Properties of zirconia-based ceramics [16].
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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This is the reason why it is estimated that a third of humankind is already infected by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The vast majority of the infected do not know about their status. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a silent pathogen, causing no symptomatology at all during the infection. In addition, infected people cannot cause further infections. Unfortunately, an estimated 10 per cent of the infected population has the probability to develop the disease, making it very difficult to eradicate. Once in this stage, the bacilli can be transmitted to other persons and the development of clinical symptoms is very progressive. Therefore the diagnosis, especially the discrimination between infection and disease, is a real challenge. In this book, we present the experience of worldwide specialists on the diagnosis, along with its lights and shadows.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-938-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4360-4",doi:"10.5772/1483",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"understanding-tuberculosis-global-experiences-and-innovative-approaches-to-the-diagnosis",numberOfPages:564,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"cb8288ea48f14bd22680c6ae5b13745b",bookSignature:"Pere-Joan Cardona",publishedDate:"February 15th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/977.jpg",numberOfDownloads:119155,numberOfWosCitations:60,numberOfCrossrefCitations:32,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:86,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:178,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 9th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 6th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 11th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 10th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"78269",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pere-Joan",middleName:null,surname:"Cardona",slug:"pere-joan-cardona",fullName:"Pere-Joan Cardona",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/78269/images/system/78269.jpg",biography:"After obtaining his MD at the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Pere-Joan Cardona started an internship in Clinical Microbiology in 1994, in the Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, where he was familiarized with the problem of TB in its clinical and diagnostic challenges. Invited by Ian Orme at CSU, he was trained on the development of TB experimental models. PhD was obtained in 1999. He became Head of the Experimental Tuberculosis Unit at the Institut Germans Trias i Pujol of Badalona and Assistant Professor of Microbiology at UAB. He has been involved for the last 15 years in the study of the pathophysiology of TB infection. 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The use of biomaterials in the reconstruction of injured body parts and skeletal healing is unavoidable. Diverse biomaterials including ceramics, metals, polymers, hydrogels, and composites are explored and have achieved clinical success as well [1, 2, 3]. For bone restoration applications ceramic biomaterials are well recognized by biomaterial engineers and medical experts due to their biocompatibility and osteoconductivity. Each bioceramic has its unique properties, and they can be divided into three categories based on the properties: [1] bioactive ceramics: capable of establishing chemical interaction with the cell surface, [2] bio-inert ceramics: fully unreactive to the living ecosystem, [3] resorbable bioceramics: undergoes in vivo deficiency for phagocytosis or dissolution of the biomaterials in human body fluids [4]. The standard bioactive ceramics used for bone-regeneration applications are bio-glasses and calcium phosphate-based resources, such as beta-tricalcium phosphate, hydroxyapatite, and biphasic calcium phosphate (mixture of beta-tricalcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite). However, alumina and zirconia oxide are the well-established bio-inert ceramics used in classic bone-regeneration applications [5]. Each bioceramics are widely used in the various human parts restoration applications based on the needs and capabilities. Excellent mechanical stability and biocompatibility brand zirconia as a potential dental restoration and bone scaffold material for load-bearing applications [6]. Hence, rigorous efforts were concentrated on zirconia-based ceramics in recent times by medical and research experts for dental and biomedical applications.
Zirconia is a polycrystalline dioxide ceramic of the transition metal zirconium [3, 7]. It was originally documented in 1789 by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, a German chemist [8]. Zirconia exists in three distinct crystal structures depending on the pressure and temperature: monoclinic, tetragonal, and cubic structures [9]. The monoclinic crystal structure is more constant from room temperature to 1170°C, but it has inferior mechanical properties compared to the other two structures [10]. It is commonly accepted that the monoclinic structure will transform into a tetragonal structure during thermal treatment between 1170°C and 2370°C. This change in crystal structure is accompanied by measurable volume reductions (4–5%) during the cooling period [8]. If the temperature is increased further, the tetragonal structure shrinks to form a cubic structure (between 2370°C and 2680°C, the melting point). During cooling, a noticeable volume expansion of 3–4% was observed, which is attributable to the reversible transformation into the monoclinic crystal structure [9]. During phase transformation, internal stress is induced in the zirconia lattice, which results in crack propagation. To suppress the aforementioned behavior, several metallic oxides or dopants (stabilizing agents such as Y2O3, MgO, CaO, and CeO) are added to stabilize the zirconia structure, and the resultant type of zirconia is known as partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) [11].
The key features of PSZ are their ability to enhance the transformation toughening mechanism, which inhibits/shields the further propagation of cracks. Therefore, PSZ is considered suitable for biomedical applications in orthopedics and dentistry due to its unique toughening behavior. In the late 1970s, zirconia was widely used as an effective substitute material for metals and alumina in biomedical and dental applications. This was due to its long-lasting mechanical behaviors, such as good flexural strength and fracture resistance, admirable biocompatibility, chemical permanency, corrosion resistance, and esthetics [12, 13]. Nevertheless, the aging process of zirconia ceramic is stimulated by low-temperature degradation, which has unfavorable impacts on the mechanical strength of prostheses and subsequent growth of external flaws. The presence of microcracks may compromise the performance in the long term in biological fluids [14].
To date, zirconia-based materials have been used in numerous areas in the engineering (energy and aerospace), medicine (orthopedics), and dental (crowns and implants) fields [15]. Common categories of zirconia-based materials existing on the market for biomedical applications are yttrium tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (Y-TZP), glass-infiltrated zirconia-toughened alumina (ZTA), and magnesia partially stabilized zirconia (Mg-PSZ). The properties of these zirconia-based bioceramics are listed in Table 1.
Properties | Y-TZP | ZTA | Mg-PSZ |
---|---|---|---|
Chemical constituents | Y2O3, ZrO2 | Al2O3, ZrO2 | MgO, ZrO2 |
Crystallinity | Monophasic | Biphasic | Biphasic |
Density (g/cm3) | 6.05 | 5 | 5 |
Flexural strength (MPa) | 800–1300 | 750–850 | 700–800 |
Hardness (GPa) | 10–12 | 12–15 | 5–6 |
Fracture toughness (MPa m1/2) | 5–10 | 6–12 | 8–15 |
Properties of zirconia-based ceramics [16].
In general, zirconia-based ceramics are manufactured using conventional fabrication techniques, such as injection molding [17], hot and cold isostatic pressing, and slip casting [18]. Digital techniques such as computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) are extensively used to fabricate dental restorations [7, 19], as well as in subtractive manufacturing techniques, such as machining and milling. However, these techniques have limitations such as material wastage, difficulties in producing complex structures, being time consuming, and wearing of milling and cutting tools. Recently, additive manufacturing (AM) techniques have been increasingly used for the fabrication of high-potential complex ceramic parts with high precision and at reduced cost [20, 21]. Developments in AM technology for the fabrication of zirconia-based ceramic parts and their applications are discussed in the following section.
AM is one of the most widely used techniques in recent times, and it is capable of building three-dimensional (3D) complex geometric structures with high dimensional precision and within a short manufacturing time. 3D objects with high levels of complexity and structural architectures are fabricated by stacking up the materials layerwise using simulated design files [22, 23]. AM is also known as 3D printing, solid free-form fabrication, and rapid prototyping. The materials used for AM processes are in the form of powders, liquids, or solids. According to the ISO/ASTM 17296 standard, AM technology is mainly characterized into two types based on the degree of consolidation [24].
As the name suggests, the combined bulk product is manufactured with a basic/specified geometric shape in a single operation by melting and solidification or multi-pass welding (such as powder bed fusion, selective laser melting (SLM), or directed energy deposition), which is mostly used in metal AM.
It produces the products in multiple steps. First, the green body parts are constructed with the basic geometric shape by binding the powder particles with help of a polymer or binder. Subsequent steps include shape modification/densification, consolidation of the material, or modification of the material properties (such as binder jetting (BJ) and material extrusion). AM ceramics parts are typically formed using multistep progression [25].
For biomedical and dental applications, the 3D printing process principally comprises the following steps (precisely for clinical applications): 1. procurement of 3D models, 2. designing (CAD), 3. slicing, 4. 3D printing, and 5. postprocessing. Briefly, the AM process starts with the sorting of precise medical records (images) of the patients, which are obtained using computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging. The procured data conforming to digital imaging and communications in medicine standards are transformed into digital models using materialise interactive medical image control system (MIMICS) or 3D DOCTOR software and formed into design files using 3D CAD software. The CAD file is converted to a standard tessellation language (.STL) file, and it is practically sliced to print patterns as per the specific needs of the implant. To acquire the desired print pattern of the products, numerous processing constraints such as printing speed, alignment, printing temperature, layer height, infill, laser condition, and environmental aspects are verified, based on experience or a literature review. The sliced file can be imported into the AM machine for printing/stacking the material in a layer, forming the 3D implant. Finally, the printed parts are exposed to washing, removal of sacrificial layer/support, and heat treatment [25, 26]. The detailed scheme of additive manufacturing process is displayed in Figure 1.
Illustration of additive manufacturing process.
The most common AM technologies for the construction of high-strength ceramics are selective laser sintering/melting (SLS/SLM), stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), binder jetting (BJ), fused deposition modeling (FDM), and direct ink writing (DIW) [27, 28]. Each AM technology has great commercial potential as well as limitations [29]. Likewise, additively manufactured zirconia-based ceramics have inferior mechanical properties due to the persistent porosity and flaw-sensitive properties of zirconia ceramics. Thus, acquiring mechanical properties equivalent to those of ceramics fabricated with more conventional approaches is a big challenge for ceramic AM [30]. However, the technology is still at an early stage, compared with conventional ceramic processing techniques [29]. It is widely recognized that ceramic materials possess a high melting point, high sinterability, and high vulnerability to thermal shock. Therefore, it is challenging to achieve fully consolidated parts, without shortcomings, using AM-based techniques that directly produce sintered objects [25]. To overcome these shortcomings, each AM technology adapts scientific strategies to construct zirconia-based ceramics with high accuracy and quality. In the following section, the formulation strategies of each AM technology are discussed. Figure 2, demonstrate the AM technologies used for the fabrication of zirconia parts.
The schematic illustration of different types of AM technologies used for the fabrication of 3D zirconia-based ceramics.
SLS technology uses a high-powered laser beam to sinter/fire the ceramics at an elevated temperature. The laser is aimed at specific areas of the aggregate powdered particles using the distribution to create solid objects [31, 32, 33]. The SLM is principally similar to SLS; however, SLM completely melts and fuses the powder particles using a high-powered laser beam to form a solid object [34, 35]. SLS/SLM is an AM technique that uses a laser and is based on the powder bed method that produces 3D solid structures either by sintering or melting the powder materials layerwise following an architecture based on CAD data. (Obtaining high-strength and high-density parts with a laser without debinding/sintering processes can facilitate effective and rapid fabrication, enabling the mass production of ceramic parts (direct AM process) [36, 37].
However, zirconia ceramic is difficult to handle with SLS/SLM, as it has a higher melting point than other bioceramics. In addition, reaching full densification and realizing crack-free final products made of ceramics-based materials using this process are still challenging. Therefore, several studies are investigating the effect of powder properties and processing parameters [21, 35, 38]. Researchers describe the effectiveness of pre-heating the powdered bed, which could improve the mechanical properties of the final ceramic object by reducing the thermal stress, which alleviates crack formation during printing [39, 40]. Most of the zirconia particles use 3–8 mol% yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) to preserve the desired mechanical properties of a tetragonal phase at room temperature. Alternative approaches were also found to be effective in improving the mechanical properties of the zirconia. For example, composites comprising zirconia and alumina are also found to retain the tetragonal phase [40, 41, 42]. To improve the mechanical properties of the final zirconia part and prevent cracking, an indirect method in SLS/SLM has been developed and documented [42, 43, 44]. Specifically, ceramic powder particles are mixed/coated with a sacrificial polymer binder (which has a lower melting point than the ceramic) and the laser is targeted towards the powder, which melts and fuses the ceramic particles. The fused ceramic particles are then subjected to postprocessing (debinding and sintering) to attain the dense zirconia ceramic scaffolds [42]. The summary of zirconia-based ceramics printing configurations used in SLS/SLM methods is presented in Table 2.
Particle size (μm) | Powder composition | Laser & power | Post-processing | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
1–4 | Zircar ZYP-30 (10 wt%) | Phenix Systems PM100 (50 W) V = 1250–2000 mm/s | — | [35] |
20–70 | Alumina toughened zirconia (ATZ) (41.5, 80, 94) wt% ZrO2, (58.5, 20, 6) wt% Al2O3 | Nd: YAG laser (150 W) for processing CO2 laser (1000 W) for pre-heating | — | [45] |
22.5–45 | 7Y-TZP (20–80 wt%) | MCP Realizer SLM 250, Germany | — | [40] |
3–50 | 8Y-TZP + < 2 wt% graphite powder | Phenix ProX 200 Nd:YAG Laser power (W): 78–87 | — | [46] |
1–5 | ATZ of Y-TZP (80 wt%) | CW 200 W Nd-YAG laser (redPOWER, SPI Lasers Ltd., UK) Laser power (W): 34 | Post-thermal treatment at 1300°C for 2–10 h | [41] |
— | ATZ of Y-TZP (80 wt%) | Realizer SLM 125 equipped with Nd:YAG laser Laser power (W): 90 | — | [47] |
— | 3Y-TZP + 0.5 wt% MgO (magnesium oxide) powder +6.0 wt% epoxy resin | CO2 laser (λ: 10.6 μm) with power of 100 W Laser power (W): 7 | Cold isostatic pressing at 280 MPa | [44] |
— | ZrO2 + nylon 12 | Energy density: 0.415 J/mm2 Laser power: 6.6 W | Cold isostatic pressing at 200 MPa | [43] |
— | 3Y-TZP + isotactic polypropylene (PP) | CO2 laser (λ: 10.6 μm) with power of 100 W | Warm isostatic pressing at 64 MPa Sintering in air at 1450°C for 2 h | [42] |
Summary of zirconia-based configurations used in SLS/SLM methods [34].
BJ is also based on the powder bed fusion technique, where a binder (binding agent) is selectively deposited to link powder materials. In this technique, a thin layer of ceramic material in powder form is evenly spread over the building platform with the help of a roller [48]. A binding ink is then sprayed onto the ceramic powder particles using the jetting head. The result is the ceramic powders and binders adhering together to form a solid structure. This is repeated multiple times and the layers are printed on top of each other to form the preferred 3D scaffolds. During printing, green ceramic parts are reinforced by boundless powder particles [24]. The BJ process can eliminate the internal residual stresses that evolve during building [1]. Moreover, the postprocessing steps such as the removal of unbound powders and sintering are conducted to consolidate the dense ceramic parts. The effective production of numerous ceramics such as hydroxyapatite, tricalcium phosphate, ZTA, and Al2O3 structures with the required porosity using the BJ process have been reported in the literature for biomedical applications [49, 50]. However, obtaining the necessary shrinkage and density in the final product after sintering is still critical. Therefore, many researchers sought to address these issues by integrating nanoparticles into the liquid binder. Recently Huang et al. [32] studied the use of an inorganic colloidal binder (decomposable binder) as a binding agent for the construction of 3Y-ZrO2 ceramic structures using BJ technology. They selected zirconium basic carbonate as a precursor, and it was dispersed in the colloidal solvent to produce decomposable inorganic colloidal binder because it can be easily decomposed upon sintering and can form zirconia 3D parts with no residue [48]. It was established that the inorganic colloidal binder-based zirconia scaffolds exhibited superior surface quality and density compared to the conventional polymer binder. Conversely, Zhao et al. [32] ***attempted to print zirconia samples using a liquid binder containing zirconia nanoparticles (10 wt%). The density was increased by approximately 86.8%, whereas shrinkage was reduced by approximately 10.6% after sintering the printed parts [51].
Among the AM technologies using zirconia, SLA technology is the most well-known and popular method. A photocurable resin comprising photopolymerizable monomers, a photoinitiator, and ceramic particles is molded into a slurry and selectively cured by ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sequential layers to build the 3D object with the desired shape [52]. The geometrical accuracy of the manufactured parts produced using SLA technology is dependent on the laser power, layer thickness, cure depth, and energy dose. The key steps in fabricating ceramic parts with complex geometries and high resolution using SLA are preparing a suitable photocurable ceramic suspension, building the ceramic part, and debinding and sintering [53]. One of the most important factors in this process is the properties of the ceramic suspension. Homogeneous dispersion of zirconia ceramic materials with raw resin is essential for establishing photocurable ceramic resins. The introduction of ceramic materials negatively impacts the properties of raw resin by increasing the viscosity and immobilizing the ceramic/resin suspension. To initiate a matrix around the ceramic materials during photopolymerization, a combination of monomers and oligomers is blended with the ceramic suspension as a binder [54]. It is essential to include a dispersant to prevent agglomerations and retain the resin stability. The dense ceramic parts fabrication is primarily dictated by the volume fraction of the ceramics. Increases in volume fraction improve the final properties of the product (porosity reduction, shrinkage reduction, strength improvement, crack/deformation suppression) [28]. Due to this unique characteristic, SLA-based printers are commercially available in different forms. Hence, design and materials engineers recommend altering the design and printing parameters to the finest quality using state-of-the-art techniques and materials. Many studies have been focused on advancing a suitable photocurable ceramic suspension for the fabrication of zirconia-based ceramic parts (Table 3).
Particle size (μm) | Resin configuration | Solid loading (vol%) | Viscosity (Pa s) | Laser wavelength (nm) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.2 | HDDAa + TMPTAa | 55 | 1.65 at 200 s−1 | — | [55] |
— | HDDA + IBAa + PNPGDAa | 58 | 9.02 at 5 s−1 | 375–425 | [56] |
0.2 | AMb + MBAMb + Glycerol + Water | 40 | 0.127 | — | [57] |
0.2 | HDDA + PPTTAa + PEGc + U600a | 60 (wt%) | — | — | [58] |
0.2 | HDDA + PEGDA | 83 (wt%) | 1.23 at 100 s−1 | 405 | [59] |
Different formulations and viscosity characteristics for preparation of zirconia suspensions [53].
Acrylate-based monomer.
Acrylamide-based monomer.
Polyethylene glycol.
The oligomer (prepolymer) applied to the zirconia in AM methods has a chain structure comprising a medium molecular weight monomer. The oligomer regulates the physical properties of the resin. The reactivity between the monomer and the polymer with a low molecular weight number influences the properties of the cured film through molecular bonding triggered by polymerization. The classification is based on the molecular structure and includes polyester, epoxy, urethane, polyether, and polyacrylic. In general, it is difficult to use the oligomers directly for AM due to their high viscosity [60, 61].
A monomer is a reactive diluent added to reduce the viscosity of an oligomer. The polymerization can be categorized into two types, namely, a free radical reaction or a cationic reaction [60, 62]. Acrylates and methacrylate are the most used monomers from free radical reactions [62]. Photopolymerization can be stimulated through a free radical initiator, and when the monomer receives a free radical from the initiator, it transfers the free radical to another monomer to form a polymer. The cationic reactive monomers can induce photopolymerization via cationic initiators. Monomers, such as epoxides, vinyl ethers, propenyl ethers, siloxanes, cyclic acetals, and furfurals, are capable of polymerization under a cationic mechanism. Epoxide is the preferred monomer from the cationic reaction groups [63].
Monomers and oligomers cannot independently initiate photopolymerization. Therefore, photoinitiators are added to generate reactive species that can trigger the monomers and oligomers. When polymerization is initiated, the reaction proceeds through a chain reaction of double bonds and forms a three-dimensional cross-linked bond together with reactive monomers and oligomers [64, 65]. Free radical photoinitiators added to certain monomers, such as acrylates and methacrylates, absorb UV light to generate free radicals and incite a double bond reaction of the monomers [66]. Cationic initiators can readily react with the binding of certain monomers, such as vinyl ethers and epoxides, because the absorbed UV light produces acids to induce polymerization of the monomers [63].
Dispersants are copolymers with soluble polymer chains and “fixing groups” that impart affinity to the surface of inorganic pigments such as zirconia [53]. The main mechanism in nonaqueous systems with low polarity is steric stabilization. Polymer chains are attached to the pigment surface by adsorption and form a brush-like layer that prevents re-agglomeration due to osmotic and entropy effects. The polymer chains of the dispersant are adsorbed onto the pigment surface to form a layer that prevents re-agglomeration. An effective layer typically ranges from 5 nm to 20 nm, with a particle diameter in the range of 0.05–1 μm. Because the dispersant effects vary with the monomer and oligomer composition, as well as the properties of the ceramic powder, care must be taken regarding the type and content of the dispersant.
The compact ceramic raw material supplied to the extruder is difficult to use as an AM material because it has a high tendency of particle aggregation and, thus, increased resistance to flow [67]. Compatible ceramic powder and additives can guarantee permanency for storage and molding through homogeneous particle dispersion after mixing and, thus, facilitate the minimum pressure and viscosity for flow through the printing nozzle [68, 69].
Additionally, there is a need for good bonding and inhibition of separation between the deposited layers during printing [70, 71]. In addition, the included additives must be removed without defects during the post-treatment process [72, 73].
A study on the composition of multicomponent additives for a wax/thermoplastic base is suggested in Table 4. In addition to the main additives (such as polyethylene), other components such as wax dispersants and plasticizers are also included to provide strength, elasticity, flexibility, plasticity, and lower viscosity [20].
Processes | Powder | State | Additive materials | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Wax & thermoplastic base | 3 mol% YSZ 300 nm (40 vol%) | Feedstock | Low-density polyethene, paraffin wax, stearic acid | [74] |
3 mol% YSZ 90 nm (47 vol%) | Feedstock | High-density polyethylene, stearic acid, amorphous polyolefin, styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene copolymer, paraffin wax, extender oil | [75] | |
3 mol% YSZ 500 nm (85 wt%) | Feedstock | Ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer, polyethylene, paraffin wax and stearic acid | [20] | |
Water base | 3 mol% YSZ (45–50 vol%) | Paste | Anionic polyelectrolyte dispersant, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, polyethyleneimine | [76] |
3 mol% YSZ 500 nm (50 vol%) | Paste | Water, acrylamide, N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide, ammonium citrate | [77] | |
3 mol% YSZ 40 nm (60 vol%) | Paste | Ammonium polymethacrylate, methylcellulose, deionized water | [78] |
Overview of extrusion processes for zirconia ceramics.
In the case of a feedstock in which a large amount of polymer is used as a dispersion medium, defects may occur during debinding after manufacturing. To solve this problem, an aqueous ceramic raw material is used. This water-based ceramic raw material enables the accumulation of zirconia powder with high content and decreases defects during degreasing due to the low content of organic matter.
The use of zirconia ceramic as a restorative material in the form of dental protheses started in the early 1980s and gained considerable attention in the dental community, thereafter due to its unique properties (such as excellent esthetics including tooth-like color, high fracture toughness, flexural strength, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility) [8]. Hence, it has become the best alternative for metal-based dental restorations. Zirconia ceramics have been used in dental applications in the form of dental crowns, dental implants, and fixed partial dentures since 1998 [19]. In general, zirconia restorations are fabricated using digital techniques, including subtractive manufacturing techniques such as CAD/CAM, which is the established method for producing fixed prosthetic restorations [79], where the milling machine is controlled by a computer numeric controlled system. The power-driven milling tools were used to mill/remove the material from a block (presintered or fully sintered ceramic block) to achieve the desired prosthesis background [80]. However, it has certain disadvantages during manufacturing, such as material wastage and wear of milling tools. In addition, its precision is limited, limiting object complexity, tooling equipment dimensions, material properties, among other problems [81]. AM incorporates recent advanced and evolving techniques in digital dentistry, which construct the three-dimensional component by layering the material. It is capable of making cost-effective customized dental prostheses with minimal material consumption and high precision [82]. However, research studies on the 3D printing of zirconia crowns and bridges for dental applications are limited. In addition, various issues such as poor geometrical accuracy, high porosity, and poor margins are unresolved. Recently, several research studies on 3D printing of zirconia ceramics using photopolymerization-based printing (SLA-based technologies) improved the effectiveness and accuracy, making the technique favorable.
The goal of the dentist is to restore the lost tooth as naturally as possible. The most common material types used in the restorative field are metals and ceramics. However, ceramics possess significant advantages over metal/metal ceramics due to their natural appearance (tooth-like color), which satisfies the esthetic demands, making ceramics the material of choice [83, 84].
YSZ is the most widely used all-ceramic material in dental restorations due to its outstanding material properties [85]. It is used for load-bearing applications, such as dental crowns, bridges, veneers, and implant abutments. YSZ restorations have been used in clinical practice over the past two decades. It is used primarily as a core material for the fabrication of dental prosthesis frameworks. The chipping of ceramic veneers and fracture of the framework, when exposed to continuous masticatory load is often reported [86, 87]. For example, the thermal coefficients of the core material and outer veneer cap (porcelain/lithium disilicate) are different and subjected to different heat treatment temperatures that lead to catastrophic failure. Further, several other factors including surface treatment (airborne-particle abrasion/etching) of the framework and bond strength between the ceramics veneer and zirconia frameworks are consequential [9, 88].
The advancement in zirconia with full-contour monolithic zirconia restorations gained attention to address the aforementioned problems. The fabrication of crowns and bridges using monolithic zirconia is faster and cheaper compared to a manually constructed veneered prosthesis. In recent years, CAD/CAM technology (subtractive) has been used for the fabrication of all-ceramic prostheses and abutments. The very attractive flexural strength and toughness of 3 mol% YSZ make it a classic and suitable material for dental use. Despite the promising properties of zirconia, the optical properties (translucency) are poor, i.e., it is opaque. Therefore, the larger esthetic-related issues initiated the demands for monolithic restorations. Dental material researchers and manufacturers have found several ways to increase translucency characteristics. The light transmission can be improved by either reducing the concentration of aluminum oxide or increasing the concentration of yttrium oxide [15]. For instance, the molar concentration of the yttria is varied (3–5%) to improve the translucency of zirconia with optimal mechanical properties. However, when the concentration of yttria is increased, the material exhibits higher translucency (more esthetics) but also exhibits a reduction in mechanical properties because the structural change into cubic phase becomes dominant. Evidently, the cubic phase does not allow transformation in crystal structure and this leads to a reduction in crack resistance. The “gradient technology” has become the modern advancement in the area of translucent zirconium oxide. A material-specific gradient is introduced into the milling block along with the color gradient (highly chromatic at the cervical region and less chromatic at the incisal region). In particular, the high-strength raw material 3Y-TZP is combined with the highly translucent raw material 5Y-TZP to create a continuous, layer-free color and translucent gradient [89]. The development of AM technology has attracted much attention to the fabrication of zirconia-based restoration with a high potential of making customized dental prothesis with minimal waste (Figure 3).
AM zirconia crowns via DLP technology [
In 2009, Ebert et al. [90] built a zirconia dental crown using the direct inkjet printing method. The printing ceramic suspension was loaded with 27 vol% of zirconia ceramics, with a relative density of 96.9%, flexural strength of 763 MPa, and a fracture toughness of 6.7 MPa m1/2. The printed and fired samples showed process-related defects, which were attributed to the clogging of the nozzles during printing that directly affected the mechanical properties. However, the authors demonstrated the potential to print 3D crowns using this technology. Likewise, Özkol et al. [91] attempted to print the zirconia bridge framework using a direct ink printing (DIP) method. The ceramic aqueous ink was prepared with 40 vol% solid content of 3Y-TZP. The printed components were dried and sintered at 1450°C. The relative density of the final product was >96%. Furthermore, finite element analysis was used to determine the stress distribution and the maximum tensile stress of the framework structure. The results of all different loading cases show hot spots on the bottom marginal area of the interdental connectors. The estimated maximum tensile stress values ranged between 250 and 350 MPa. The flexural strength was approximately 843 MPa (Table 5).
Applications | Materials and ceramic content | Fabrication techniques | Density (%) and shrinkage (vol %) | Mechanical properties | Others | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dental crown (2009) | YSZ 27 vol% | DIP (from Hewlett Packard) | Density 96.9% and Shrinkage 20% | Flexural strength 763 MPa; Weibull modulus 3.5; Fracture toughness 6.7 MPa m1/2 | — | [90] |
Dental crown (2011) | YSZ 47 vol% | Robo-casting | Shrinkage 30% | — | — | [92] |
Dental bridge framework (2012) | YSZ (3Y-TZP) 40 vol% | DIP (from HP deskjet) | Density > 96% | Flexural strength ̴ 843 MPa; Weibull modulus 3.6; tensile strength ̴ 340 MPa | — | [91] |
Dental bridges framework (2013) | ZTA (ZrO2−80% and Al2O3–20%) | SLM | Density ̴ 100% | Flexural strength 538 MPa | — | [45] |
Dental bridges (2018) | YSZ 40 vol% | SLA (from Shaanxi Hengtong Intelligent Machine Co., Ltd.) | Density 98.58% and shrinkage 20–30% | Flexural strength 200.14 MPa; Vickers hardness 1398 HV | — | [57] |
Dental crown (2018) | YSZ 37 vol% | SLA (polymer mold) and gel casting | Density 98.6% and Shrinkage 20.1% | Flexural strength 1170 MPa; Vickers hardness 1383 HV | — | [93] |
Dental crown (2019) | YSZ | SLA (from 3DCeram) | — | — | Surface trueness of the 3D printed crown meets the requirement | [94] |
Dental crown (2019) | YSZ 45 vol% | SLA (from Porimy 3D Printing Technology Co., Ltd.) | Density-5.83 g/cm3 and Shrinkage 18.1% in length, 20% in width, and 24.3% in height. | Flexural strength 812 MPa; Weibull strength 866.7 MPa; Weibull modulus 7.44 | Cement space 63.40 μm (occlusal area); 135.08 μm (axial area) and 169 μm (marginal area) | [95] |
Implant-supported AM crown (2019) | Commercial slurry (3DMixZrO2) | SLA (from 3DCeram) | — | Fracture resistance 1243 N | — | [96] |
Dental crown (2019) | YSZ (3Y-TZP) 48–58 vol% | DLP (from Octave Light R1) | Density 92.79% and Shrinkage—23.81% | Flexural strength 674.74 MPa | Geometrical overgrowth 36.94% | [56] |
Dental crown (2020) | Commercial slurry (3DMixZrO2) | SLA (from 3DCeram) | — | — | Marginal and internal discrepancies | [97] |
Occlusal veneers (2020) | YSZ 40–60 vol% | Litho-graphy-based ceramics manufacturing process (like DLP) (From Lithoz GmbH) | — | — | Load bearing capacity- Median Fmax values 2026 N | [98] |
Dental crown (2020) | YSZ 50–55 vol% | Inkjet | Density 98.5% | Hardness 14.4 GPa; transverse rupture strength 520 MPa | — | [99] |
Dental crown (2021) | Commercial slurry SL150 | SLA (from Porimy 3D Printing Technology Co., Ltd.) | — | — | Dimensional accuracy 65 μm and marginal adaptation | [100] |
Dental crown (2021) | Commercial slurry CSL150 (YSZ) 47 vol% | SLA (from Porimy 3D Printing Technology Co., Ltd.) | — | — | — | [101] |
Dental prothesis (bar shaped) (2021) | Commercial slurry (3DMixZrO2) | SLA (from 3DCeram) | — | Flexural strength 320.32 MPa and 281.12 MPa after aging; fracture resistance 640.64 N and 562.25 after aging | — | [102] |
Dental prothesis (bar shaped) (2021) | Commercial slurry (3DMixZrO2) | SLA (from 3DCeram) | Shrinkage—16.32% in length, 14.25% in width, and 20.33% in height. | — | — | [103] |
AM zirconia for dental applications.
Lian et al. [57] reported that complex zirconia bridges were produced using the SLA technique with a high shape precision. They prepared a 40 vol% zirconia suspension and the laser scanning speed of 1200 mm/s was optimized for printing. The density and Vickers hardness of the sintered bridges was 98.58% and 1398 HV, respectively. Nevertheless, the flexural strength (200.14) was very low, and it was not good enough for actual dental applications, because of the internal defects formed during the printing process. The authors, therefore, suggested a study of the further optimization of the parameters of the SLA and sintering process. Additionally, in 2019 Wang et al. [94] conducted an in vitro experiment to investigate the surface trueness at different locations (external, intaglio, marginal, and occlusal) of 3D printed zirconia crowns constructed using SLA 3D printing technology.
The point-to-point difference between the scan data (3D printing) and corresponding CAD model data determines the trueness of the fabricated crown. The comparative color maps could demonstrate the accuracy and inaccuracy between the 3D printing and milling techniques. Meanwhile, Li et al. [95] examined the internal and marginal adaptation of 3D printed zirconia crowns and studied the physical and mechanical properties. The authors achieved a consistent flexural strength of 812 MPa and Weibull modulus of 7.44 by using 45 vol% zirconia suspensions. The mechanical strength is sufficient for dental crowns fabrication. While the cement spaces in occlusal (63.4), axial (134.08), and marginal (169.65) areas were not ideal for clinical applications, this can be attributed to light scattering and anisotropic sintering shrinkage.
However, in 2019 Jang et al. [56] investigated the microstructure and physical properties of zirconia products fabricated via DLP technology. The zirconia suspension was prepared using different volume fractions of the ceramic content from 48 vol% to 58 vol%. Cracks were observed on the zirconia specimens, and these cracks increased in number as the zirconia volume fraction decreased. The 3-point bending strength, relative density, and shrinkage of the printed samples were 674.74 MPa, 83.02%, and 23.81%, respectively. The maximum volume fraction possible for 3D printing was 58 vol%.
More recently in 2021, Zandinejad et al. [96] investigated the fracture resistance of AM zirconia crowns cemented to an implant-supported zirconia abutment. They also compared the AM zirconia crowns with milled zirconia, as well as lithium disilicate crowns. A universal testing machine at a crosshead speed of 2 mm/min was used to determine the fracture resistance, and it was verified that the fracture resistance of AM zirconia is equivalent to milled crowns. Nevertheless, intra-oral simulation research on the AM ceramic crowns should be conducted to authorize AM as a real-world technology for the construction of ceramic restorations in clinical dentistry.
The popularity of zirconia-based implants is growing enormously as an alternative to alumina and metal-based endosseous implants [104]. Since the late 1980s, zirconia has been used to build surgical implants for the replacement of total hip prostheses in orthopedic surgery [105]. Zirconia-based ceramics have superior mechanical properties and corrosion resistance [106]. Besides, in vitro and in vivo,clinical studies of zirconia implants revealed excellent biocompatibility, osseointegration and a low affinity for bacterial plaque compared to standard metal implants (titanium implants) [107, 108, 109]. The utilization of AM technology is beneficial for the fabrication of zirconia-based ceramic dental implants as they can produce customized geometrics and complex structures. The technology can also improve bioactivity without any surface alterations, such as sandblasting, etching or coating [104]. Nevertheless, it is essential that the functional surface quality of zirconia-based implants fabricated from conventional techniques be enhanced to improve mechanical functions such as wear resistance and fatigue. Moreover, the surface treatments can improve bioactive functions, such as cell proliferation, adhesion, bonding strength, and bacterial decolonization [110].
For example, Osman et al. [111] fabricated 3D printed zirconia implants using DLP technology and evaluated the dimensional accuracy, surface topography, and flexural strength (Table 6). They showed that custom-designed 3D printed implants revealed satisfactory dimensional precision (root mean square error of 0.1 mm), and the flexural strength (943.2 MPa) is equivalent to that of conservative milled zirconia (800–1000 MPa). The roughness of the surface was found to be 1.59 μm and from the SEM analysis, it was observed that the presence of microporosities with interconnected pores (196 nm to 3.3 μm) and cracks were visible. These flaws were generated during the sintering process or improper dispersion of ceramic particles into the slurry. To enhance the potential microstructure quality of the printed implants, 3D printing parameters need to be optimized.
Applications | Materials | Fabrication techniques | Mechanical properties | Others | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dental implants (2017) | YSZ | DLP (from Delta Co.) | Flexural strength 632.1 MPa; Vickers hardness 14.72 GPa | — | [112] |
Root analogue implants (RAI) (2017) | YSZ 27 vol% | DLP (from Admatec) | Weibull modulus 3.5; Fracture toughness 6.7 MPa.m1/2 | Density 96.9%; Shrinkage 20 vol % | [113] |
Dental implants (2017) | YSZ | DLP (from Admatec) | Flexural strength 943 MPa | Dimensional accuracy 0.089 mm and SURFACE roughness 1.59 μm | [111] |
Medical implants (cube, cuboidal, and bar shaped) (2019) | ATZ 70 wt% | LCM | Flexural strength 430 MPa | Density 5.45 g/cm3; accuracy 70–88% | [114] |
Hip implant (2019) | YSZ-ZnO (coating) | FDM and gel casting | — | MC3T3-E1 cells; | [115] |
Dental implants (square shaped) (2021) | Commercial slurry (LithaCon 3Y 230; 3DMix ZrO2; 3D Mix ATZ) | SLA (from 3DCeram and Lithoz GmbH) | Flexural strength 1108.8 MPa (3D Mix ATZ); Weibull modulus 11.1 | — | [82] |
Dental implants (2021) | ATZ 36–38 vol% | DLP (from Robotfactory) | — | Density 96.8% | [116] |
AM zirconia for implant applications.
However, Nakai et al. [82] inspected the microstructure and flexural strength of zirconia-based ceramics formed using SLA (AM technology) and related to CAD/CAM technology (subtractive technology). In their study, the authors compared the commercially available zirconia-based ceramics products. They were two AM 3Y-TZP (LithaCon 3Y 230 and 3D Mix zirconia) products, and one AM ATZ (3DMix ATZ) product, with conventionally fabricated 3Y-TZP (LAVA plus). The experimental outcomes confirmed that the flexural strength and microstructure of AM zirconia are sufficient and close to that of conventionally (subtractive) manufactured zirconia. AM ATZ exhibited higher flexural strength (1108.8 MPa) than 3Y-TZP. Both 3Y-TZP and ATZ are suitable for dental implants. Moreover, variation in the AM process and the impact of building alignment can alter the mechanical properties of AM zirconia. To promote the practical reliability of AM zirconia implants, the relationship between the surface morphology and bioactivity of zirconia needs to be evaluated in a future study. Recently, Magnani et al. [116] presented the potential capability of DLP printing technology to fabricate the dental implants with a new high-performance ATZ composite material (Figure 4).
Dental implant fabricated using DLP-based additive manufacturing technology. (a) ATZ dental implant-green body, (b) micrograph of the lattice structure [
The clinical success of zirconia bioceramics in the human environment in the form of dental posts, teeth, and crowns in the dentistry field encouraged biomedical researchers to exploit the biological and mechanical properties of zirconia bioceramics for bone-regeneration applications. Accordingly, developing zirconia-based scaffolds with high precision and dimensional stability is vital to satisfy increasingly challenging requirements for bone-regeneration requests. At present, there is a lack of a simple commercial approach to construct 3D zirconia structures, however, the proposal of AM in 3D zirconia scaffold construction shows great potential. Biomedical engineers targeted AM-based technologies for the zirconia scaffold preparations (Table 7). Unlike conventional bioceramics, initial attempts to fabricate zirconia bioceramics were mainly concentrated on multi-pass extrusion techniques [44]. The multi-pass extrusion technique is a simple AM technique in which the ethylene-vinyl acetate polymers were blended with zirconia powders to execute extrusion (the extrusion is repeated to construct the scaffold with constant porous core structure). The extrusion proportion, pore-gradient rate, and microstructure are the critical parameters in controlling the final output of the zirconia scaffolds. More importantly, to increase the biocompatibility of zirconia binary mixtures (ZrO2/Al2O3), fabrication of binary scaffolds with alternating ZrO2 and Al2O3 layers with 3D-interconnected micropores are also demonstrated [136]. However, the multi-pass extrusion designs were not controlled using modern numerical methods. In subsequent years, computerized extrusion-based techniques like 3D Bioplotter and FDM were introduced to precisely design the 3D zirconia scaffolds. Zirconia-based scaffolds (β-Ca2SiO4/zirconia scaffolds) fabricated using the 3D-Bioplotter technique were verified to induce bone-regeneration properties in an actual biological atmosphere using a rat model [131]. In FDM, zirconia ceramics are generally blended with polymers such as polycaprolactone to execute a computerized melt mixing process, which can construct a regular grid scaffold [133]. More importantly, biopolymers embedded in zirconia-based scaffolds fabricated using FDM were found to provide additional mechanical support, as well as bioactivity for the zirconia ceramics (Figure 5). Compared to the pristine zirconia-based scaffolds (alginate/gelatine), biopolymer embedded zirconia ceramics were found to exhibit the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the bone tissue, which is essential to imitate the biological environment [74]. Subsequently, considerable research efforts were dedicated to formulating zirconia-based scaffolds using the direct ink writing (DIW) or robocasting method (extrusion-based AM-based technique). 3D zirconia scaffolds fabricated with controlled pore openings and thread dimensions using the DIW method were found to possess high porosity (61% and 75%). More importantly, hydroxyapatite/fluorapatite-based coatings on the DIW derived zirconia-based scaffolds were needed to enhance its bioactivity [135]. Photopolymerization-based AM techniques including DLP and SLS were also studied for the fabrication of zirconia-based scaffolds. Specifically, DLP technology was found to have high accuracy and faster processing ability than other AM-based techniques. The ultraviolet light is irradiated on the zirconia suspensions (prepared by optimizing the solid loading of the zirconia powders, organic monomer, potentiators, and dispersant) to articulate the final design. It is important to perform heat treatment in a high-temperature vacuum furnace to avoid internal cracks and imperfections in the heat-treated zirconia scaffolds [132]. Although SLS-based techniques were widely studied for calcium-based bioceramics, the use of SLS techniques to construct zirconia has been limited due to low zirconia concentration. Mostly, zirconia is blended in minimum volume fraction with other bioactive materials like calcium silicates to avoid the unwanted agglomeration-induced material degradation [124]. In addition, to replicate the nano-to-microscale configuration of the ECM of bone tissue, electrospinning of the zirconia-based scaffolds was experimented with. It is believed that the zirconia scaffolds subjected to electrospinning exhibited high endurance to the inbound load from the bone tissue when compared to conventional more fragile scaffolds [125].
Materials | Fabrication techniques | Composite/coating materials and infiltration/intermediate layer | Porosity and pore size | Mechanical properties | Biological properties (in vitro and in vivo) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
YSZ 48–43 vol% (2011) | Multipass extrusion | Intermediate layer HA (α–TCP) –YSZ; coating: HA | 77% and 86 μm | Compression strength: 53 MPa | MG-63 cells | [117] |
YSZ (2011) | 3D Rapid Prototyper (ABS template) followed by slurry impergation | Coating: mesoporous bioglass | 63–68% and 500–800 μm | Compression strength: 44.35–123.32 MPa | SBF and BMSC cells | [118] |
YSZ 10 vol% (2011) | Sponge replica and electrospinning | Intermediate layer YSZ-BCP; coating; BCP | 67.68–69.65% | Compression strength: 4.83–4.97 MPa | MG-63 cells | [119] |
ZrO2 50 vol.% (2012) | Free-form | — | 40% and 350 μm | — | Case study (maxilla) | [120] |
YSZ 45–40 vol% (2012) | Multipass extrusion | Intermediate layer: HA-YSZ; coating: HA | — | Compression strength: 7–20 MPa | MG-63 cells | [121] |
YSZ 46–41 vol% (2012) | Multipass extrusion | Intermediate layer: YSZ-BCP: coating: PCL/BCP | 92–78% | Compression strength: 8.27–12.7 MPa | MG-63 cells | [122] |
YSZ 70 wt% (2014) | Direct ink writing (DIW) | — | 55 and 63% | Compression strength: 8 and 10 MPa | HCT116 cells | [123] |
ZrO2-CaSiO3 (2014) | SLS | Composite: ZrO2 (10–40 wt%) | 70% and 1600 μm | Compression strength: 17.9–44.1 MPa; fracture toughness 1.14–1.66 MPa.m1/2 | SBF and MG-63 cells | [124] |
YSZ-PVP (2016) | Electrospinning | — | — | Modulus 1.11 MPa | HMSC cells | [125] |
ZrO2-β-TCP (2016) | 3D Rapid Prototyper (ABS template) followed by impergation | Composite: ZrO2 (10–50 wt%) | 68.5–82.5% | Compression strength: 3–15 MPa; Modulus 184–396 MPa | PBS and MG-63 cells | [126] |
ZrO2-β-TCP (2017) | 3D Bioplotter | Composite: ZrO2 (30 wt%) | 60–76.46% and 160–226 μm | Compression strength: 7–12.025 MPa | MG-63 cells | [117] |
ZrO2-PCL 6–30 wt.% (2017) | Electrospinning | — | — | — | 3T3 cells | [127] |
YSZ-Al2O3 (ZTA) 70 wt% (35.5 vol%) (2018) | Robocasting | Composite: ZTA (YSZ-16 wt.%) | 50% and 245 μm | — | HOB cells | [128] |
ZrO2–BCP (2018) | FDM | Composite: ZrO2 (10 wt%) | 350 μm | Compression strength: 0.5 MPa | MG-63 and hMSCs cells | [129] |
YSZ 48 vol% (2019) | Robocasting | — | 200–500 μm | — | — | [130] |
ZrO2-β- Ca2SiO4 (2019) | 3D Bioplotter | Composite: ZrO2 (5, 10, 15 wt%) | ̴ 67% | Compression strength: 3.9–6.1 MPa | SBF and BMSC cells; RAT calvarial defect (8 weeks) | [131] |
ZrO2-HA 60 wt% (2019) | DLP | Composite: ZrO2 (1, 3, 6 wt%) | — | Tensile strength (29.4%); bending strength (23.9%) | BMSC cells | [132] |
ZrO2–PCL (2020) | FDM | Composite: ZrO2 (5, 10, 20 wt%) | 46.2–47% and 459.2–462.7 μm | Compression strength: 5.5–7.9 MPa; Modulus 43–67 MPa | MC3T3-E1 cells | [133] |
YSZ (2020) | DLP | Composite: HA (10, 20, 30 wt%) | 54.6% | Compression strength: 52.25 MPa; compression strength: after soaking in SBF (25 MPa) | SBF and MC3T3-E1 cells | [134] |
YSZ 40 vol% (2020) | FDM and Freeze drying | Intermediate layer: Glass (Infiltration); coating: glass/Zn-HA (̴ 1 μm) and gelatin/alginate | 40% and 300–450 μm | Compression strength: 68.2–89.8 MPa; Modulus 1.7–2.6 GPa; Strain energy density 1.8–4.2 MJ/m3 | DPCs cells | [74] |
YSZ 39.5 vol% (2021) | Direct ink writing (DIW) | Intermediate layer: FA; coating: HA ( ̴ 20 μm) | 61.1–75.3% | Compression strength: 20.8–62.9 MPa | SBF | [135] |
AM zirconia for bone tissue regeneration applications.
(a) Scaffold printing using FDM, (b) digital photograph of the printed zirconia scaffold, (d) microscopic images of zirconia scaffold, and (e) polymer embedded zirconia scaffold [
Zirconia is a classic bioceramic, and its use in the dental and biomedical fields is inevitable. Hence, extensive research efforts have been dedicated to maximizing the potential of AM technologies to formulate the zirconia ceramics into a precise bone or tooth replacement, scaffolds, implants, and crowns. Though, zirconia scaffolds are directly involved in the human environment (in both dental and biomedical fields), the requirements of each field are evidently different. For instance, the zirconia scaffolds should have adequate porosity for bone-regeneration applications and patient-specific design, whereas, zirconia scaffolds for dental restoration and implants need not have a porous structure; instead, they should retain complex shapes with solid/hollow structures. Hence, the scaffold processing via AM also needs to be precise for each application. AM or 3D printing has revolutionized the designing of complex human hard tissues with an excellent surface finish, minimum material wastage, and high fabrication speed compared to conventional techniques. However, AM also suffers from some inherent limitations and challenges. The primary challenges include difficulties in raw material preparation, process control, and immature designs (Figure 6). Research advancements achieved by the metal and polymers-based scaffolds via AM-based techniques both in the laboratory and at clinical levels are far ahead when compared to the practically challenging zirconia-based ceramics due to their inherent challenging properties (brittleness, high melting point, and high density). Hence, it is essential to pinpoint the existing challenges in the research investments and activities that restrict the feasibility of AM-based technologies in fabricating zirconia-based ceramics at the laboratory, clinical, and industrial levels.
Major challenges of AM zirconia-based ceramics.
Although different types of AM technologies are available for formulating bioceramics, only a few techniques are effective in the fabrication of zirconia parts with minimal imperfections. Despite the large number of AM technologies suitable for processing ceramics, each technique has its individual advantages and limitations. The primary issue for printing starts from the raw material (feedstock/slurry) preparation itself. For example, in extrusion-based techniques, temperature, pressure, nozzle size, and computer-generated design files (scaffold models) can be fed easily to the computer to accomplish the anticipated requirements. However, poor printability, nozzle blockage, and poor flowability of the feedstock have been major bottlenecks (due to the high density and hardness of zirconia) in designing zirconia-based scaffolds for bone-regeneration applications.
Compared to FDM-based techniques, SLA-based techniques have been extensively explored for the fabrication of zirconia-based ceramics due to the excellent surface finish and precision produced by the technology. Commercial SLA printers are now available for zirconia-based ceramics. However, the uneven distribution and particle aggregation of zirconia particles in the slurry suspension upsetting the light scattering properties (cure depth, curing time, and the energy of the UV light source) is a challenging issue. As a result, geometrical overgrowth is unavoidable due to the high refractive index of the zirconia. (SLA-based techniques are mainly controlled by the light source, refractive index, volume fraction, and particle size.) The most common problem associated with SLA-based techniques for zirconia-based ceramics is the delamination among the layers, which invariably disturbs the physical and mechanical properties of the sintered zirconia parts.
SLS-based techniques, however, can produce scaffolds with high precision, but they are rarely explored for zirconia-based ceramics due to the expensive and complicated control parameters. In particular, the high melting point of zirconia requires pre-heating of the powder bed (>1000°C) to avoid cracks caused by the thermal stress induced by the high-power laser source. Nevertheless, SLS-based techniques have represented a single-step scaffolding process for formulating zirconia scaffolds with full density. The requirement and urgency of developing this technique further for zirconia-based scaffolds are debatable.
For all the above, the major disadvantages of AM-based techniques except direct SLS-based techniques are the low-volume fraction of the zirconia in the feedstock (<60%, in which the polymer occupies the remaining portion). After debinding of polymers, the printed scaffolds can retain only half of the parent zirconia properties, which invariably affects the expected properties of the final sintered zirconia-based scaffolds.
In general, the strength and life of ceramic materials are directly associated with the type and level of residual stress that developed during the AM process. The major issue of any 3D printing system for the fabrication of zirconia parts is the internal (residual) stress, which is formed either during the printing process or during the post-process. The residual stress generated during the post-process includes high-temperature thermal treatment (sintering process) upon cooling or due to the difference in the thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) between the composite material of zirconia/bilayer material [137]. In other words, the mismatch of the CTE of two different materials can induce residual stress (tensile). Correspondingly, it was demonstrated that the selection of slow cooling and firing program of ceramic can potentially reduce the stress, which will also decrease the risk of chipping of porcelain layer in zirconia dental restoration [138]. Moreover, residual stress has a direct effect on the aging process. For instance, the tensile stresses of the zirconia composite can accelerate the aging process of the zirconia parts in body fluids [137]. It can be regulated by the stabilizer material nature and content of the zirconia phase in the composite. The most common diagnostic techniques employed for the residual stress measurements include X-ray diffraction, nanoindentation, Raman spectroscopic analysis, thermal tempering using a two-dimensional (2D) analytical model, and three-dimensional (3D) finite element simulation. However, the magnitude of the residual stress of zirconia parts varies from location to location of geometry. Also, the residual stress distribution is affected by the thickness and geometry of the zirconia parts [139]. Upcoming research should be focused on the residual stress of the AM zirconia parts are need to consider.
Although diverse AM-based research studies claim that zirconia-based scaffolds are practicable, true accomplishments are only determined based on the result of the clinical studies. In this regard, there are many unaddressed areas of applications when applying AM-based zirconia to real-world dental and bone restoration that are unresolved. For example, there are internal defects (cracks, porosity) that are formed during layering/printing or postprinting of the designed zirconia prostheses using AM-based techniques. They could affect the mechanical strength of AM zirconia crowns, bridges, implants, and scaffolds and result in a failure to satisfy the dental and biomedical requirements [57]. Nevertheless, optimum porosity is essential to guide cell adhesion or osteointegration. Hence, the stability among the material properties and biological requests need to be established by optimizing the slurry formulation/feedstock and sintering procedures on whatever AM-based techniques are used. The major challenges of 3D printed dental prostheses for real clinical applications are surface finishing/topography, staircase effects, geometrical overgrowth, and mechanical properties. Specifically, the marginal tolerance requirement (< 0.1 mm) for dental prosthetic applications via AM-based techniques is hard to realize, particularly when material strength and density are also mandatory [54, 140].
Uneven shrinkage is caused by the inbound technical shortage of AM-based techniques. Unresolved accuracy in the z-direction compared to the x and y-directions induces densification of ceramic powders within the layer and related issues (degree of polymerization and layer thickness). Overall, the printing parameters along the z-direction are yet to be optimized in such a way that the dimensional accuracy of the zirconia parts is achieved using AM-based techniques capable of addressing the patient-specific requirements. The technical imperfections in design may lead to plaque accumulation, risk of microleakage, and local inflammation [141, 142]. Thus, the relationship between dimensional precision and clinical adoption is critical to the adoption of any AM-based techniques.
Because the scaffolds need to be in direct contact with biological fluids, parts sterilization is important. Hence, biomedical engineers should be aware of the sterilization requirements while designing zirconia-based parts using AM-based techniques. The scaffolds should not lose their characteristic properties even after sterilization. Limited in vivo studies have been devoted to determining the after-effects of zirconia-based scaffolds on the biological environment. These confirm that the AM-based techniques for zirconia-based ceramics are still in infancy. Hence, biomedical engineers should be conscious of the importance of in vivo studies to realizing the practical applications of zirconia-based scaffolds.
Leading biomedical implant manufacturing companies including Stryker Corp, ZERAMEX, Straumann ceramic, Nobel Biocare, Zimmer Biomet, Wright Medical, Globus Medical, and Integra Lifesciences focused on developing, manufacturing, and promoting zirconia-based biomedical implants as a material of choice via additive manufacturing technology. Design flexibility, material productivity, and low-volume production feasibility are the prime factors behind the interest in additive manufacturing technology among the leading companies. However, AM-based technologies facing undeniable difficult challenges to fabricate zirconia-based scaffolds. Though adopting AM-based technologies for zirconia implants needs time and determination, the most important challenge lies in the substantial investment on the principal investment cost for the production floor [143]. Investment in the fabrication of zirconia-based biomedical implants from AM-based technologies is not only about equipment cost. It includes the investments in the AM ecosystem as well, which involves material, software, manpower coaching, postprocessing apparatus, documentation, and merging all facilities capable of mass production. More importantly, capital investment and material resources will be added to the above-stated challenges, which is large enough for a corporation to invest in AM as an aggregate. Hence, long-term cost assessment challenges were ahead for any biomedical implant company to unlock the AM-based technology to process zirconia-based scaffolds for wider marketplaces [143].
New technologies often mean new construction techniques and material and resource applications. AM has become a potentially vital technology in fabricating zirconia-based materials for various critical-sized applications, including bone scaffolds and dental crowns, bridges, and implants. As both AM-based technology and zirconia-based materials are in their infancy for scaffold application, it is essential to create awareness and sensitization among researchers. For example, among the AM-based technology, very few 3D printing systems (SLA, SLS, and DLP) are successful in manufacturing zirconia-based ceramics as scaffolds in the lab scale itself. This is inadequate when compared to well-established 3D printing systems for the use of metal and polymer materials, hence there is a prolonged difficulty in the clinical accomplishment of zirconia-based scaffolds. Though the mechanical properties of the zirconia parts achieved via 3D printing are comparable to the conventional zirconia parts, still some inbound issues such as internal defects (crack and porosities) and dimensional accuracies need to be enhanced. Moreover, for the enhanced bioactivity of zirconia parts, precise selection of the bioactive material and surface treatment strategies (coating/composite) are still under search. It has to be declared here that the essential printing parameters, materials preparation, and the development of the printer capability are progressively taken care of by the biomedical experts in the recent reports. Hence, collective efforts need to be dedicated in collaboration with academia, AM-machine developers, and clinical end-users to share their materials and design requirements to achieve the expected goals. The collective scientific outcomes, together with materials engineering and manufacturing technology, are extremely important in actualizing any emerging technology. AM-based technology could be utilized for manufacturing zirconia-based ceramics, which would be a milestone for society if all its current limitations can be systematically and creatively addressed.
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF). Grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT) (No. 2019R1A2C108945613).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
We thank Pavithra Kumaresan, Karthik Narayanan, and Hariprasath Sekar for their timely help during editing the manuscript.
Y-TZP (or) YSZ | yttrium tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (or) yttria stabilised zirconia |
ZTA | zirconia toughened alumina |
Mg-PSZ (or) MgSZ | magnesia partially stabilized zirconia (or) magnesium stabilized zirconia |
Y2O3 | yttrium oxide |
ZrO2 | zirconium dioxide/zirconia |
Al2O3 | aluminium oxide/alumina |
MgO | magnesium oxide |
ATZ | alumina toughened zirconia |
ZnO | zinc oxide |
HA | hydroxyapatite |
TCP | tricalcium phosphate |
BCP | bicalcium phosphate |
FA | fluroappatite |
CaP | calcium phosphate |
PMMA | polymethamethylacralate |
PCL | polycaprolactone |
CS | chitosan |
SF | silk fibrin |
POM | polyoxometalates |
PLA | polylatic acid |
PRP | plasma rich protein |
HS | heparin sulfate |
CZ | calcium zirconate |
Ca2SiO4 | calcium silicate |
PVP | polyvinylpyrrolidone |
ABS | acrylonitrile butadiene styrene |
Zn-HA | zinc doped hydroxyapatite |
DIW | direct ink writing |
BJ | binder jetting |
FDM | fused deposition modelling |
DLP | digital light processing |
CAD/CAM | computer aided design/computer aided milling |
SLS | selective laser sintering |
SLM | selective laser melting |
S. aureus | Streptococcus aureus |
E. coli | Escherichia coli |
HOS | human osteoscarcoma |
SBF | stimulated body fluid |
MG63 | ostesarcoma cells |
MCT3-E1 | murine preosteoblast cells |
BMSC | bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells |
L929 | murine fibroblast cells |
PBS | phosphate buffered saline |
HGF | human gingival fibroblast cells |
OB6 | murine bone marrow-derived osteoblastic cells |
HCT116 | human colon carcinoma cells |
HOB | human osteoblast cells |
hMSC | human mesenchymal stem cells |
DPCs | dental pulp cells |
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Due to its advantages of abundant resources, less in cost, great workability and high physical properties, fly ash leads to achieving high mechanical properties. Fly ash is considered as one of the largest generated industrial solid wastes or so-called industrial by-products, around the world particularly in China, India, and USA. The characteristics of fly ash allow it to be a geotechnical material to produce geopolymer cement or concrete as an alternative of ordinary Portland cement. Many efforts are made in this direction to formulate a suitable mix design of fly ash-based geopolymer by focusing on fly ash as the main prime material. The physical properties, chemical compositions, and chemical activation of fly ash are analyzed and evaluated in this review paper. Reference has been made to different ASTM, ACI standards, and other researches work in geopolymer area.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Aissa Bouaissi, Long Yuan Li, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Romisuhani Ahmad, Rafiza Abdul Razak and Zarina Yahya",authors:null},{id:"73729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93500",title:"Solar Energy and Its Purpose in Net-Zero Energy Building",slug:"solar-energy-and-its-purpose-in-net-zero-energy-building",totalDownloads:583,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Net Zero Energy Building is generally described as an extremely energy-efficient building in which the residual electricity demand is provided by renewable energy. Solar power is also regarded to be the most readily available and usable form of renewable electricity produced at the building site. In contrast, energy conservation is viewed as an influential national for achieving a building’s net zero energy status. This chapter aims to show the value of the synergy between energy conservation and solar energy transfer to NZEBs at the global and regional levels. To achieve these goals, both energy demand building and the potential supply of solar energy in buildings have been forecasted in various regions, climatic conditions, and types of buildings. Building energy consumption was evaluated based on a bottom-up energy model developed by 3CSEP and data inputs from the Bottom-Up Energy Analysis System (BUENAS) model under two scenarios of differing degrees of energy efficiency intention. The study results indicate that the acquisition of sustainable energy consumption is critical for solar-powered net zero energy buildings in various building styles and environments. The chapter calls for the value of government measures that incorporate energy conservation and renewable energy.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan",authors:[{id:"317852",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeili Shayan",slug:"mostafa-esmaeili-shayan",fullName:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan"}]},{id:"67105",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86279",title:"Social Innovation and Environmental Sustainability in Social Housing Policies: Learning from Two Experimental Case Studies in Italy",slug:"social-innovation-and-environmental-sustainability-in-social-housing-policies-learning-from-two-expe",totalDownloads:998,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter critically examines approaches and solutions developed by social housing to sustainably respond to the housing emergency plaguing contemporary cities and Italian cities in particular. In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",middleName:null,surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}]},{id:"57401",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71325",title:"Basic Schemes: Preparations for Applying Control Science to Sustainable Design",slug:"basic-schemes-preparations-for-applying-control-science-to-sustainable-design",totalDownloads:1195,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"It is the ultimate goal for humankind to deal with various problems and achieve sustainability. Control science can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks and has already produced remarkable results. Accordingly, applying control science to the task of achieving sustainability is a rational and reliable approach. In order to apply control science to sustainability issues, our first study has shown the “basic control system for sustainability” as well as the “model of sustainability.” After that, in order to identify system components of practical control systems for promoting sustainable design, we have devised “two-step preparatory work for sustainable design.” The two steps of this preparatory work are “determining the relationships between the standard human activities and sustainability” and “sustainability checkup on human activities as an object.”",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"72850",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92725",title:"Computational Analysis of a Lecture Room Ventilation System",slug:"computational-analysis-of-a-lecture-room-ventilation-system",totalDownloads:824,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The level of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) has become a big topic of research, and improving it using passive ventilation methods is imperative due to the cost saving potentials. Designing lecture buildings to use less energy or Zero Energy (ZE) has become more important, and analysing buildings before construction can save money in design changes. This research analyses the performance (thermal comfort [TC]) of a lecture room, investigate the use of passive ventilation methods and determine the energy-saving potential of the proposed passive ventilation method using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Results obtained showed that air change per hour at a wind velocity of 0.05 m/s was 3.10, which was below standards. Therefore, the lecture hall needs external passive ventilation systems (Solar Chimney [SC]) for improved indoor air quality at minimum cost. Also, it was observed that the proposed passive ventilation (SC) system with the size between 1 and 100 m3, made an improvement upon the natural ventilation in the room. There was a 66.69% increase after 10 years in the saving of energy and cost using Solar Chimney as compared to Fans, which depicts that truly energy and cost were saved using passive ventilation systems rather than mechanical ventilation systems.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Abayomi Layeni, Collins Nwaokocha, Olalekan Olamide, Solomon Giwa, Samuel Tongo, Olawale Onabanjo, Taiwo Samuel, Olabode Olanipekun, Oluwasegun Alabi, Kasali Adedeji, Olusegun Samuel, Jagun Zaid Oluwadurotimi, Olaolu Folorunsho, Jacob Adebayo and Folashade Oniyide",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71982",title:"Net-Zero Energy Buildings: Principles and Applications",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:2134,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Global warming and climate change are rising issues during the last couple of decades. With residential and commercial buildings being the largest energy consumers, sources are being depleted at a much faster pace in the recent decades. Recent statistics shows that 14% of humans are active participant to protect the environment with an additional 48% sympathetic but not active. In this chapter, net-zero energy buildings design tools and applications are presented that can help designers in the commercial and residential sectors design their buildings to be net-zero energy buildings. Case studies with benefits and challenges will be presented to illustrate the different designs to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB).",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Maher Shehadi",authors:null},{id:"57400",title:"Case Study: Detached House Designed by Following the Control System",slug:"case-study-detached-house-designed-by-following-the-control-system",totalDownloads:1529,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The previous chapter has demonstrated the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Following this control system, we have actually designed and constructed a detached house. To be concrete, the homeowner and the architects of the housing manufacture have designed the home’s parts, or elements, so that as much as possible the elements’ variables meet their desired values. The sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist have been readily accepted because the material and spatial elements are equivalent to real parts of the home. After the home started to be used, we have obtained external evaluations of the home’s sustainability performance. For example, CASBEE for Detached Houses, a comprehensive assessment system, has readily ranked the house in the highest “S.” An energy-saving performance assessment has shown that this home has reduced energy consumption by over 70%, as compared with the average home. On the other hand, the reactions of the occupants and visitors have indicated the comfort, healthiness and safety of this house. Furthermore, this home has received a sustainable housing award, especially due to its extremely high sustainability and energy-saving performance.",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1348,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1375,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",middleName:"Jideofor",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}]},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:946,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. In this chapter, the role of the early-stage building design as well as the correct occupant behavior is presented as essential to develop a naturally ventilated dwelling, which is an excellent alternative to achieve proper levels of indoor environment in a sustainable manner.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",authors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"852",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81264",title:"Holistic and Affordable Approach to Supporting the Sustainability of Family Houses in Cold Climates by Using Many Vacuum-Tube Solar Collectors and Small Water Tank to Provide the Sanitary Hot Water, Space Heating, Greenhouse, and Swimming Poole Heating De",slug:"holistic-and-affordable-approach-to-supporting-the-sustainability-of-family-houses-in-cold-climates-",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103110",abstract:"This work presents a new proposal for supporting the sustainability of a single-family house in very cold climates by installing many vacuum-tube solar collectors and a small water tank in order to fulfill the whole dweller demands of heat: space heating, sanitary hot water, and warming both, a greenhouse (spring and autumn) and a swimming pool (summer). This way is obtained a sustained demand that maximizes the utilization of heat from solar collectors throughout the year. This system is designed intending to use the smallest tank that fulfills the winter heating demand, supported by vacuum-tube solar collectors and a little help from electrical heaters working just on the valley tariff. This innovative design gets the most sustainable (but affordable) solution. This goal can be achieved by using a small well-insulated overheated aboveground water tank, instead of the huge underground reservoir of heat used by most projects tested up today. These large communal projects use huge reservoirs to provide seasonal thermal storage (STES) capacity, but their costs are huge too. Besides, it was observed that all these huge STES suffer large heat losses (about 40%), due to constraints for thermally insulating such very heavy systems. On the contrary, our small aboveground water tank can be thermally insulated very well and gets affordable costs. In this work is developed dynamical solar-thermal modeling for studying this novel approach and are discussed its major differences with traditional design. This modeling is used to study the whole demands of heat for one family living in the same conditions of the Okotoks’ project. The Okotoks’ project is based on many flat solar collectors (2,290 m2) and a huge (2,800 m3) rocky-underground STES system in order to almost fulfill (97%) the space heating demand of 52 houses (15,795 kWh/y ea.) in Alberta (Canada), having an overall cost of 9 MU$ (173,000 U$ ea.). We have already shown in previous work that this new proposal could reach noticeably lower costs (€30,500) than the Okotoks’ project in order to provide the same heating demand, by taking advantage of using 18 vacuum-tube collectors (solar area 37 m2) and a small (72 m3) well-insulated (heat losses 18%) water tank heated up to 85°C, which is the same temperature used in Okotoks and other traditional projects. Now, this proposal is enhanced by using a holistic approach to include other low-temperature demands (sanitary hot water and warming a greenhouse and swimming pool) that enhance the sustainability of dweller living. This way, the full production of heat from solar collectors is utilized (about six times larger than the single space heating demand, but using only 20 vacuum-tube solar collectors (21 m2 solar area) and a very small (10m3) water tank, reaching about a lower overall cost (€20,000), and so, the economic performance is enhanced as well. Besides, it is shown that using a small fraction of electrical heaters as a backup system (2%) and slightly overheating the water (up to 120°C@2 bar), which is feasible by using commercial stainless steel water tanks designed for such purposes, its economic performance could be again noticeably enhanced (reducing the overall cost to €20,000, and getting payback period less than two years). This way here is demonstrated the overall solar-STES system can be reduced by about half size meanwhile the energy output can be increased up to seven times. Hence, the thermal analysis performed suggested us strongly critic the traditional approach of using flat solar collectors instead of vacuum-tube collectors. This analysis shows that this choice has strongly driven the selection of a huge STES, which in turn increases noticeably the overall costs of the system since for such huge STES is mandatory to use underground reservoirs. However, this analysis also shows that without including those secondary demands, this proposal achieves a modest economic performance (payback period about 11 years) regarding its lower energy saved and compared against the “most smart” standard solution (one water tank with electrical heaters, costing about 5,000 U$ and exploiting the valley tariff of nocturnal electricity costing 0.1 €/kWh). On the contrary, when these secondary demands are included, the payback period is reduced by two years. Beyond the particular case studied here, this analysis suggests that the right design of any solar + STES system should be led by the solar production. On the contrary, the traditional design intends to fulfill one demand (space heating) concentrated during winter, and so, its performance is noticeably penalized, and the solution is definitely not to put a larger tank. Unfortunately, up today the poor performance of these projects has shown that this solar technology is (by far) unaffordable. Maybe its best days have gone, considering the enormous improvements achieved by another solar technology (using photovoltaic panels + heat pump + small daily-storage water tank), as it was discussed here.",book:{id:"11175",title:"Nearly Zero Energy Building (NZEB) - Materials, Design and New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11175.jpg"},signatures:"Luis E. Juanicó"},{id:"81265",title:"An Aggregated Embodied and Operational Energy Approach",slug:"an-aggregated-embodied-and-operational-energy-approach",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103073",abstract:"Highly insulated envelopes are an integral part of any net zero energy building with a target to reduce the demand that need to be supplied by the renewable energy and other mitigating measures. While stricter insulation levels can in theory reduce the operational energy demand of buildings, the additional embodied energy investment in the insulations can become significant and not recovered within the expected timeframes. Accounting for embodied energy investment requires a paradigm shift in design of highly insulated buildings and can determine U-value levels that can be justified based on an aggregated operational and embodied energy approach. The following chapter discusses the aggregated approach in more detail showcasing the shortcomings of existing building codes and standards using a case study building. The chapter also reviews the potential barriers of adopting such approaches with a specific focus on the uncertainties of embodied energy data and offers a holistic view on its implications for various end-users and stakeholders within the construction sector. The presented analyses in this chapter depict optimal insulation levels beyond which the additional embodied energy burden cannot be recovered using the associated operational energy savings highlighting the necessity of accounting for embodied energy in developing future design principles for zero energy buildings.",book:{id:"11175",title:"Nearly Zero Energy Building (NZEB) - Materials, Design and New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11175.jpg"},signatures:"Shahaboddin Resalati"},{id:"80715",title:"Highlighting the Design and Performance Gaps: Case Studies of University Buildings",slug:"highlighting-the-design-and-performance-gaps-case-studies-of-university-buildings",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102779",abstract:"Buildings are one of the highest emitters of greenhouse gases globally. To reduce the detrimental effects of buildings on the environment and recognise their potential for emissions reductions, a transition towards sustainable building solutions has been observed globally. This trend and the associated benefits have been discussed and argued for more than three decades now. However, the impacts of sustainable buildings are yet to be demonstrated at macro, meso, and micro levels in the community, as the actual versus expected performance of such buildings are still being questioned. Consequently, this entry discusses the concepts underpinning sustainable buildings outlining the drivers and practices to achieve sustainable built environment solutions from the design to operation stage using university buildings as a case study. The chapter also recommends evidence-based solutions on understanding the actual and perceived gaps to achieve expected performance using “Green Star” rated academic buildings in Australia.",book:{id:"11175",title:"Nearly Zero Energy Building (NZEB) - Materials, Design and New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11175.jpg"},signatures:"Karishma Kashyap, Usha Iyer-Raniga and Mary Myla Andamon"},{id:"80658",title:"An Integrated Design Process in Practice: A Nearly Zero Energy Building at the University of Brasília - Brazil",slug:"an-integrated-design-process-in-practice-a-nearly-zero-energy-building-at-the-university-of-bras-lia",totalDownloads:38,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102443",abstract:"This study aims to present the design experience of LabZERO|UnB, an NZEB building awarded in a public call, that will be built on the University of Brasília campus. The method consisted of defining the design team and the Integrated Design Process (IDP), establishing assumptions and design guidelines, schematic design, initial computer simulations, design development, new simulations, and final calculations for the synthesis of energy performance. As a result, IDP proved to be efficient and underlined the possibility of translating research experiences into practice. The barriers and potentialities related to the coordination of a multidisciplinary team stand out, likewise the organization, planning, and achievement of goals. In the design concept of the 200m2 building, the basic assumption was the adequacy of the architecture to favor the use of passive resources, respecting the local climate, classified as high-altitude tropical climate. Moreover, bioclimatic strategies were used, such as the North/South orientation of main façades, narrow floor plan, limited window-wall ratio, and adequate construction materials, to optimize energy consumption. As a result, the distributed generation of electricity was estimated at 58.29 kWh/m2. a year and the final electricity demand was 34.29 kWh/m2. year. Hence, this process indicates the real possibility of reaching the zero energy balance.",book:{id:"11175",title:"Nearly Zero Energy Building (NZEB) - Materials, Design and New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11175.jpg"},signatures:"Cláudia Naves David Amorim, Joara Cronemberger Ribeiro Silva, Caio Frederico e Silva, Thiago Montenegro Góes, Ayana Dantas de Medeiros, João Manoel Dias Pimenta, Marco Antonio Egito, Adolfo Bauchspiess, Loana Nunes Velasco and José Manoel Morales Sánchez"},{id:"80047",title:"Coalash as Sustainable Material for Low Energy Building",slug:"coalash-as-sustainable-material-for-low-energy-building",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101858",abstract:"Sand, which is a naturally occurring soft mineral ranks second after water, as far as consumption is concerned globally. Due to rapid infrastructural development worldwide, particularly in Asian region, the rate of natural formation of sand has been found to be outpaced by rate of consumption, causing greater ecological imbalances. Coalash, an industrial waste from thermal power plants are polluting in nature, and legacy ash in huge proportion without proper utilization is posing a serious threat to the environment. It was ideated to replace sand by coalash in concrete and mortar mix, and to evaluate the physical and thermal properties for its suitability in low energy building construction. Without compromising strength criteria, thermal transmittance value is found to be reduced up to considerable extent, which resulted lesser cooling requirement with added economic benefit. This medium technology application could be one of the economic pathway towards Near Zero Building Construction.",book:{id:"11175",title:"Nearly Zero Energy Building (NZEB) - Materials, Design and New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11175.jpg"},signatures:"Avijit Ghosh"},{id:"80014",title:"Evaluation of Energy Efficiency of Buildings Based on LCA and LCC Assessment: Method, Computer Tool, and Case Studies",slug:"evaluation-of-energy-efficiency-of-buildings-based-on-lca-and-lcc-assessment-method-computer-tool-an",totalDownloads:91,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101820",abstract:"In this chapter, the development of a computer tool for the determination of nearly zero energy buildings (nZEB) metrics upgraded with life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost (LCC) indicators is presented, following the requirements of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD). The computer tool was developed for the assessment of new and renovated buildings to support the holistic decision-making process. The tool itself consists of two modules: the building description module (BDU), based on the national certification tool of buildings’ energy performance, and the LCA tool (Etool). BDU enables the assessment of energy needs, final energy demand, and primary energy needs. According to the EPBD, supporting standards was upgraded with the life cycle inventory database. The database includes data on predefined building materials, envelope components, heat generators, and energy carriers and is used by Etool with which mid-point and end-point life cycle impact assessment can be done by taking into account impact groups and damage factors from IMPACT2002+ and ReCiPe methods. The LCC assessment module, which is also part of Etool, was developed according to Commission Delegated Regulation No. 244/212. The use of computer tools is demonstrated through the case studies.",book:{id:"11175",title:"Nearly Zero Energy Building (NZEB) - Materials, Design and New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11175.jpg"},signatures:"Suzana Domjan, Ciril Arkar, Rok Fink and Sašo Medved"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:11},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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