Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6524",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Heterojunctions and Nanostructures",title:"Heterojunctions and Nanostructures",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The current book entitled Heterojunctions and Nanostructures is divided into two sections. In Section 1, the chapters are related to topological insulators where their theoretical aspects, their current experiments, and their applications are presented. A few presented topics are, among others, the topological phases of matter, band topology of insulators and also of Weyl semimetals, transport properties of 3D topological insulator quantum wires and the influence of disorder, transport properties of quasi-1D (and 2D) topological surface states, quantum coherence, and topological insulator thin-film Hall bar device. In Section 2, the chapters are related to light devices such as laser diodes and their fabrication techniques. This section includes, among others, topics such as semiconductor quantum nanowire laser diodes, solutions of Schrodinger equation in nanostructures, numerical methods, light-to-electricity conversion devices, photoexcited carrier transportation process in quantum wells and quantum dots, growth mode and characterization of heterostructure of large lattice mismatch, and photoionization cross section.",isbn:"978-1-78923-469-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-468-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-525-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71162",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"heterojunctions-and-nanostructures",numberOfPages:128,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"fefc5b353d60c5125f1783fc4208194b",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Stavrou",publishedDate:"July 25th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6524.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6722,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 27th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 18th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 17th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 7th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 6th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"99725",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasilios N.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavrou",slug:"vasilios-n.-stavrou",fullName:"Vasilios N. Stavrou",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. V. N. Stavrou is currently an Adjunct Member at the Hellenic Naval Academy, Piraeus, Greece. He received an MSc and a Ph.D. in theoretical solid-state physics from the University of Essex in England, in 1995 and in 1999 respectively. He has held postdoctoral positions at the following research institutions: a) Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fuer Luft und Raumfahrt e.V (German Aerospace Research Center) in Germany, b) Helsinki University of Technology, c) State University of New York (SUNY) at Buffalo, USA and d) University of Iowa, USA. He is specifically interested in searching the electronic, optical, and lattice properties of semiconducting low dimensional structures.",institutionString:"Hellenic Naval Academy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Hellenic Naval Academy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"959",title:"Solid-State Physics",slug:"semiconductor-solid-state-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"60147",title:"Analysis of Topological Material Surfaces",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74934",slug:"analysis-of-topological-material-surfaces",totalDownloads:1859,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"We provide a systematic analysis of the boundary condition for the edge state, which is a ubiquitous feature in topological phases of matter. We show how to characterize the boundary condition, and how the edge state spectrum depends on it, with several examples, including 2d topological insulator and 3d Weyl semimetal. We also demonstrate the edge-of-edge state localized at the intersection of boundaries.",signatures:"Taro Kimura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60147",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60147",authors:[{id:"140579",title:"Dr.",name:"Taro",surname:"Kimura",slug:"taro-kimura",fullName:"Taro Kimura"}],corrections:null},{id:"62233",title:"Spin-Helical Dirac Fermions in 3D Topological Insulator Quantum Wires",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76152",slug:"spin-helical-dirac-fermions-in-3d-topological-insulator-quantum-wires",totalDownloads:1185,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The next generation of electronic devices based on 3D topological insulators will be developed from advanced functional nanostructures and heterostructures. Toward this goal, single-crystalline nanowires offer interesting opportunities for new developments due to the strong quantum confinement of spin-helical surface Dirac fermions and to the possibility to realize core-shell lateral nanostructures adapted to the control of the electro-chemical potential at the interface with a topological insulator. Here, we review the specific transport properties of 3D topological insulator quantum wires and the influence of disorder. Having a large energy quantization, weakly-coupled Dirac surface modes are prone to quasi-ballistic transport, with some analogies to carbon nanotubes but with spin-textured quantum states weakly coupled by non-magnetic disorder. Due to a small interaction with their environment, these surface modes are good candidates to realize novel quantum spintronic devices, spanning from ballistic spin conductors to localized spin filters. A specific topological mode also holds promises to control chiral edge states and Majorana bound states in truly 1D quantum wires, being tunable with a magnetic field or an electrical gate. Challenges toward these goals are briefly discussed, as well as the need for novel functional heterostructures.",signatures:"Romain Giraud and Joseph Dufouleur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62233",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62233",authors:[{id:"228460",title:"Dr.",name:"Romain",surname:"Giraud",slug:"romain-giraud",fullName:"Romain Giraud"},{id:"228464",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Dufouleur",slug:"joseph-dufouleur",fullName:"Joseph Dufouleur"}],corrections:null},{id:"61658",title:"Observation of the Weak Antilocalization and Linear Magnetoresistance in Topological Insulator Thin Film Hall Bar Device",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76900",slug:"observation-of-the-weak-antilocalization-and-linear-magnetoresistance-in-topological-insulator-thin-",totalDownloads:1023,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this research work, without using any resist and lithography techniques, we report clean, surface protected and high quality Topological Insulator (TI) thin film Hall Bar device of millimeter size long. In the magnetotransport measurements, the pronounced effect of weak antilocalization (WAL) behavior has been observed at low temperatures over the range T = 4–10 K and in the low field regions and the WAL cusp disappears as we go from 10 K onwards to higher temperatures, also we find that the high-field magenetoresistance (MR) is linear in field. With respect to magnetic field (B), the MR behavior seems to be symmetric. We also analyze the thickness dependent weak antilocalization (WAL) behavior, which has been observed in Topological Insulator Bi2Te3 thin film Hall Bar device. For varying thickness, our systematic magnetotransport measurements reveal WAL signals obtain in thicker films whereas below the critical thickness of ~4 nm, a sudden diminishment of the surface transport has been observed by suppression of WAL behavior. The analyzed and pronounced behavior of this effect is also greatly dependent on the temperatures, where the WAL cusps are observed in the low-field regions and at low temperatures.",signatures:"Sunil Kumar Pradhan and Ranjan Barik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61658",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61658",authors:[{id:"225132",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunil",surname:"Pradhan",slug:"sunil-pradhan",fullName:"Sunil Pradhan"}],corrections:null},{id:"59752",title:"Growth Mode and Characterization of Si/SiC Heterostructure of Large Lattice-Mismatch",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74935",slug:"growth-mode-and-characterization-of-si-sic-heterostructure-of-large-lattice-mismatch",totalDownloads:963,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Si/6H-SiC heterostructure of large lattice mismatch follows domain epitaxy mode, which release most of the lattice-mismatch strain, and the coherent Si epilayers can be grown on 6H-SiC. An interfacial misfit dislocation array is present at the interface that determines the domain’s size. In this chapter, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and high resolution X-ray diffraction (HRXRD) were employed to reveal in-plane orientation, interface structure and growth mode of the Si/SiC heterostructure. Based on the characterizations, residual lattice mismatch and edge misfit dislocation density at the hetero-interface can be precisely controlled. And these characterization methods are applicable for the heterostructures of large-lattice mismatch, except for the heterostructures with different crystal symmetry on the film and the substrate.",signatures:"Lianbi Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59752",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59752",authors:[{id:"228047",title:"Dr.",name:"Lianbi",surname:"Li",slug:"lianbi-li",fullName:"Lianbi Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"59648",title:"Quantum Wells and Ultrathin Metallic Films",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74150",slug:"quantum-wells-and-ultrathin-metallic-films",totalDownloads:880,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter illustrates how simple quantum mechanics can sometimes provide quite precise description of nanophysics phenomena. From this perspective, both exact and approximate solutions for the bound-state energy of an electron in a square well are exposed. These results are used to improve the calculation of quantum size effects (QSEs) in ultrathin metallic films, obtained by several authors with simpler models of quantum wells. We show that, for a small (less than 5) number of monolayers, the differences between the predictions of these simpler models, and our approach, are important. Methods to improve the accuracy in the evaluation of various quantum size effects are shortly discussed. Using quantum mechanical-electromagnetic analogies, our results can be used in the study of light propagation in dielectric wave guides.",signatures:"Victor Barsan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59648",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59648",authors:[{id:"100805",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Barsan",slug:"victor-barsan",fullName:"Victor Barsan"}],corrections:null},{id:"60738",title:"Photoionization Cross Section in Low-Dimensional Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75736",slug:"photoionization-cross-section-in-low-dimensional-systems",totalDownloads:815,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A theoretical investigation of the effects of the parabolic, shifted parabolic, hill-like, and cup-like parabolic confining electric potentials on photoionization cross section (PCS) in a spherical quantum dot is presented. Each of the parabolic potentials is superimposed on an infinite spherical square quantum well (ISSQW) potential. The parabolic potential blueshifts the peaks of the PCS, while the shifted parabolic potential causes a redshift. As the so-called strength of cup-like parabolic potential is increased, the peak of the PCS becomes redshifted for the \n\ns\n→\np\n\n transition, but blueshifted for the \n\np\n→\nd\n\n, \n\nd\n→\nf\n\n (and so forth) transitions. On the contrary, an increase in the strength of the hill-like parabolic potential blueshifts peaks of the PCS for \n\ns\n→\np\n\n transitions, while it redshifts those of transitions between higher states.",signatures:"Moletlanyi Tshipa and Monkami Masale",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60738",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60738",authors:[{id:"228592",title:"Mr.",name:"Moletlanyi",surname:"Tshipa",slug:"moletlanyi-tshipa",fullName:"Moletlanyi Tshipa"},{id:"229613",title:"Prof.",name:"Monkami",surname:"Masale",slug:"monkami-masale",fullName:"Monkami Masale"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6100",title:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"78673eed1e24eaecb8331eb0efcae2de",slug:"nonmagnetic-and-magnetic-quantum-dots",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. 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Stavrou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4722.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99725",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasilios N.",surname:"Stavrou",slug:"vasilios-n.-stavrou",fullName:"Vasilios N. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
After the Industrial Revolution, rapid developments in technology and industrialization cause environmental problems to meet the increasing needs. At this point, many countries have begun to implement environment protection rules, which are part of environmental management systems (EMS). Managing and improving environmental performances, increasing resource efficiency, complying with environmental laws and regulations and adapting to changing requirements are part of EMS and helped organizations for maintaining environmental policy. Environmental regulations can differ from country to country. So, these differences create barriers to trade. Firms have initiated various ventures in order to remove trading barriers and be able to make cleaner production and to use natural resources most efficiently as a result of compulsory pressures created by regulatory regimes. One of these powerful ventures is building an integration environmental thinking into supply chain management, which is called green supply chain management (GSCM). Jolley’s research [1] supports that EMS and green supply chain practices are complementary to each other. Over the last years, GSCM has an important role to build powerful economic environmental performances at different levels in organizations [2]. To improve green skills, all firms need successful implementation of GSCM within the organization.
\n
In the literature, there are many different definitions for GSCM. However, in general, GSCM means the explicit consideration of ecological dimensions in the planning, operations and management of supply chains [3]. Minimizing or eradicating wastes including hazardous chemical, emissions, energy and solid waste along supply chain process such as product design, material sourcing and selection, manufacturing process, delivery of final product to the consumers and end-of-life management of the product are the main aims of GSCM [4, 5]. In order to reach these main aims and increase the efficiency of green supply chain management, firms apply multi-criteria decision-making techniques. In a highly competitive fuzzy environment, using fuzzy group decision-making methods is more effective to find the optimal solutions.
\n
Therefore, in this chapter, an extended technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution (TOPSIS) for group decision-making with intuitionistic fuzzy numbers is proposed to assess GSCM performance of tire manufacturing companies. First of all, performance drivers of GSCM performance are determined with the help of literature review and opinions of academic and industrial experts. After deciding the main drivers of GSCM performances, three decision-makers who have certain experience and expertise give individual opinions about drivers and alternatives. In other studies in this area, the weights of each decision-maker in a specific group are generally ignored; however, in this study, relative importance of each decision-maker’s opinions is determined by using intuitionistic fuzzy numbers. Intuitionistic fuzzy weighted averaging (IFWA) operator, developed by Xu in 2007 [6], is utilized to aggregate individual opinions of decision-makers for rating the importance of criteria and alternatives.
\n
This chapter proposes an intuitionistic fuzzy multi-criteria group decision-making with the TOPSIS method for GSCM performance evaluation. In Section 2, many definitions of GSCM are given and researches about GSCM have been explained. The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. In Section 3, the proposed methodology in this chapter is explained. A brief description of intuitionistic fuzzy sets is also given in subSection 1 of Section 3. SubSection 2 of Section 3 presents a detailed description of intuitionistic fuzzy TOPSIS method. In Section 4, a numerical example, which is about GSCM performances of tire manufacturing companies, is demonstrated. Finally, the conclusion of this chapter and obtained results are presented in Section 5.
\n
\n
\n
2. Green supply chain management
\n
Environmentally responsible manufacturing created a relation between environmental researches in logistics and the reverse logistics. Therefore, the idea of GSCM emerged in this way, and it is said that its history was based on the researches on reverse logistics in 1990s [7]. According to [8], if a definition is to be made about supply chain and green supply chain, this definition depends on the economic, social, environmental, coordination, relationship, efficiency and performance criteria, which belong to business sustainability and supply chain management characteristics.
\n
The GSCM notion in the literature has been defined in many researches and studies in recent years. Some of these definitions have been general and comprehensively covered the whole area, while others have focused on specific aspects [9]. Gilbert [10] explains that GSCM is an integration of traditional supply chain management facilities and environmental criteria. Hervani et al. [11] defined that GSCM is the collection of green purchasing, green manufacturing management, green distribution and reverse logistics. GSCM begins at the point of product design and continues until the end of the product’s lifecycle in every step of the supply chain process, including recycling or environmentally friendly eradication of the product [12].
\n
A number of researchers have focused on supply chain management and also GSCM as the potential multi-criteria decision-making problem in recent years. For example, Muduli and Barve [13] have made an attempt to identify main success criteria such as top management commitment, gap analysis, implementation and continual improvement for GSCM implementation in Indian mining industries and used the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to represent the existing interrelationship between factors in a structured way. Kamolkittiwong and Phruksaphanrat [14] also have tried to implement GSCM strategy of the electronic industry in Thailand to help the new companies that want to enter the market in their study. It aimed to determine the importance level of external and internal critical factors of GSCM strategy implementation. In another research, Toke et al. [15] have found the weights of critical success factors of GSCM in Indian manufacturing industry with the help of AHP steps. Mathiyazhagan et al. [16] examined the pressures for GSCM adoption via AHP. References [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26] have built AHP and fuzzy AHP models for the evaluation of different GSCM practices. As seen, despite the fact that studies which applied on AHP models are mostly in the majority, in the green supply chain literature, GSCM practices can be often investigated differently by many different multi-criteria decision-making techniques such as TOPSIS, VIKOR, DEMATEL among researchers. For instance, Muralidhar et al. [27] have applied TOPSIS and fuzzy AHP together to evaluate various green supply chain management strategies, which are composed of green procurement, manufacturing, green service to customers and environmental management process. Akman and Piskin [28] have integrated Analytical Network Process (ANP) and TOPSIS to assess GSCM practices performance of 18 green suppliers by utilizing main criteria such as pollution control, environment management system, green products, environmental collaboration and environmental competency. The models [29, 30, 31, 32, 33] used in their articles are given as some examples of TOPSIS and fuzzy TOPSIS.
\n
Rostamzadeh et al. [34] concentrated on fuzzy VIKOR to maintain GSCM activities in four laptop manufacturing companies. Main criteria such as green design, green purchasing, green production, green warehousing, green transportation and green recycling were evaluated to rank these companies in this research. According to Malviya and Kant [35], measuring the success of GSCM implementation via a hybrid model which constructed DEMATEL and fuzzy sets was contributed to green supply chain literature. Strategic, organizational, social-cultural, buyer and supplier activity, legislation and technical GSCM practices were the evaluated main factors to compare success and failure assessments in this research. Comparing to other multi-criteria decision-making techniques, in the literature, there are a few studies about GSCM performances under intuitionistic fuzzy environment. However, there is a growing interest about this specific subject. Govindan et al. [36] proposed an intuitionistic fuzzy DEMATEL method to obtain green practices in an efficient manner for the automotive sector. GSCM performances criteria such as reverse logistics, green design, green purchasing, carbon management, supplier environmental collaboration, customer environmental collaboration, ISO 14001 certification, internal management support, environmental performance and economic performance and their interdependencies were improved by applying the DEMATEL technique. It has been determined that automotive firms need to properly implement GSCM in order to avoid the adverse effects of strict regulations and increasing community concerns.
\n
Wan and Li [37] developed a new fuzzy mathematical programming method for solving complex multi-attribute decision-making problems with interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy sets to determine the weights and make green supplier selection. Green supplier selection is the one of the critical problems of GSCM. According to this research, the focuses of green supplier selection are different from the traditional supplier selections. Li and Wu [38] have improved intuitionistic fuzzy TOPSIS model for green supplier selection, and their findings show that the model can solve this selection problem under uncertain environment effectively.
\n
The performance measurement perspective of GSCM has been supported by various authors. Hervani et al. [39] firstly aimed at determining the GSCM performance tools. After that, with an integrated study, green purchasing, green manufacturing, green marketing and reverse logistics were used in the main definition of GSCM performance. To provide long-term business life in green-based organizations, firms have to focus on all important criteria of GSCM performance. The purposes of this focus on GSCM performance have been identified as making robust external reporting, managing firms in the best way and also making an internal analysis about business and environment. Rao and Holt [2] analyzed supply chain management from the greening perspective and found a link between GSCM practices and necessity of competitive activities. According to them, if GSCM was applied by all organizations, economic performances and competitiveness could be obtainable. Zhu et al. [40] studied on GSCM practices of four different Chinese industries, and they reached the conclusion that the industrial differences affected the adoption of GSCM. Jakhar [41] determined main criteria and subcriteria of GSCM performances. Green supplier partnership performance, green production performance, green delivery and logistics performance are used as main criteria, while cost of raw material, carbon footprint, defect rate, flexibility rate, recycling rate, ordering cost, unit manufacturing cost, capacity utilization level, usage of energy, product quality, production flexibility, transportation cost, greenhouse gas emission, delivery time and delivery reliability are subcriteria. Uygun and Dede [26] applied DEMATEL, ANP and TOPSIS methods under fuzzy environment to make a general evaluation about GSCM main criteria and subcriteria. Green design, green purchasing, green transformation, green logistics and reverse logistics are defined as main criteria, along with product features, material selection, energy usage, life-cycle design, eco-design, design for environment, reusable materials, green manufacturing, green packaging, green stock politics, quality of service, quality of technology, quality regulations, and so on. The main aim of this research is to show the effectiveness of green activities of firms. Surmacz [42] explained why the firms need GSCM performance measurement systems. Recognition of green goals of firms and early warning for failures must be included while considering effective factors of GSCM performance measurement.
\n
As seen, GSCM performance measurement is a very difficult problem for companies. This is mainly the case because measuring environmental performances is indeed a difficult task due to the reasons such as the lack of data, weak technology, cultural and organizational conflicts in an uncertain future. However, in a general view, in this chapter, the components of GSCM performance measurement are determined and used for GSCM evaluation in tire manufacturing companies. These components, which are called Green Design, Green Purchasing, Green Transformation, Green Logistics and Reverse Logistics, are used as criteria of GSCM performance. Green design is an environmental matter that both manufacturers and producers focus on. From the perspective of GSCM, green design proves helpful during the design phase particularly in terms of identifying product features, material selection, energy usage, and so on. Green purchasing is defined as an environmentally sensitive purchasing practice. According to Min and Galle [43], it is an ongoing procedure of recycling reusable or recyclable materials. It helps to satisfy customers and to ensure the brand image of the companies. Green transformation comprises all transformation activities such as green manufacturing, green packaging and green stock policies for production process of a product [44]. Green logistics uses an environmental way to deliver products and services. It aims to preserve resources to satisfy requirements about ecological balance [45]. Reducing idle use will help improve work efficiency. Reverse logistics is briefly about reusing the product materials. It manages networks which help product returns, remanufacturing, recovery, reuse and redistribution [46].
\n
\n
\n
3. Methodology
\n
A number of researchers have focused on supply chain management and also on green supply chain management as the potential multi-criteria decision-making problems in recent years. The evidence from the literature, therefore, is that there is a lack of consensus on the impact of GSCM on performance outcomes. This conflict was recognized and discussed in different studies including those by Eltayeb et al. and Zhu et al. [47, 48]. Zhu et al. [48] argued that the conflicting findings have the potential to become a barrier for organizations that intend to implement GSCM. In this chapter, the proposed performance evaluation model for GSCM is a hybrid model which combines TOPSIS and intuitionistic fuzzy set.
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\n
3.1. Intuitionistic fuzzy set
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The first appearance of the concept of fuzzy logic came in 1965 when Zadeh published a paper entitled “Fuzzy Sets” in a journal named Information and Control [49]. Fuzzy logic, also expressed as the adaptation of mathematics to the real world, is based on uncertainties.
\n
The fuzzy set theory, unlike the classical known set theory, operates according to the Aristo logic and allows the partial membership of an element to a set. For example, this suggests adding less sharp values into the cluster such as very long-long-medium-short-very short, hot-warm-less cold-cold-very cold values instead of using sharp values such as long-short, hot-cold, fast-slow, black and white. These intermediate values are in the form of verbal expressions and are called fuzzy variables. The intuitive fuzzy set was developed for the first time by Atanassov [50] and has appeared in the literature as a generalized version of the fuzzy set. According to Atanassov’s definition [50], intuitionistic fuzzy set A in a nonempty set X can be shown as:
\n
\n\n\nA\n=\n\n\n\n\nx\n\n\nμ\nA\n\n\nx\n\n\n\n\nv\nA\n\n\nx\n\n\n\n\nx\n∈\nX\n\n\n\n where \n\n\nμ\nA\n\n\nx\n\n:\n→\n\n0\n1\n\n\n, \n\n\nv\nA\n\n\nx\n\n:\nX\n→\n\n0\n1\n\n\n are membership functions and nonmembership functions separately.
\n\n\n\nπ\nA\n\n\nx\n\n\n is a third parameter of intuitionistic fuzzy set. \n\n\nπ\nA\n\n=\n1\n−\n\nμ\nA\n\n\nx\n\n−\n\nv\nA\n\n\nx\n\n\n is known as the degree of indeterminacy of x which belongs to A or not. So, it is clear that \n\n0\n≤\n\nπ\nA\n\n\nx\n\n≤\n1\n\n, \n\n∀\nx\n∈\nX\n\n. On the other hand, if the \n\n\nπ\nA\n\n\nx\n\n\n is small, an understanding about x is more certain. If the \n\n\nπ\nA\n\n\nx\n\n\n is big, an understanding about x is more uncertain. Apparently, when \n\n\nμ\nA\n\n\nx\n\n=\n1\n−\n\nv\nA\n\n\nx\n\n\n for all elements of the universe, the ordinary fuzzy set construction is retrieved [51]. A and B are intuitionistic fuzzy sets of the set X, and multiplication operator is exhibited as in Atanassov’s research [50].
Technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution methods (TOPSIS), one of the multi-criteria decision-making techniques, was developed by Hwang and Yoon in 1981 [52]; it is based on the shortest distance to positive ideal solution and the farthest distance to negative ideal solution and aims to rank alternatives according to distance measurement. TOPSIS also differs from other multi-criteria decision-making techniques in terms of being a technique that solves all the evaluation criteria at the same time and presents a single distribution to the decision-makers. Furthermore, its literature history is really powerful. In this chapter, the TOPSIS method intends to achieve the ultimate decision by expanding intuitively fuzzy environment.
\n
Let \n\n
\n be a set of alternatives, while \n\n
\n be a set of criteria. The relative importance of decision-makers in group of l decision-makers is also a part of the account. The fact that some of decision-makers have different knowledge, experiences and education level differentiates the importance levels of their opinions.
\n : ith alternatives of an intuitive value from jth criterion given by kth decision-maker.
\n
\n\n\n
\n : jth criterion membership degree of ith alternatives to kth decision-maker.
\n
\n\n\n
\n : jth criterion nonmembership degree of ith alternatives to kth decision-maker.
\n
\n\n\n
\n : the uncertainty degree to kth decision-maker.
\n
According to all given definitions, the hybrid use of the intuitive fuzzy set theory with TOPSIS is proposed by Boran et al. [53], and the steps of the Intuitionistic Fuzzy TOPSIS method are as follows:
\n
Step 1: Determination of the weights of decision-makers.
\n
Since group decision-making is a matter of concern, the significance ratings within the group of expert decision-makers are expressed in linguistic terms based on the fuzzy set theory, and at later stages, these terms are transformed into intuitive fuzzy numbers.
\n
\n\n\n
\n is an intuitionistic fuzzy number for rating kth decision-maker.
\n
The weight of kth decision maker can be calculated, as shown in Eq. 3:
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE3
\n
and also \n\n
\n\n\n
\n ve \n\n
\n.
\n
Step 2: Conversion of decision-makers’ evaluation about alternatives into aggregated intuitionistic fuzzy decision matrix.
\n
The intuitive fuzzy weighted averaging (IFWA) operator proposed by Xu [6] is used because all the decision-makers’ evaluations on the subject can be presented as a group decision and no loss of thought by any party in the group occurs.
\n
According to this operator, different evaluations can be presented as a single evaluation.
\n is an element of R aggregated intuitionistic fuzzy decision matrix. R matrix can be shown as follows:
\n
\n\n\n
\n\n
\n
Step 3: Calculation of the weights of criteria.
\n
As each decision-maker may hold a different opinion on the criterion, the criterion taken for the evaluation in different topics may also be different from each other. In order to reflect this situation to the calculations, each decision-maker’s thoughts about the criteria must be expressed in intuitive fuzzy values and combined with the idea of group decision without loss of thought. For this reason, a different IFWA operator, proposed by Xu [6] for the weights of the following criteria, is used as follows:
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE5
\n
\n\n\n
\n are the weights calculated for criteria. Each weight is expressed like that: \n\n
\n.
\n
Step 4: Construction of aggregated weighted intuitionistic fuzzy decision matrix.
\n
The aggregated weighted intuitionistic fuzzy decision matrix is constructed by combining with criteria weights and the aggregated intuitionistic fuzzy decision matrix, which is determined in second step. The following definition is [50]:
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE6
\n
and
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE7
\n
\n\n\n
\n are the elements of matrix.
\n
The aggregated weighted intuitionistic fuzzy decision matrix (\n\n
\n) can be shown as follows:
\n
\n\n\n
\n\n
\n
Step 5: Calculation of intuitionistic fuzzy positive-ideal solution and intuitionistic fuzzy negative-ideal solution.
\n
\n\n\n
\n is defined as the set of benefit criteria, and \n\n
\n is also defined as the set of cost criteria. At this point, \n\n
\n is intuitionistic fuzzy positive-ideal solution and \n\n
\n is intuitionistic fuzzy negative-ideal solution. Respectively, solutions are formulated as:
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE8
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE9
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE10
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE11
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE12
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE13
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE14
\n
Step 6: Calculation of positive and negative separation measures.
\n
To measure the separation between alternatives on the positive intuitive fuzzy ideal solution and the negative intuitive fuzzy ideal solution, calculation of distance measurement can vary. For instance, the TOPSIS method generally applies to Euclidean distance measurement; however, in the literature, to remove some mathematical set obstacles, Hamming distance measurement and normalized distance measurement are proposed by Szmidt ve Kacprzyk in 2000 [54]. In this chapter, Hamming distance measurement is used to measure the separation between the positive and the negative measurement of intuitive fuzzy ideal solution.
\n
According to this, the following formulas are used to calculate for \n\n
\n and \n\n
\n:
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE15
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE16
\n
Step 7: Calculation of the relative closeness coefficient to the intuitionistic ideal solution.
\n
The relative closeness coefficient of an alternative with respect to the intuitionistic fuzzy positive ideal solution is calculated as follows:
\n
\n\n\n
\n\nE17
\n
Step 8: Ranking the alternatives.
\n
Alternatives are ranked according to descending order of relative closeness coefficient value, which is calculated in step 7. Thus, the final assessment of all alternatives is completed in this step.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Application of measuring the performance of green supply chain management for tire manufacturers
\n
This numerical and real case study is about the usage of the TOPSIS method combined with intuitionistic fuzzy set for the evaluation of drivers of GSCM performance of tire manufacturing companies in the group decision-making environment. These companies as the alternative companies are evaluated and ranked by intuitionistic fuzzy TOPSIS in terms of performance determination of GSCM. Firstly, experts from academic and this specific industrial domain help to determine the necessary drivers of GSCM. \nTable 1\n presents these five drivers, which are explained in Section 2 as criteria. After pre-evaluation, a committee composed of three decision-makers filled out the questionnaire about green drivers of six tire manufacturing companies competing in the same sector.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
C1
\n
Green design
\n
\n
\n
C2
\n
Green purchasing
\n
\n
\n
C3
\n
Green transformation
\n
\n
\n
C4
\n
Green logistics
\n
\n
\n
C5
\n
Reverse logistics
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Five drivers of GSCM activities.
\n
Also, the importance levels of ideas among decision-makers have been calculated by using Eq. 3 as the most important detail in this method. The proposed steps in the following are used to reach the best performance of green supply chain management.
\n
Step 1: Determination of the weights of decision-makers.
\n
Linguistic terms in \nTable 2\n are used to determine both the weights of decision-makers in the group and criteria. In the literature, it is possible to see that different linguistic terms can be applied. However, in this chapter, the linguistic terms, which Boran et al. [53] used in their research, are used. These linguistic terms seem appropriate.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Linguistic terms
\n
Intuitionistic fuzzy number
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Very unimportant
\n
(0.1. 0.9. 0)
\n
\n
\n
Unimportant
\n
(0.35. 0.6. 0.05)
\n
\n
\n
Medium level important
\n
(0.5. 0.45. 0.05)
\n
\n
\n
Important
\n
(0.75. 0.2. 0.05)
\n
\n
\n
Very important
\n
(0.9. 0.1. 0)
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Linguistic terms for rating the importance of criteria and the decision-makers.
\n
The importance levels and weights of the decision-makers are calculated as in \nTable 3\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Decision-maker 1
\n
Decision-maker 2
\n
Decision-maker 3
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Very important
\n
Important
\n
Medium level important
\n
\n
\n
0.4062
\n
0.3563
\n
0.2375
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
The importance of decision-makers and their weights.
\n
Decision-makers in this group have different levels of education, different working experiences and company positions.
\n
Step 2: Conversion of decision-makers’ evaluation about alternatives into aggregated intuitionistic fuzzy decision matrix.
\n
The linguistic terms for evaluating alternatives on a per-criteria basis by three decision-makers were accepted as presented in \nTable 4\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Linguistic terms
\n
Intuitionistic fuzzy number
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Very good (VG)
\n
(0.75. 0.10. 0.15)
\n
\n
\n
Good (G)
\n
(0.65. 0.25. 0.15)
\n
\n
\n
Fair (F)
\n
(0.50. 0.50. 0.00)
\n
\n
\n
Bad (B)
\n
(0.25. 0.60. 0.15)
\n
\n
\n
Very bad (VB)
\n
(0.10. 0.75. 0.15)
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Linguistic terms for rating alternatives.
\n
\n\nTable 5\n summarizes questionnaire evaluation about criteria of the alternatives by three decision-makers.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Decision-makers
\n
Alternatives
\n
C1
\n
C2
\n
C3
\n
C4
\n
C5
\n
\n\n\n
\n
DM1
\n
A1
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
\n
\n
A2
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
F
\n
G
\n
\n
\n
A3
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
\n
\n
A4
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
F
\n
G
\n
\n
\n
A5
\n
F
\n
B
\n
F
\n
F
\n
F
\n
\n
\n
A6
\n
F
\n
F
\n
F
\n
F
\n
F
\n
\n
\n
DM2
\n
A1
\n
G
\n
G
\n
VG
\n
F
\n
G
\n
\n
\n
A2
\n
G
\n
G
\n
VG
\n
F
\n
G
\n
\n
\n
A3
\n
G
\n
G
\n
VG
\n
F
\n
G
\n
\n
\n
A4
\n
VG
\n
G
\n
VG
\n
F
\n
G
\n
\n
\n
A5
\n
B
\n
F
\n
F
\n
B
\n
B
\n
\n
\n
A6
\n
F
\n
G
\n
G
\n
F
\n
F
\n
\n
\n
DM3
\n
A1
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
F
\n
G
\n
\n
\n
A2
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
F
\n
G
\n
\n
\n
A3
\n
G
\n
G
\n
G
\n
F
\n
F
\n
\n
\n
A4
\n
G
\n
G
\n
F
\n
F
\n
F
\n
\n
\n
A5
\n
B
\n
B
\n
F
\n
F
\n
F
\n
\n
\n
A6
\n
F
\n
F
\n
F
\n
F
\n
G
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Evaluation of alternatives according to criteria by decision-makers.
\n
In order to ensure no losses occur in the decision-makers’ opinion, the IFWA operator is used to construct the aggregated intuitionistic fuzzy decision matrix, shown in \nTable 6\n, with the help of the evaluation in \nTable 5\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
—
\n
C1
\n
C2
\n
C3
\n
C4
\n
C5
\n
\n\n\n
\n
A1
\n
(0.600, 0.250, 0.150)
\n
(0.600, 0.250, 0.150)
\n
(0.662, 0.180. 0.158)
\n
(0.543, 0.377, 0.079)
\n
(0.600, 0.250, 0.150)
\n
\n
\n
A2
\n
(0.600, 0.250, 0.150)
\n
(0.600, 0.250, 0.150)
\n
(0.662, 0.180. 0.158)
\n
(0.500. 0.500. 0.000)
\n
(0.600, 0.250, 0.150)
\n
\n
\n
A3
\n
(0.600, 0.250, 0.150)
\n
(0.600, 0.250, 0.150)
\n
(0.662, 0.180. 0.158)
\n
(0.543, 0.100, 0.150)
\n
(0.578, 0.295, 0.127)
\n
\n
\n
A4
\n
(0.662, 0.180. 0.158)
\n
(0.600, 0.250, 0.150)
\n
(0.643, 0.213, 0.144)
\n
(0.500. 0.500. 0.000)
\n
(0.578, 0.295, 0.127)
\n
\n
\n
A5
\n
(0.364, 0.557, 0.079)
\n
(0.651, 0.562, 0.087)
\n
(0.500. 0.500. 0.000)
\n
(0.422, 0.534, 0.044)
\n
(0.422, 0.534, 0.044)
\n
\n
\n
A6
\n
(0.500, 0.500, 0.000)
\n
(0.538, 0.391, 0.071)
\n
(0.538, 0.391, 0.071)
\n
(0.500. 0.500. 0.000)
\n
(0.526, 0.424, 0.050)
\n
\n\n
Table 6.
Aggregated decision matrix.
\n
Step 3: Calculation of the weights of criteria.
\n
In the case of decision-making problems, the weight of each criterion is generally different from each other except for some specific evaluations. The most important reason for this is that the significance levels of criteria are different for each decision-maker. If the problem requires the determination of the importance of the decision-makers in a group, as in this study, the linguistic terms, shown in \nTable 2\n, and Eq. 3, are used together.
\n
In addition, evaluation of decision-makers about the criteria is presented in \nTable 7\n. By using IFWA, the weights of criteria are calculated as follows:
Step 4: Construction of aggregated weighted intuitionistic fuzzy decision matrix.
\n
It has become easier to calculate the aggregated weighted intuitionistic fuzzy decision matrix by determining the weight of each criterion. The final weighted combined decision matrix formed by the product operator (IFWA) defined in the intuitionistic fuzzy sets is given in \nTable 8\n.
Step 5: Calculation of intuitionistic fuzzy positive-ideal solution and intuitionistic fuzzy negative-ideal solution.
\n
All the criteria discussed in the problem are beneficial. Intuitionistic fuzzy positive-ideal solution (\n\n
\n) and intuitionistic fuzzy negative-ideal solution (\n\n
\n) are calculated by taking into consideration the benefit and cost criteria, and shown in \nTables 9\n and \n10\n.
\n
Step 6: Calculation of positive and negative separation measures.
\n
The separation measures between the alternatives and the positive intuitive fuzzy ideal solution and the negative intuitive fuzzy ideal solution are given in \nTable 11\n.
Separation measures and the relative closeness coefficient of each alternative.
\n
Step 7: Calculation of the relative closeness coefficient to the intuitionistic ideal solution.
\n
The relative closeness coefficients are determined and shown with positive and negative separation measures in the same table.
\n
Step 8. Ranking the alternatives.
\n
The relative closeness coefficients are used in the order of the alternatives. Six alternatives are ranked according to the descending order of \n\n
\n value. The alternative with the highest \n\n
\n value is the best alternative, while the alternative with the lowest value is the last alternative to be selected with the criterion-based evaluation. In this study, the best alternative was selected as alternate 1. While alternate 3 is in the second rank, six different tire manufacturing companies in the form of A1 > A3 > A4 > A2 > A6 > A5 were evaluated.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions and recommendations
\n
In today’s business environment, increasing practices of supply chain management with green perspectives have become remarkable and necessary. Thus, successful management of green activities in an uncertain future in a competitive environment has also become important to survive. This chapter explains an intuitionistic fuzzy group decision-making for green supply chain management performances of tire manufacturing companies using intuitionistic fuzzy TOPSIS. Dealing with uncertainties is the subject of this method. In addition to this characteristic, fuzzy average operator helps to combine ideas of decision-makers. On the other hand, if only TOPSIS used to make this evaluation, there would be a different solution. Because, even though TOPSIS has special distance calculations features while calculating the ideal optimal solution, it does not take into account decision-makers’ ideas with the different importance levels. All these make the proposed method preferable.
\n
In this chapter, to decide related criteria of GSCM, it is really important to investigate GSCM performances of Turkey’s top tire manufacturing companies. This proposed approach can be applied for companies operating in different sectors. In future studies, various multi-criteria decision-making techniques can be combined with intuitionistic fuzzy sets to create hybrid techniques.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"intuitionistic fuzzy TOPSIS, group decision-making, green supply chain management",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59326.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/59326.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59326",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59326",totalDownloads:863,totalViews:216,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:74,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 6th 2017",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 27th 2018",dateFinished:"February 13th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Green supply chain management (GSCM) integrates environmental regulations into supply chain management to diminish the negative effects of supply chain processes on the environment. The environmental problems appeared by an enterprise arise from designing the product and last until the recycling process. GSCM activities include five drivers such as green design, green purchasing, green transformation, green logistics and reverse logistics. In this chapter, the main aim is to explain these drivers and to show how to measure the GSCM success of companies, which operate as tire manufacturers by using an evaluation of a group of experts in their field. The proposed method, intuitionistic fuzzy technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution as an effective group decision-making method, helped to identify the alternative company 1 with the best GSCM performance among six different alternative tire companies under the consideration of five important GSCM drivers. The ranking result was as follows: A1 > A3 > A4 > A2 > A6 > A5.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59326",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59326",book:{id:"6562",slug:"multi-criteria-methods-and-techniques-applied-to-supply-chain-management"},signatures:"Berna Bulgurcu",authors:[{id:"167082",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Berna",middleName:null,surname:"Bulgurcu",fullName:"Berna Bulgurcu",slug:"berna-bulgurcu",email:"bkiran@cu.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Green supply chain management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Intuitionistic fuzzy set",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Intuitionistic fuzzy TOPSIS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Application of measuring the performance of green supply chain management for tire manufacturers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Conclusions and recommendations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nJason JG. Green supply chain management practices complement EMS systems. Sustainable Enterprise Quarterly. 2005;5(1):1-8\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nRao P, Holt D. Do green supply chains lead to competitiveness and economic performance? International Journal of Operations and Production Management. 2005;25(9):898-916\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nZhu Q, Sarkis J. Relationships between operational practices and performance among early adopters of green supply chain management practices in Chinese manufacturing enterprises. Journal of Operations Management. 2004;22:265-289\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nRao P. Greening of suppliers/in-bound logistics – ın the south east Asian context. Greening the Supply Chain. 2006:189-204\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nSrivastava SK. 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Green supply chain practices evaluation in the mining industry using a joint rough sets and fuzzy TOPSIS methodology. Resources Policy. 2015;46:86-100\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nBoutkhoum O, Hanine M, Boukhriss H, Agouti T, Tikniouine A. Multi-criteria decision support framework for sustainable implementation of effective green supply chain management practices. SpringerPlus. 2016;5(664):1-24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-2233-2\n\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nRostamzadeh R, Govindan K, Esmaeili A, Sabaghi M. Application of fuzzy VIKOR for evaluation of green supply chain management practices. Ecological Indicators. 2015;49:188-203\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nMalviya RK, Kant R. Hybrid decision making approach to predict and measure the success possibility of green supply chain management implementation. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2016;135:387-409\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nGovindan K, Khodaverdi R, Vafadarnikjoo A. Intuitionistic fuzzy based DEMATEL method for developing green practices and performances in a green supply chain. Expert Systems with Applications. 2015;42(20):7207-7220\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nWan SP, Li DF. Fuzzy mathematical programming approach to heterogeneous multi attribute decision-making with interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy truth degrees. Information Sciences. 2015;325:484-503\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nLi M, Wu C. Green supplier selection based on improved intuitionistic fuzzy TOPSIS model. Metallurgical and Mining Industry. 2015;7:193-205\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nHervani AA, Helms MM, Sarkis J. Performance measurement for green supply chain management. Benchmarking: An International Journal. 2005;12(4):330-353. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/14635770510609015\n\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nZhu Q, Sarkis J, Lai KH. Green supply chain management implications for closing the loop. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review. 2008;44(1):1-18\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nJakhar SK. Designing the green supply chain performance optimisation model. Global Journal of Flexible Systems Management. 2014;15(3):235-259\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nSurmacz T. Performance evaluation of green supply chain management. Economy in Practice and Theory. 2017;46(1):73-82\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nMin H, Galle WP. Green purchasing practices of US firms. International Journal of Operations & Production Management. 2001;21(9):1222-1238\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nShang KC, Lu CS, Li S. A taxonomy of green supply chain management capability among electronics-related manufacturing firms in Taiwan. Journal of Environmental Management. 2010;91:1218-1226\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nLai KH, Wong CWY. Green logistics management and performance some evidence from Chinese manufacturing exporters. Omega Journal. 2012;40(3):276-282\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nDas K. Integrating reverse logistics into the strategic planning of a supply chain. International Journal of Production Research. 2012;50(5):1438-1456\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nEltayeb T, Zailani S, Ramayah T. Green supply chain initiatives among certified companies in Malaysia and environmental sustainability: Investigating the outcomes. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2011;55:495-506\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nZhu Q, Sarkis J, Lai K-H. Examining the effects of green supply chain management practices and their mediations on performance improvements. International Journal of Production Research. 2012;50(5):1377-1394\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nZadeh LA. Fuzzy sets. Information and Control. 1965;8:335-353\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nAtanassov K. Intuitionistic fuzzy sets. Fuzzy Sets and Systems. 1986;20(1):87-96\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nShu MS, Cheng CH, Chang JR. Using intuitionistic fuzzy sets for fault tree analysis on printed circuit board assembly. Microelectronics Reliability. 2006;46(12):2139-2148\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nHwang CL, Yoon K. Multiple Attribute Decision Making Methods and Applications. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1981\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nBoran FE, Genc S, Kurt M, Akay D. A multi-criteria intuitionistic fuzzy group decision making for supplier selection with TOPSIS method. Expert Systems with Applications. 2009;36(8):11363-11368\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nSzmidt E, Kacprzyk J. Distances between intuitionistic fuzzy sets. Fuzzy Sets and Systems. 2000;114:505-518\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Berna Bulgurcu",address:"bkiran@cu.edu.tr",affiliation:'
Business Administration Department, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6562",type:"book",title:"Multi-Criteria Methods and Techniques Applied to Supply Chain Management",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Multi-Criteria Methods and Techniques Applied to Supply Chain Management",slug:"multi-criteria-methods-and-techniques-applied-to-supply-chain-management",publishedDate:"June 27th 2018",bookSignature:"Valerio A. P. Salomon",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6562.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-335-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-334-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-555-4",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:23,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"179921",title:"Dr.",name:"Valerio",middleName:"A. 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P. Salomon",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6562.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179921",title:"Dr.",name:"Valerio",surname:"Salomon",slug:"valerio-salomon",fullName:"Valerio Salomon"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"74986",title:"Private Investigation and Open Source INTelligence (OSINT)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95857",slug:"private-investigation-and-open-source-intelligence-osint-",body:'
1. Introduction
In the age of technology, obtaining information is basically a matter of managing search engines, having a working methodology, knowing how to correlate data and later, drawing conclusions [1].
It is obvious that the information circulates and is not always true, has biases and must be analyzed with prudence and know-how. Anyway, fake news is part of our life, up to day.
Therefore, in the discipline of intelligence analysis, there are multiple methodologies to generate information products with which to make decisions in personal and business life.
One of the mechanisms is what we call “the use of open sources”, or in other words, using Open Source INTelligence (OSINT) [1], which becomes a basic part of the research, which must be carried out with care and methodology, avoiding biases and finally verify the information in the field.
Undoubtedly, OSINT is an essential element in the investigation, both previously, to be able to “get an idea”, and to go deeper into fundamental aspects of the person or company investigated.
However, the belief that the information is free is not the case and the use of the following premises should be considered in an OSINT analysis [2]:
Free information sources.
Sources of payment information.
Information sources with annual subscription.
Time spent in the search, analysis and generation of the final product.
Time spent verifying or biasing the information obtained.
Therefore, far from being a low-cost, low-profile intelligence product, OSINT research requires professionalization of the investigator and:
Investigator’s training.
Identify sources of use and use credibility, bias and veracity of the information.
Annual subscriptions with the implicit cost.
Work methodology.
Computer tools for the correct analysis, data correlation and generation of the final product [3].
Research discipline.
Intelligence is the base of success in all fields. Intelligence is used for the military, political, business, and of course private level and investigation. Currently, all organizations and companies, of a certain level, use Intelligence to start, develop, and succeed [4].
If a supermarket wants to expand and locate in another country, it will first have to obtain all the legal, economic, structural, and competitive data, in order to make a decision. In this way it can decide the most suitable country for its investment. We can imagine any other type of business that wants to develop internationally, and it will have to follow the same steps.
Intelligence is used practically since human existence. But, obviously, the OSINT is much more current, since the new technologies have allowed this type of research in Open Sources [5]. And there are more and more research possibilities in this regard, because there is more and more public information available to everyone.
That is why it is essential in the process of obtaining information, to take the utmost care not to leave a trace, since if not, we will go from being analysts to being objects of investigation.
The basis of the Intelligence process is obtaining information. And the first step to obtain information is to search in Open Sources, known as OSINT.
The basis of the private investigation is getting the proof, based on experience, know-how, methodology, sources, man in the field and legal process [6]. So, we are moving on a briefly discovery of these elements and processes on this chapter.
2. Searching information in open sources
During the process of the investigation we will always find two different handicaps that should be taken in consideration:
Amount of information: Need to be limited.
Quality of information: Data that are not relevant and should be classified.
As in any research process, it is necessary to follow a methodology to obtain results. The OSINT intelligence cycle follows the same methodology as the intelligence cycle, but using Open Source Research tools.
This is the OSINT process [5] we follow in a private investigation:
Requirements: Determine which ones are the objectives to investigate. What information is needed to obtain.
Information Sources: Establish the information sources that will be needed to obtain the information and, if payment information is required, take into account the cost involved.
Acquisition of Information: Search for information in established sources.
Processing: With the information obtained, the necessary reports will be made, extracting the useful data for the pursued objectives, and with the same rule of the 3 “C’s” that is used for Press News:
Information needs to be:
Clear
Concise, and
Concrete
Analysis: Once the reports are completed, the information obtained will be analyzed, giving meaning to the data found. What they mean for our interests.
Intelligence: The analysis will determine the actions that we must carry out based on the information obtained.
We have to give answers to the following questions:
Who?
When?
Where?
How?
Why?
What?
Some of the answers are gotten from the OSINT investigation [5] and traces the way for the field investigation, but, we have always to consider the credibility of the source and the reliability of it.
The information is coming from different sources (with its own reliability and credibility) and should be checked and not taken as valid information [7]. Disinformation is part of what people and companies usually do.
Because of it, the OSINT process has to consider this classification methodology (see Table 1 below).
Reliability
Credibility
A – Completely reliable
1 – Confirmed by other sources
B – Generally reliable
2 – Probably
C – Reliable enough
3 – Possibly true
D – Generally unreliable
4 – Doubtful
E – Unreliable
5 – Unlikely
F – Cannot appreciate reliability
6 – Credibility cannot be appreciated
Table 1.
Reliability and Credibility of information sources.
As a result, each piece of information is classified and evaluate, answering the big “W’s” as follow:
Example: Evaluation of the source: B/2, A/1, C/3… [8].
2.1 Type of open sources (for OSINT)
Once we have written about open sources, let us explain the reader where we can search and make the investigation, as an example, but it is not limited to these sources [9]:
Internet search engines [10] (most used search engines: Google, Bing, Yahoo, DuckDuckGo, Ecosia, IxQuick, Ask, Lycos, Yandex, Dogpile, Startpage, Peekier, Webcrawler, Yippy, Exalead, Factibites, Wayback Machine, Gibiru, Siri, Alexa, etc.) and using the logical operators they have.
Google Dorks and its Boolean operators, symbols and commands can be used for explicit and specific search.
AND, OR, NOT, XOR: (example: thread AND jihadism)
(): (example: (thread OR terrorism) AND (islamism OR jihadism)
Operators: *, #, ¿, $, €, “”, for example
Symbols: <, >, =, <>, <=, >=
Commands: define: term; filetype: term; site: site/domain; link: url, etc.
And many others operators of each engine.
Websites, Forums and Blogs from different countries and languages based on the information we are looking for, the people, the specific information and themes.
Social Networks [12] (Youtube, Vimeo, Instagram, Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest, Reddit, Vkontakte, Tumblr, Linkedin, Infojobs, Snapchat, and so many others including those for Contacts and Couples like Meetic, eDarling, Badoo, etc.).
Images scanning: By looking for images in internet and checking the metadata and location or even a possible fake image of a profile (Google Images, Bing, Tineye, Yandex, Revimage.com, Pictriev.com, Exiftool, Fotoforensics.com, Photo-forensics, etc.).
These sources of information can be classified into:
Free databases and registers
Free databases but profile requirement
Free databases but real profile and request (for example a death certificate)
Payment sources
And many others tools that frequently appears and disappears in the internet world [14]. Basically talking, we are opening a tremendous world of investigation where, as talked before, know-how, experience, technical knowledge and legal procedures must be under consideration.
As the reader can image, the gather of information is a tough procedure that requires different use of tools, technical background and methodology for the identification, analysis and classification of the information.
And this is part of the education and training that private detective should get as part of the evolution, the state of the art and the success of the private investigation agency (so, the business itself).
But, who can we work for getting the information without been discovered? This is part of the next point.
3. Secure investigation using legal tools
Social Networks (SN) are an unimaginable source of information [15] and that makes them an ideal place to locate relevant information on the topics to be investigated.
However, not everything that is on social networks, not even what each company or each person puts is real. Various considerations:
Each one says what he wants for personal interests.
Not everything that is said is true and must be checked.
They have a bias based on who the information is directed to.
They can also be forwarded fake news.
Therefore, as a premise, and highlighting what we have already been exposing to the reader throughout the chapter, the sources, in this case, social networks (SN), must be:
Evaluated
Classified
Collated
And this is the relevance of having a research, evaluation, classification and methodology for investigating inside the sources.
Many photos, videos and texts are posted that, at first glance, seem real and interesting, but when it is necessary to analyze to make a report, it is convenient to check because if not the credibility of the analyst, remains low if the information has not been verified, and may have financial and legal consequences within an investigation.
Once we have put these premises ahead, we must also remember a legal aspect [16] that is more than important, the usurpation of identity.
“Identity theft, also called the crime of usurpation of marital status or identity, consists of the action of appropriating a person of the identity of another, posing as her to access resources and benefits, acting in legal traffic pretending to be the person impersonated. The action described in the criminal type is to usurp the civil status of another”.
Because of this penal action [17], the way remains to build ad-hoc profiles for research. And this is part of the investigation process, methodology, time and technical resources.
On the other hand, the creation of profiles must meet clear objectives:
Be according to the goal to be investigated.
Do not use copyrighted or other people’s photos.
Take specific photos and edit them so that they are consistent with the case and can reflect interest for the person or company to investigate.
Profiles are created, fed and populated and when done they are simply dropped.
Research profiles are not recyclable. They should not be used in other investigations.
They must be created in safe places or with non-traceable media.
They have to show relevant information for the investigation and reliable content for the investigation.
When you do not reach people directly, you have to look for an alternative route through friends or interests, you have to build the necessary coverage.
The coverage, direct or indirect, must also be attractive to the goal of the investigation.
The profiles to be created and the names to be used must be in the language, culture and form of expression of the group, person or sector of the company. You have to take care of the contents and make them credible, including other languages.
And assign specific cellular phones to the investigation and contact.
Once you decide to undertake an investigation obtaining information from social networks, you must consider:
What SNs are the appropriate ones for this type of investigation, since Facebook is not the same as LinkedIn, Twitter or Instagram, but there are many as we have introduced early before.
Consider the ages of the people to be investigated and their origins, since ages mark one or another SN and cultural origins as well.
The profiles can use the same name in all of them, but perhaps it is worth reflecting on whether for a specific investigation, it is better to use different names in different SNs in order to complement information or avoid blocking.
So with these working premises, and knowing that creating the profiles, feeding them and having them ready to work takes a long time, it is good to consider and keep in mind that:
Investigations into SN sources take a long time.
They require prepared profiles, which take time to create and provide adequate content.
They are not fast.
Some recommendations to be considered:
It is used to create emails and profiles on social networks when you are traveling, because with them created and saved, they are from different cities or non-native countries and are very useful for investigations and traces of them.
Provide the profiles that you create with certain information of interest so when the operation of investigation is launched, takes less time and reflects more seniority in the profile.
Manage information in the profile according to the name, interest and content with which we want to use it later.
The usual formulas to obtain information in SN are:
Use previously created profiles that have content according to the topic to be investigated.
Contact the people or companies to investigate using these profiles created ad-hoc.
Use safe navigation and if possible outside the home.
If necessary, purchase operator cards and use your mobile for internet connection instead of ADSL at home/office.
Extreme security measures in communications and traces, firewall, incognito and secure browsing, do not leave traces in search engines or even use a cyber coffee or telephone booth.
Make friends with the person or company and also seek common interests, common friends and provide credibility and a high number of friends and common acquaintances.
If possible, illustrate with edited photos the contents of the profile to give it greater credibility and seriousness.
If it is not possible to get a friendship directly, you have to think about:
Go through other friends, family, etc.
Have topics of interest to this person and express it so that they accept.
Refine the profile created with aspects of interest to your contacts in such a way that they are the ones who introduce us.
So with these recommendations and advises, let us talk something about three other secure things to consider:
Internet Address (IP) and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
Secure browsing
Email creation
3.1 Internet address and virtual private networks (VPNs)
Another aspect that should be exposed and that says a lot in the investigation of open sources and the obtaining of information, is to obtain the IP [18], or at least, to know from where the entries can be produced, not always easy, and much less when try to follow criminals.
Although obtaining the IP of the people to investigate is difficult, our IP could be also traced and the relevance of the investigation is the security of the agent.
For that reason, we must protect our IP address using different methods:
Using SIM cards and mobiles that we can throw (at least the SIM card) when we have finished the investigation. This SIM card must be “not traceable” or at least not our name or agency registered.
Using Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) [19], technology that (free or payable) allows us to connect to internet using a tunnel where our IP original is converted to another, protecting in this way, our location and identity.
Using TOR (dark web browser), which uses a VPN and relays to jump between one to another node in the internet world.
As per using one or several of these mechanisms we can make the investigation by securing our access and blocking our connection, direction, and location to others. This is the first step, to protect our location and work on locate the investigated people.
As we have briefly explained in point 2.1. of this chapter there are different tools for executing the IP investigation and there are different tools of VPN software for laptop and mobile to protect ours.
3.2 Secure browsing
The software mostly used for this kind of investigation is TOR browser, which refers to The Onion Router (TOR) Project [20].
This navigation is what we call, The Dark Web [21].
A part of the deep web consists of internal networks of scientific and academic institutions that form the Academic Invisible Web, which refers to databases that contain technological advances, scientific publications, and academic material.
But there are more services published in this dark web:
Commercial services: sexual exploitation and black market, stolen gadgets, weapons and ammunition, false documentation and drugs.
Anonymity and security: instructions to enforce privacy in TOR, especially for a sale or in bitcoin transactions.
Hosting services: web hosting and image storage where privacy comes first. Some prohibit uploading illegal files and others have no restrictions.
Blogs, forums and image boards: apart from those related to buying and selling services, two frequent categories of this type of community are hacking and the exchange of images of all kinds.
Mail and messaging services: some email addresses are free (generally they only offer webmail) and others are paid, with SSL and IMAP support.
Hacking services: of websites, emails and paid.
Political activism: censored file sharing, hacktivism, and even a page to organize “mass-funded assassinations.” Anarchy is the predominant ideology on the deep web.
State Secrets: There is a copy of WikiLeaks on the deep web, and several pages where to publish secrets with little activity.
Books: virtual libraries that measure several gigabytes and contain thousands of ebooks in different formats. Many of them are free of copyright and others are illegally distributed in direct download.
Erotic pages: paid and free access. The subcategories are diverse and without any moral limit.
Investigations not always require getting into the deep web to look for information, but at least require protecting ourselves from being located. Using the protection of the IP and using an incognito browsing and VPN (TOR for example) we use a double layer of protection who isolate us from being detected and pursue.
In this moment of the lecture, we have enough information to understand risks of the investigation, technical knowledge we require and evaluate the investigation as a professional way of working, not for amateurs and with time to be paid for.
3.3 Email creation
Adding to the previous point, not enough as many webs and search process require an email address; we have to mention something like the creation of emails accordingly, again, with the goal of the investigation.
The registration to create a social network profile requires an email address, and perhaps, depends on the SN, a mobile number.
¡Never use your personal profile or cellular number!
The creation of an email, some years ago, was tremendously easy and limited, not today that we have a lot of services for creating temporal emails or real email for working alone.
But, again, to create an email account, we need an internet connection, so please, remember the previous recommendation, ¡protect your IP! by using the recommendations.
You cannot create a profile in social network using TOR, you cannot create an email account using TOR, but you can protect your IP address by using any other technologies (VPN for example), or using a cyber coffee or when traveling, creating the email account from the hotel. In this way you preserve your home/office IP address.
Once you are sure that your IP address is not conducting to your real IP, then you can use the temporal email accounts creation we have exposure in the point 2.1 of this chapter or you can use the Google, Hotmail, Yahoo, etc. services for it.
The goal is to create a secure email for using temporally to create the SN profile, or not so temporal, to be used contacting with the investigate people or company so it can be left when finished.
However the creation of an email account is very simple, keep in mind what you need for your investigation:
Email account to be used only for SN profile creation.
Email account to contact with the investigated.
Email temporally account.
Email of a known service provider to give some more credibility.
Email with a specific goal in mind.
4. 360° surveillance
It is very clear, in this page of the chapter, that we are generating digital tracks continuously and because of that, we are creating a digital footprint [22].
Once again, to follow up the footprint of a person requires methodology, knowledge and technical resources for the investigator.
360° surveillance consists in monitoring the footprint that a person, profile, email, etc. (all of them resources of the internet world) are leaving while writing, browsing, using internet from any device.
People use mobile phones, tablets and laptops for accessing resources, services and use the internet applications so the device is another footprint.
It means that the device has an operating system, a geolocation, a camera, a timetable of use and so many characteristics.
Monitoring with methodology we can use the information of the footprint to determine, for example, but not only:
Where the investigated people are.
How is using the SN profiles.
When they are mostly connected.
Which device is mostly used.
Some characteristics and operating system of the device.
Sometime way tracking to office.
Habits and mostly frequently zones or restaurants.
Comments they write in Blogs and shopping references.
Determine the style of life.
Determine if they are always in the same location or move during the weekend and where.
When they write, where are they writing.
Etc.
A lot of information is part of this footprint that can be follow up with specific tools and because of the device connection to internet.
360° surveillance is not only monitoring the people investigated and can be done for monitoring family members also, so it creates a big hole for VIP people.
If someone wants to track and monitor the life style or life of an executive, for example, can be done by contacting directly with them or through different profiles, including their children or friends.
Because of public profiles of executives and VIP people in SN, they are exposed to be monitor by any people, with or without a real profile. Part of the investigation that private detective can do is the counter surveillance.
Counter surveillance looks for monitor who is accessing specific profiles, claim for friendship and contact with their victims.
The 360° surveillance can be executed by any person, with good or bad intentions, for example to discover habits, where the person is, life style, if they are at home or vacation, or used for making some scratches, strikes, disturbances, etc. against the company, the executive or to follow up a singer, a football player or disturb them at a disco.
These are some examples, but we leave the reader imagine what can a person do with information of other, for good or bad things.
Based on the reality of the digital footprint, the counter surveillance looks for a protection of the person and their family in order to continuously monitor their network activity, search for any news and alerts, and protect the digital image, the physical person and guarantee the integrity of the information, the person, the family and the corporate image.
360° surveillance and counter surveillance is intended to protect people and companies from scams, scratches, damage to the image reputation, and of course to protect their exposure perimeter.
Open sources, company’s news, blogs, social networks, emails, etc. are part of the sources that give a lot of information to others, including criminals, and private detective try to protect their clients of all these risks, not only on the field, either in the digital field.
We are always leaving digital tracks to other by:
Using different communication channels through internet services.
Actors that interact with our profiles.
Activity we realize on internet by purchasing, navigation, cookies, profiles, alerts, etc.
Blogs, Chats, Recommendations we leave.
Contents we visit.
And do not forget that you mobile continuously interact with Google (Android account, Samsung Account) or Apple (iCloud).
Using cloud storage (Google Drive, iCloud, Dropbox, etc.)
Sharing images of vacation, for example.
Sharing the training routes and records.
Using Youtube.
Using Google account by default without blocking some services.
Etc.
Hopefully for the reader, the private investigator has the knowledge to protect companies and private persons, family and friends also and to train, investigate and offer security once analyzed the exposure perimeter, the risk and the goals of the people/family or company.
Private investigation agencies are focused on exactly that, protect and investigate their customer, and in this technological times, digital tracks are part of the protection and investigation that is mostly required.
5. Conclusions
After reading this chapter we expect that the reader has a very clear knowledge of what a private investigation agency can do for their security and what is the way of working for getting the information through the internet services and methodology for searching, before going to the field and certify the information gotten.
It is obvious, after reading the chapter, that everyone is having a digital track at least for having a mobile phone connected to internet and this digital connection generates a risk.
The risk is part of the evolution and it is part of the technology. Nothing is 100% secured but we can and we must put the resources to protect ourselves and our family.
WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) at home is another hole of security, especially as most of the routers installed have not changed the password and default passwords are on public technical webs.
By accessing the WiFi at home, every single device connected to it can be hacked and of course information of the devices, stolen.
Profiles, passwords, emails, and devices are objects of desire for criminals and private investigation agencies should improve their investments and knowledge to adapt their detectives to new technologies and methods.
Private Detectives are used to work on the field but in this times, the first thing should be look for information by using OSINT techniques, analyze the information and then verify this on the field. It gives the detective a better understanding of the information and investigation and allow them to be cheaper and more professional.
Of course, OSINT is not the only way of working as many people do not have profiles or share information or do not like to navigate, but OSINT should be the first step in any investigation to have any more information, even the lack of information is, of course, information.
Detectives need to recycle and clients need to understand that OSINT investigation takes a lot of time and should pay for it. It is a mix between working in an office and working on the field. The time required for each kind of investigation need to be considered, evaluated and put in place while preparing the offering to the client.
Open Source INTelligence and Private Investigation have a lot of things in common and both are part of the world of getting information, complementing each other.
It requires methodology, technical resources, education, time and experience to move on private investigation without trespassing laws and be able to add value to a field investigation and success of the customer on a trail.
Acknowledgments
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Special thanks to my family, colleagues and company that give me some time to write and develop the chapter.
It took some personal time for structuring, develop and write it and this time has been stolen to all of them.
Thanks to the editor for allowing me to write an specific chapter of private investigation and how it can help people and companies to success and follow up situation of conflicts and negotiations.
From the private investigation sight, I wanted to explain the methodology, steps and legal process in order to let readers know that the investigation is something serious, professional and it is far from movies and amateurs who makes things happen for entertainment or for getting some illegal money with criminal offenses.
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So, this chapter explains how to use the OSINT (Open Source INTelligence) methodology for legally become part of the steps on a private investigation. The information is growing up and people expose their images, comment and reference to other ones so it facilities the investigation of getting results. 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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Searching information in open sources",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Type of open sources (for OSINT)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Secure investigation using legal tools",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1 Internet address and virtual private networks (VPNs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2 Secure browsing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.3 Email creation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. 360° surveillance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'INTelligence. Open Source Intelligence. 2010. Available from: https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2010-featured-story-archive/open-source-intelligence.html [2020-11-28]'},{id:"B2",body:'OSINT, the power of the information. 2014. 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Available from: https://www.genbeta.com/correo/7-servicios-de-email-temporales-para-evitar-spam-y-otros-problemas [2020-11-28]'},{id:"B14",body:'OSINT Framework. 2020. Available from: https://osintframework.com/ [2020-11-28]'},{id:"B15",body:'Las redes sociales como Fuente de información. 2012. Available from: http://portal.uned.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/UNED_MAIN/LAUNIVERSIDAD/VICERRECTORADOS/GERENCIA/IUISI/COLABORACIONES/076%20DOC_ISE_08_2012.PDF [2020-11-28]'},{id:"B16",body:'La usurpación de identidad. 2015. Available from: https://www.legalitas.com/pymes-autonomos/actualidad/articulos-juridicos/contenidos/La-usurpacion-de-identidad [2020-11-28]'},{id:"B17",body:'Suplantación de identidad, tipos y causas. 2019. Available from: https://protecciondatos-lopd.com/empresas/suplantacion-de-identidad/ [2020-11-28]'},{id:"B18",body:'IP Address. WhatIsMyIP. 2020. Available from: https://www.whatismyip.com/ip-address-lookup/ [2020-11-28]'},{id:"B19",body:'¿Qué es una VPN? 2020. Available from: https://www.xataka.com/basics/que-es-una-conexion-vpn-para-que-sirve-y-que-ventajas-tiene [2020-12-30]'},{id:"B20",body:'TOR Project. 2020. Available from: https://www.torproject.org/ [2020-11-28]'},{id:"B21",body:'Qué es la Dark Web, en qué se diferencia de la Deep Web y como puedes navegar por ella 2020. Available from: https://www.xataka.com/basics/que-dark-web-que-se-diferencia-deep-web-como-puedes-navegar-ella [2020-12-30]'},{id:"B22",body:'Your digital footprint: What is it and how can you manage it?. 2018. Available from: https://www.rasmussen.edu/student-experience/college-life/what-is-digital-footprint/ [2020-11-28]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Francisco José Cesteros García",address:"fjcesteros@cuzcodetectives.com",affiliation:'
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Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
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Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
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\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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