesperidin from C. aurantium L. and evaluated their anti‐inflammatory effect on rat cells in vitro. Results demonstrated the suppression of proinflammatory mediators, which confirms the anti‐inflammatory action of the isolated flavonoids [16]. Flavonoids isolated from C. aurantium L. were also evaluated for possible anticancer activity in murine lung cells. They demonstrated an anticancer effect through the regulation of apoptosis and cell migration, providing scientific support for the use of C. aurantium L. flavonoids in the treatment of human lung cancer [17].
\nUsing a rat model of diabetes, researchers evaluated the possible hypoglycemic effect of neohesperidin derived from C. aurantium L. Treatment with neohesperidin was shown to increase glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, and to decrease blood glucose levels in the rats of the experimental group. These results demonstrate its hypoglycemic effect, and thus, its potential application for the prevention of diabetes and its complications [18].
\nFinally, although C. aurantium L. has been known for millennia, and a large number of studies have been focusing on its effects in the last decade, further research is needed to elucidate new mechanisms of action and therapeutic properties.
The species C. sinensis, popularly known as sweet orange, also belongs to family Rutaceae. This fruit is of Asian origin, where it has been known for about 4000 years. With the expansion of trade and shipping routes, orange was introduced to various regions of the world for cultivation. Information from 1471 to 1472 reported the presence of sweet orange in Liguria, a region in Italy, before its introduction by the Portuguese to the Iberian Peninsula in 1498. In the eighteenth century, there were reports about varieties of sweet orange in Palestine, possibly introduced by an Armenian monk. In the Americas, Portuguese colonists introduced it to Bahia/BR in the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, and Jesuits introduced it to California/USA, where they settled and started subsequent plantations [19].
\nAn ethnobotanical survey in a Brazilian community identified the species C.sinensis as the most cited by women in attention to basic health, indicating the use of its leaves prepared in the form of tea as a soft tranquilizer for mild cases of anxiety and insomnia [20]. In addition, the flower and fruit are used by the population as tranquilizers and for relief of headache, migraine, fever, flu, allergy, and cough. We can conclude that sweet orange is among the main species of medicinal plants commonly used by the Brazilian community [21].
\nThe traditional use of C. sinensis as a sedative can be attributed to hesperidin, which was identified in a study as the active principle in this plant responsible for sedation. Hesperidin performs its sedative action through interaction with and stimulation of adenosine receptors. Its effect is opposite to that observed after consumption of coffee and tea, which antagonize the adenosine receptors and thus maintain the wakefulness state [22]. Researchers investigated the properties of hesperidin extracted from C. sinensis through in vitro experiments, revealing its strong cytotoxic activity against human carcinoma cell lines and its antioxidant activity against DPPH free radical. According to these results, hesperidin can be considered a promising future drug. Orange peels are a cheap and available source from which hesperidin can be extracted in an efficient way and with high purity [23].
\nC. sinensis extracts have shown potent anthelmintic properties in vitro when compared with the positive control, indicating that it is equipotent to conventional anthelmintic drugs. However, in vivo studies should be conducted to establish this efficacy and to identify the active components responsible for the anthelmintic activity [24].
\nResearchers induced liver cirrhosis in rats for 16 weeks and treated the animals with C. sinensis dried peel extract orally for 9 weeks. After the completion of the treatment, the animals were euthanized to evaluate the biochemical and histopathological changes associated with liver cirrhosis. The histopathological examination of the liver tissue and the biochemical findings demonstrated the curative effect of the extract, suggesting its potential therapeutic application in liver fibrosis and cirrhosis [25].
\nAnother study investigated the effects of the C. sinensis peel extract when administered orally to rats at a concentration of 25 mg/kg and revealed its antidiabetic potential. The researchers administered a single dose of alloxan (120 mg/kg) to the rats, which triggered an increase in serum glucose levels and α‐amylase activity. Then, a group of the rats was administered C. sinensis, which normalized all the adverse changes induced by alloxan. This reinforces the antidiabetic properties of the orange peel extract, which might be applied in the development of therapies for diabetes control [26].
\nIn 2010, Faturi et al. demonstrated that the essential oil from C. sinensis had an anxiolytic effect when inhaled by rats. The animals were subjected to the elevated plus maze test, and the residence time of each rat in the open arms was measured. The possibility that the anxiolytic effect could result from any other inhaled aroma was discarded, since no anxiolytic activity was observed with Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil. The authors also reported that the animals were not previously exposed to the essential oil of sweet orange or any solutions that could contain the essence [27].
\nIn a clinical study conducted on patients waiting for dental care, a group of the patients inhaled sweet orange essential oil in the waiting room, a second group listened to music, and the third group, which was the control group, did not receive any intervention. The results showed that the patients who inhaled the essential oil were calmer and had lower anxiety levels than the patients of the other groups [28].
\nResults obtained by Goes et al. in 2012 demonstrated the anxiolytic effect of the C. sinensis essential oil on healthy individuals while performing an anxiogenic task. The anxiolytic activity was evidenced by the significant difference in the level of anxiety between the group exposed to C. sinensis and the control group, providing scientific support for the use of this essential oil as a tranquilizer in aromatherapy [29].
\nThe results presented here support the use of C. sinensis as an aid to combat insomnia and anxiety. Research also indicates that the natural constituents of sweet orange can be used in the pharmaceutical industry, as natural cytotoxic agents, anthelmintics, antidiabetic agents, or for the treatment of liver cirrhosis.
Citrus bergamia, commonly known as bergamot [30], is a plant belonging to family Rutaceae, subfamily Esperidea, and is defined as a hybrid between bitter orange (Citrus aurantium) and lemon (Citrus limon) [31]. The botanical and geographical origins of this plant are still unknown. The name “bergamot” seems to be derived from Berga, a Spanish city from which the plant was transported to Calabria in Southern Italy. C. bergamia is cultivated almost exclusively along the southern coast of Calabria; over 90% of its world production comes from this region. However, it is also cultivated to a lesser extent in other countries, such as Greece, Morocco, Iran, Ivory Coast, Argentina, and Brazil [32].
\nThe fruit of C. bergamia is mainly used for the extraction of its essential oil, which is used in perfumes, drugs, cosmetics, food, and clothing [33]. Throughout the cultivation and the processing of C. bergamia, tons of wastes of low commercial value, but of great industrial potential, are generated. These wastes contain high levels of nutrients, pigments, and bioactive components with low toxicity [34].
\nThere are evidences that C. bergamia contains antibacterial and antifungal active constituents, in addition to its anti‐inflammatory, antiproliferative, neuropsychopharmacological, neuroprotective, and analgesic effects, [35] as well as its cardiovascular properties in rodents [32]. Bergamot juice, which is obtained from the endocarp after the extraction of the essential oil, was found to exhibit hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activities, as well as anti‐inflammatory [36–38] and anticancer properties [39].
\nThe anti‐infective properties of C. bergamia derivatives can be observed from the action of its essential oil against bacteria, mycetes, and larvae, and the action of its juice against Helicobacter pylori. Compounds derived from its fruit peel extract have antimicrobial properties. Studies report that its essential oil has antibacterial and antifungal activities against Campylobacterjejuni, Escherichiacoli O157, Listeriamonocytogenes, Bacilluscereus, Staphylococcusaureus, and dermatophytes. The essential oil of C. bergamia shows in vitro activity against Candida species, which suggests its potential application in the topical treatment of fungal infections by Candida. It also demonstrates in vitro activity against dermatophytes [40].
\nIn addition, favorable results were obtained regarding its pharmacological properties in nervous system disorders. Sometimes, the essential oil from C. bergamia, usually extracted from the peel, is used in aromatherapy to relieve stress and anxiety [41].
\nIn a study carried out on rats to investigate the anxiolytic activity of C. bergamia, the essential oil was administered to the rats at different concentrations and its effects were compared with those of diazepam. The results of this study indicated that C. bergamia showed an anxiolytic action, which was observed when the rats were subjected to the elevated plus maze and hole‐board tests. The researchers observed a reduction in the activity of the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis, reducing corticosterone response to stress [42].
\nClinical studies have also reported beneficial effects of C. bergamia essential oil in cardiac control, blood pressure reduction, and stress response management, in addition to its effect on the central nervous system [43]. Although the mechanisms by which the effects on the central nervous system are mediated have not yet been fully elucidated, it has been suggested that this action might be mediated by the release of amino acids that modulate the synaptic plasticity [32].
\nSome studies demonstrated that the essential oil from C. bergamia also shows anticancer activity. For example, Berliocchi et al. demonstrated in vitro antiproliferative activity of C. bergamia essential oil against SH‐SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. In this work, the lethal effect of C. bergamia was mediated by activating multiple pathways that lead to cell death by both necrosis and apoptosis [44]. Compounds derived from bergamot oil, such as limonene, monoterpenes related to limonene, alcohol, and perillic acid, were also found to inhibit the proliferation of breast cancer cells, and to show chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects in models of mammary tumors [45].
\nHowever, the poor water solubility, weak stability, and limited bioavailability of essential oils have prevented their use in cancer therapy. Nevertheless, due to the favorable results regarding the anticancer action of the essential oil from C. bergamia, some attempts have been made to use bergamot in cancer therapy. For example, in 2013, Celia et al. developed liposomes of C. bergamia essential oil, which improved its water solubility and increased its in vitro anticancer activity against SH‐SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells [46].
\nIn order to elucidate the mechanisms by which the essential oil from C. bergamia has anticancer activity, Russo R et al. conducted a study in 2013 to identify the components involved in the cell death process. The results of the study suggested an important role of the combined action of monoterpenes in the process of cell death [35].
\nRegarding the protective cardiovascular properties, Di Donna et al. established a rat model in 2014 to investigate the hypocholesterolemic effect of 3‐hydroxy‐3‐methyl‐glutaryl flavanones enriched fraction (HMGF), extracted from C. bergamia fruits, in comparison with that of statin (simvastatin). Both HMGF and simvastatin reduced total cholesterol, triglycerides, very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), and low‐density lipoproteins (LDL). However, only HMGF caused an increase in high‐density lipoprotein (HDL). In addition, HMGF showed no genotoxic effects and was cytotoxic only at high concentrations. Thus, the authors concluded that daily supplementation of HMGF in the diet can be very effective against hypercholesterolemia, featuring the cardiovascular protective properties of bergamot [47].
\nAlthough all the pharmacological effects of C. bergamia indicate potential clinical applications in the future, only clinical studies investigating its anxiolytic effects in aromatherapy were published heretofore [32].
The Latin name of lemon is C. limon (Linnaeus) N. Burman. It belongs to family Rutaceae, and it is sometimes called limoeiro or limoeiro‐azêdo [48]. It originated in Southeast Asia and is believed to have been introduced to Europe by Muslims across the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily [5]. Currently, Spain is considered the main producer country of this genus in the Mediterranean region. Lemon is considered the third most important species of the genus Citrus, as it contains many relevant natural chemical compounds, including citric acid, ascorbic acid, minerals, and flavonoids [49].
\nRecently, some of the therapeutic properties of C. limon have been recognized in the literature. Studies have found that the use of lemon helps neutralize the acidity of the gastric environment, by stimulating the production of potassium carbonate, indicating its protective effects on the gastric mucosa. It was also found to have analgesic, anti‐anemic, anti‐sclerotic, antipyretic, antiseptic, emollient, and moisturizer properties. The recognized actions of lemon cellulose are that it is anti‐diarrheal, diuretic, intestinal mucosa protector, local hemostatic, vascular stimulant and protector, and vitamin [5].
\nProduction networks of lemon generate large amounts of wastes and by‐products, which are an important source of bioactive compounds with potential applications in animal feeding, processed foods, and health care [49]. Although its health benefits are always attributed to its vitamin C content, recently, it has been found that flavonoids also play an important role [48]. Some authors suggest that flavonoids present in lemon have different biological functions, including antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, antiallergic, antiviral, antiproliferative, antimutagenic, and anticancer activities [48].
\nHesperidin, which is the main flavonoid in C. limon, influences the vascular permeability, increases the capillary resistance, and has analgesic and anti‐inflammatory properties [49]. It is also an effective antioxidant, since it is capable of scavenging free radicals that are involved in cancer. Some studies have shown that flavonoids present in lemon juice also have hypocholesterolemic properties [50].
\nTrovato et al. conducted a study on rats in 1996 and found that C. limon had a significant effect on the levels of cholesterol and triglycerides, suggesting that the prolonged consumption of its juice might offer significant protection from hypercholesterolemia [51].
\nAnother study investigated the protective effect of the essential oil from C. limon against acute hepatic and renal damage induced by a high dose of aspirin in Wistar albino rats. The data obtained in this study demonstrated that the treatment with C. limon protected the liver and kidney from damages induced by aspirin [52].
\nRegarding the pharmacological effects on the central nervous system, a recent study conducted by Khan and Riaz evaluated the effects of lemon on the behavior of rats, using three different doses (0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 ml/kg), considered low, moderate, and high doses, respectively. The anxiolytic and antidepressant activities were evaluated twice, for 15 days, using the open field, elevated plus maze, and forced swimming tests. In the open field test, C. limon revealed an increase in the distance traveled, the number of central entries, and the number of rearing at moderate dose, while in the elevated plus maze, the number of open arm entries was found to be increased. Whereas in the forced swimming test, there was a decrease in duration of immobility and an increase in the duration of climbing. Thus, results suggest that C. limon at moderate dose has an anxiolytic effect [53].
\nIt has been noted that disorders such as anxiety and depression can be managed through healthier variations in dietary patterns, since there is evidence that a diet rich in antioxidants and vitamins reduces these symptoms. Accordingly, a study was performed in order to evaluate the behavioral effects of C. limon and Punica granatum in rats. In this study, two combinations of doses were used: 0.4 + 5 ml/kg and 0.2 + 8 ml/kg of C. limon and P. granatum, respectively. As in the previous study, the antidepressant and anxiolytic effects were evaluated twice, for 15 days, using forced swimming, open field, and elevated plus maze tests. In the open field test, the use of C. limon and P. granatum showed an increase in the distance traveled and the number of central entries at the dose combination of 0.4 + 5 ml/kg. In the elevated plus maze test, the number of entries was increased at the highest dose combination (0.2 + 8 ml/kg). In the forced swimming test, there was a decrease in the immobility duration and an increase in the climbing duration at both dose combinations: 0.4 + 5 ml/kg and 0.2 + 8 ml/kg C. limon and P. granatum, respectively. Based on these results, the authors suggested that C. limon and P. granatum, at a combination of 0.4 + 5 ml/kg, show anxiolytic and antidepressant effects [54].
\nIn another study conducted by Riaz et al. in 2014, the effect of C. limon and pomegranate juice on rats’ memory was evaluated. It is known that memory is greatly influenced by factors such as diet, stress, and sleep quality. The results of this study indicated that C. limon contains essential phytochemicals and nutrients that improve the memory, particularly the short‐term memory. They also concluded that flavonoids in these juices could be responsible for this effect [55].
\nHesperidin extracted from C. limon was found to play an important vasodilator action. In 2016, Dobias et al. evaluated the effect of hesperidin on vascular responses in normotensive and hypertensive rats. Fifteen‐week‐old healthy Wistar rats and spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats were randomly assigned to receive either hesperidin (50 mg/kg/day) or a corresponding volume of water orally for 4 weeks. The vascular responses of isolated femoral arteries were studied using a myograph under control conditions and during the NO‐synthase inhibition. Although hesperidin had no effects on blood pressure, it significantly improved endothelium‐dependent vasodilation in Wistar and SHR rats. The contraction responses were increased in all the groups to a similar extent, but the relaxing responses were significantly attenuated in the SHR group only. The inhibition of the potassium channels (Kv) significantly reduced the endothelium‐dependent vasodilator response only in SHR rats administered hesperidin. This indicates that hesperidin can improve endothelium‐dependent vasodilation during hypertension [56].
\nRegarding the anti‐inflammatory activities described for C. limon, in 2016, Amorim et al. conducted a study to confirm the hypothesis that essential oil (EO) from C. limon, C. latifolia, C. aurantifolia, and C. limonia have antinociceptive effects. Thus, they were tested each one on the formalin‐induced licking behavior. This model is a widely used pain model in evaluating antinociceptive and anti‐inflammatory drugs. The results of this study suggest that EO from C. limon, C. aurantifolia, and C. limonia have an anti‐inflammatory effect because they reduced the second phase response to formalin. This may occur through a reduction in inflammatory mediator liberation in mice paws or a direct action on one or more mediator receptors [57].
\nSince C. limon is widely used in traditional medications in India and China, we sought to explore the importance of flavonoids that are abundant in citrus fruits on platelet function. Nobiletin is a highly abundant flavonoid present in these and has been shown to reduce the adhesive properties of platelets. In 2015, Vaiyapuri et al. conducted a study to verify the pharmacological effects of a polymethoxy flavonoid, nobiletin, in the modulation of platelet function. Nobiletin was shown suppress a range of well‐established activatory mechanisms, including platelet aggregation, granule secretion, integrin modulation, calcium mobilization, and thrombus formation. This study provided insight into the underlying molecular mechanisms through which nobiletin modulates hemostasis and thrombus formation. Therefore, nobiletin may represent a potential antithrombotic agent of dietary origins [58].
\nIn conclusion, C. limon presents numerous curative properties, and thus it has been widely used as a traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases [52]. However, more studies still need to be conducted in order for its application in clinical practice to be established and disseminated [59].
Citrus species are well known and have been commonly used by populations for hundreds of years for various purposes. This knowledge of their therapeutic potential has led to several studies that proved the pharmacological effects of the above‐mentioned species (Table 1). The effect of Citrus species on the central nervous system was highlighted as the study objective in most of the publications. However, research has advanced in seeking other pharmacological actions, especially of isolated constituents of the species.
Citrus species | Pharmacological action |
---|---|
Citrus aurantium L. | Gastrointestinal stimulant and general tonic. Treatment of central nervous system disorders like insomnia, anxiety, and hysteria. Relieve stomach cramps and constipation, combat stomach acidity. Hypoglycemic effect. Anti‐inflammatory. Anxiolytic effect. |
Citrus sinensis | Sedative action. Anthelmintic properties. Treatment of liver cirrhosis. Antidiabetic properties. Anxiolytic effect. |
Citrus bergamia | Antibacterial. Antifungal. Anti‐inflammatory. Analgesic. Antiproliferative and anticancer properties. Neuropsychopharmacological. Neuroprotective. Anxiolytic activity. Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activities. |
Citrus limon | Analgesic. Anti‐anemic. Anti‐sclerotic. Antipyretic. Antiseptic. Emollient and moisturizer properties. Anti‐diarrheal. Diuretic. Intestinal mucosa protector. Local hemostatic. Vascular stimulant and protector. Antioxidant. Antiallergic. Antiviral. Anti‐inflammatory. Antiproliferative, antimutagenic, and anticancer activities. |
Pharmacological action of different citrus species (studies in vitro and in vivo).
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in chemical, petrochemical, and power plant industries is an insidious form of corrosion, which causes a lot of financial losses and human damages [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. This phenomenon is associated with a combination of tensile stress, environment, and some metallurgical conditions as described in Figure 1.
The essential requirements for SCC.
During stress corrosion cracking, the metal or alloy is virtually unattacked over most of its surface, while fine and branch cracks progress through the bulk of material [6]. It is shown in Figure 2. This cracking phenomenon has serious consequences since it can occur under stresses much lower than design stresses and lead the equipment and structures to premature failures [7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
Crack development in carbon steel exposed to nitrate solution.
Stress corrosion cracking starts from corrosion sites at the material surfaces and progresses into a brittle manner. The process of cracking is not strictly a mechanical process, as the corrosivity of the environment strongly affects the fracture mode. Both intergranular and transgranular stress corrosion cracking are observed. Intergranular cracking proceeds along grain boundaries, while transgranular cracking advances without apparent preference for boundaries [12]. An example of stress corrosion cracking in which the crack has progressed in both intergranular and transgranular paths is shown in Figure 3. The development mode of cracking depends on the composition and microstructure of the material and environment.
Intergranular and transgranular stress corrosion cracking of the AISI 316L stainless steel at polythionic acid environment [8].
In this chapter, the conditions for the occurrence of SCC are first introduced. Then, the stress corrosion cracking mechanism for various materials in conditions that are susceptible is discussed in detail. The design of industrial structures and components is usually based on tensile properties, which have many disadvantages. So, the science of fracture mechanics applies in the situations prone to SCC because of the inevitability of manufacturing and service defects in materials and for considering the role of such imperfections. Methods of prevention based on corrosion science and empirical data are presented. Finally, practical examples are given to better understand the issue.
Not all metal-environment combinations are susceptible to cracking. In other words, the environment for occurrences of SCC for each metal or alloys is specific. Also, the resources of stress for each case of failure may be different.
Austenitic stainless steels suffer from SCC in chlorides, caustic, and polythionic acid. When austenitic stainless steels with sufficient carbon content (more than 0.03 wt.%) are heated in the range of 415–850°C, their microstructure becomes susceptible to precipitation of chromium carbides (M23C6) along grain boundaries known as sensitization [9, 12, 13]. Formation of Cr-rich carbides along grain boundaries may drastically deplete free chromium content in the area adjacent to the grain boundaries and render them susceptible to rapid preferential dissolution. Sensitized steels are most susceptible; the stress corrosion cracking of nonsensitized steels is also observed [14, 15]. Dissolution of grain boundaries in some corrosive environments aside from tensile stress led these types of materials to SCC.
Seasonal cracking of brass in the rainy season in an ammoniacal environment is another classical example of SCC. This was first identified on the brass cartridge used by the British Army in India. Since it is usually identified during the rainy season, it is also called seasonal cracking [12]. Alpha brass is an alloy of Cu-Zn. It can crack either intergranularly or transgranularly in nontarnishing ammonia solutions, depending on its zinc content [16, 17, 18]. Transgranular stress corrosion cracking, TGSCC, is observed in alloys with 20 or 30% Zn but not in alloys with 0.5 or 10% Zn [19, 20]. Stress corrosion cracking of Cu-Zn and Cu-A1 alloys in cuprous ammonia solutions can only occur when the parting limits for dealloying are exceeded. The parting limits are about 14 and 18 a/o for Cu-A1 and Cu-Zn, respectively [21]. Cu-A1 and Cu-Ga alloys have shown similar behaviors [19, 22].
Aluminum and all its alloys can fail by cracking along grain boundaries when simultaneously exposed to specific environments and stresses of sufficient magnitude [23, 24]. Of eight series of aluminum alloys, 2xxx, 5xxx, and 7xxx aluminum alloys are susceptible to SCC. Among them, 7xxx series aluminum alloys have a specific application in aerospace, military, and structural industries due to superior mechanical properties. In these high-strength 7xxx aluminum alloys, SCC plays a vital factor of consideration, as these failures are catastrophic during the service [25].
Carbon and low alloy steels have shown SCC in a wide range of environments that tend to form a protective passive or oxide film [26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. The environments that would passivate carbon steels have been found to cause SCC, including strong caustic solutions, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, ethanol, and high-temperature water. The problems are important for both economic and safety reasons, due to the extensive use of carbon steels [31]. For example, nitrate cracking in an ammonium nitrate plant caused by catastrophic failures and a lot of financial losses. Caustic cracking of steam-generating boilers made of low alloy steels was a serious problem, which led an ammonia plant to repeated emergency shutdowns.
Stress corrosion cracking may be a problem whenever certain high-strength titanium alloys are exposed to aqueous and certain solvent environments [32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. For the first time, SCC of titanium was reported by Kiefer and Harple who describe the cracking phenomena with commercially pure titanium in red fuming nitric acid [37]. Hot salt cracking of titanium alloys was reported in turbine blades that operate at high temperature in the mid-1950s. The subject became very active in the early 1960s because of the SCC problem connected to these alloys in a transportation program [38].The first known report of stress corrosion cracking of titanium alloys in room temperature aqueous environments was that of Brown. He found that titanium alloys, 8% aluminum–1% molybdenum–1% vanadium alloy (Ti, 8–1–1), were susceptible to SCC in seawater [38].
Another requirement for SCC to occur is a corrosive environment. The environments for SCC are specific because not all environments promote SCC. For those alloys that develop a protective film, an aggressive ion is required to promote SCC. The aggressive media to passive layer of stainless steels are chlorides, caustic, and polythionic acid. The austenitic stainless steel series 300 is more susceptible in an environment containing chlorides. Chlorides will not cause SCC unless an aqueous phase is present. It appears that stress corrosion cracking in austenitic stainless steels in the presence of chlorides proceeds transgranularly and usually occurs at temperature above 70°C
Metal | Environment |
---|---|
Al alloys | NaCl-H2O2 solutions |
NaCl solutions | |
Seawater | |
Copper alloys | Ammonia vapor and solutions |
Amines | |
Water or water vapor | |
Gold alloys | FeCl3 solutions |
Acetic acid-salt solutions | |
Inconel | Caustic soda solutions |
Lead | Lead acetate solutions |
Magnesium alloys | NaCl-Na2CrO4 solutions |
Rural and coastal atmospheres | |
Seawater | |
Distilled water | |
Nickel | Fused caustic soda |
Steels | NaOH solutions |
NaOH-Na2SiO4 solutions | |
Calcium, ammonium, and sodium nitrite solutions | |
Mixed acids (H2SO4-HNO3) | |
Acidic H2S solutions | |
Seawater | |
Carbonate-bicarbonate solutions | |
Stainless steels | Acidic chloride solutions |
NaCl-H2O2 solutions | |
Seawater | |
H2S | |
NaOH-H2S solutions | |
Condensing steam from chloride waters | |
Titanium alloys | Red fuming nitric acid |
Seawater | |
Methanol-HCl |
The stress in the form of tensile (not compressive) plays a key role in the SCC fracture processes. In fact, SCC would never have occurred in the absence of stress. The required tensile stresses may be in the form of directly applied stresses, thermal, in the form of residual stresses, or a combination of all [8, 50]:
For SCC to occur alone by applied stress, it must have a very high magnitude. The welding and mechanical residual stresses are the main sources of stress attributed to the stress corrosion cracking. The welding residual stress is produced as a result of nonuniform temperature changes during welding operation and can be calculated from thermal strain vectors.
The thermal strain vector,
in which
The operational thermal stress can also be calculated from Eq. 2. Mechanical workings such as cold deformation and forming, machining, and grinding are the other sources, which introduce residual stresses [8, 51].
Extensive investigations have been devoted to find mechanisms of SCC for different materials and environments. An SCC failure illustrates the combined effects of mechanical, physical, and chemical/electrochemical factors causing the separation of metal bonds at the crack tip, thereby advancing the crack. Three mechanisms for SCC have been proposed through the investigations [52]:
This model supposes that there are pre-existing paths in an alloy that is susceptible to anodic dissolution. Because of precipitation or solute segregation of impurities like sulfur, phosphorus, and chromium carbides, the electrochemical properties of the matrix and segregates are changed. The area adjacent to the grain boundaries is depleted from one or more alloying elements, and so under such conditions, localized galvanic cells are created (Figure 4). Since precipitation or segregation is generally anodic to the matrix of the grains, dissolution under an anodic reaction occurs and provides active path for localized corrosions [53]. Also, the removal of the protective film at the pre-existing crack tips by plastic deformation would facilitate the onset of localized corrosion.
Galvanic cell mechanism [52].
This mechanism has been extensively studied in stress corrosion cracking of alpha brass in ammoniacal environment and also proposed for caustic cracking of boiler steel. The model is based on the idea of a strain-induced rupture of the protective film, and so plastic strains play a main role in failure processes [52, 55]. The theory assumes the existence of a passivation film on a metal surface. The passivation film protects the underlying metal against corrosive agents. The passivation film is ruptured by plastic strain due to mechanical workings. After the film is ruptured, the bare metal is exposed to the corrosive environment. The processes of disruptive strain (disruption of protective film) and film formation (due to repassivation) have occurred and alternate with each other. The crack propagates when the rate of rupture of oxide film is higher than the rate of repassivation of the film [52]. The mechanism is shown in Figure 5.
Strain-generated active path mechanisms. (A) Film rupture model and (B) slip-step dissolution model [52].
This model is based on the effects of environmental species on interatomic bond strength. The theoretical fracture stress required to separate two layers of atoms of spacing b is given by [56].
where E is the Young modulus, γ is the surface energy, and b is the spacing between atoms.
This theory implies that if surface energy is reduced, then
The design of steel structure and component based on tensile properties has many disadvantages that do not take into account the role of imperfections. Fracture mechanic introduces another material characteristic, namely, fracture toughness, KIC, which considered the role of cracks and imperfection in the form of cracks in designs. In its simplest form [57].
where
According to this equation, fracture occurs when stress intensity factor,
Effects of corrosive environment on fracture toughness [12].
Since the exact mechanism of SCC has not been completely understood, prevention methods are either general or empirical in nature. Appropriate strategy should be done in order to minimize this problem to ensure not only the safety of human life but also the safety of cost. The following general methods are recommended to overcome the SCC problems [12, 52, 58, 59]:
Lowering the tensile stress in the welded component using post weld heat treatment. The post weld heat treatment reduced or eliminated residual stress on surface and through the bulk of material. Plan and low alloy steels may be a stress relief at 1100–1200°F. The range of residual stress relief temperature for austenitic stainless steels is from 1500 to 1700°F. Reduction of tensile stresses by shot peening is also recommended. Shot peening introduces surface compressive stresses.
Eliminating aggressive agents from the environment by, for example, degasification, demineralization, or distillation.
Changing the alloy is one possible solution if neither the environment nor stress can be changed. For example, it is a common practice to use Inconel (raising the nickel content) when typ. 304 stainless steel is not satisfactory.
Applying cathodic protection: impressed current cathodic protection system has been successfully used to prevent SCC of steels.
Adding inhibitors to the system if feasible: high concentrations of phosphate have been successfully used.
Coatings are sometimes used, and they depend on keeping the environment away from the metal.
After only 3 years’ service of a circulation water heater (heat exchanger), it has been shown to sever leakage and has led a methanol plant to emergency shutdown. An on-site investigation revealed extensive cracking initiated at weld area and through the tube sheet holes as it is shown in Figure 7.
Failed area (a) cracks extending in the weld joint of tube sheet to plugs and (b) branched cracks in the surface of the tube sheet and through the holes [8].
The circulation water heater is a vertical U-type heat exchanger made of austenitic stainless steels. The equipment used to decline reforms gas temperature in a methanol plant. The hot reformed gas at approximately 385°C entered the tubes and is cooled down to 168°C by exchanging the heat with processed water in the shell. The gases that flow through the tubes are mainly CO2, CO, H2, CH4, and N2 and at a pressure of 3.9 MPa. At the shell cooling process, water flows with about 6 MPa pressure.
Deposits had formed on top of the tube sheet due to shutdown errors. AISI 316L materials overheated in service because of the insulation role of the deposits. Material sensitization occurs since overheating. The presence of sulfur in the process gas aside from moisture formed polythionic acid during shutdowns. Residual stress produced by heavy machining and welding aside from operational thermal stress provided tensile stress, which is needed for SCC. Stress corrosion cracking is induced by polythionic acid. Concentrated water with other aggressive agents such as caustic and chlorides leaked through the cracks aid the failures.
Cleaning of the shell by demineralized water after each shut down in order to prevent the forming of insulating deposits above the tube sheet
Reduction of sulfur in feeding gas
Reduction of caustic and chlorides in processed water
Carryover of caustic soda (NaOH) in the steam path caused catastrophic failure of superheater stainless steel tubes in a gas-fired heater and led to an unexpected shutdown after just 5 months of continuous service following the start of production. The failure areas are shown in Figure 8. Three types of cracks are identified in various regions of the tube: circumferential cracks adjacent to the seam weld, circumferential cracks at the ribbon of the seam weld, and longitudinal cracks on the U-bend. The path of cracks was complex on the surface or in the bulk metal; all had nucleated from inside the tubes. A visual inspection revealed a white deposit, high in sodium, around the cracks on the surface of the tubes.
(a and b) Circumferential cracks adjacent to the seam weld, (c and d) circumferential cracks at the ribbon of seam weld, and (e) longitudinal cracks on the U-bend [9].
The superheater tube material was made of AISI 304H austenitic stainless steel material.
The gas-fired steam heater (FH) generates high-pressure (HP) steam for turbines for the processing of methanol. Demineralized water for the boiler and subsequent steam path is prepared in the water treatment unit. Caustic soda is injected to demineralized water for pH control. The water is transferred to the preheat exchangers, is converted to saturated high-pressure steam at 325°C and 119 MPa, and is sent to the FH. Through the FH tubes, saturated steam converted to supersaturate steam at a temperature of 505°C and pressure of 119 MPa.
The main cause of crack initiation was the increase of pH due to the rise of caustic concentration in condensed drops. Sensitized austenite grains caused by chromium carbide depletion adjacent to the grain boundaries were attacked by concentrated caustic in the HAZ metal and U-bend area and led the heater to the caustic SCC failure.
Using A335 Grade P9, a low alloy steel tube shows higher resistance to SCC than AISI 304H stainless steel
Proper discharge of the tubes during shutdowns to prevent the formation of the concentrated deposits of caustic through the tubes
After a general overhaul of a thermal power plant in Serbia in November 2014, failure of hundreds of brass condenser tubes occurred during the hydrostatic test. Also, it was noted that some backing plates had fallen off from the tubes before this test. Fracture is observed only in condenser tubes of brass, as can be seen in Figure 9.
Failure of brass condenser tubes near joining location with backing plate.
The failed tube material of the condenser was made of brass CuZn28Sn1 (admiralty brass). The cooling water (roughly filtered river water) flows through the tubes, while the hot steam flows around the tubes.
Analysis of fracture surfaces using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has shown the brittle transgranular fracture due to the occurrence of SCC. The condenser tubes are made of brass CuZn28Sn1. Ammonia and other nitrogen compounds in the cooling water through the tubes were found. These compounds are specific agents that cause stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in brass. In the joining region of condenser tubes to backing plates, there are residual tensile stresses. During the floods in May 2014, there was an increase in the concentration of ammonia and other nitrogen compounds in the river cooling water flowing through the condenser tubes. Failure of brass condenser tubes occurred due to SCC, because the necessary conditions for the SCC occurrence were fulfilled.
The risk of SCC in brass condenser tubes can be reduced if specific substances responsible for SCC occurrence are removed, as much as possible. This can be achieved by cleaning and drying the tubes immediately after the operation delay of the power plant.
Another way to reduce the risk of SCC occurrence in condenser tubes is the replacement of existing tubes (made of brass CuZn28Sn1, very susceptible to SCC) with tubes made of alloys of greater resistance to SCC, such as copper-nickel alloys or Bi-brass alloys [61].
Stress corrosion cracking is one of the main causes of unforeseen and dangerous destruction of industrial plants. The sensitized material, certain environments, and stress are three factors necessary for the occurrence of these types of failures. The environment prone to the cracking for each metal or alloy is specific because not all environments promote the SCC. Austenitic stainless steels suffer from SCC in chlorides, caustic, and polythionic acid. Copper alloys corrode in ammonia-containing environments. Well-known specific environments for the stress corrosion cracking in Al alloys include water vapor, aqueous solutions, organic liquids, and liquid metals. The SCC of Ti alloys in aqueous chloride and methanolic chloride environments has been widely reported. The tensile stress plays a key role in the stress corrosion cracking phenomenon. The required tensile stresses may be in the form of directly applied stresses, thermal, in the form of residual stresses, or a combination of all.
If one of these three components does not exist, this type of corrosion will not occur. Therefore, the solving methods should be based on the elimination of one of these three factors. Corrosive environment modification, the stress in the form of compression, and using proper material are three general proposed methods of prevention.
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She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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