Carriage rate of
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5350",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"ICT - Energy Concepts for Energy Efficiency and Sustainability",title:"ICT - Energy Concepts for Energy Efficiency and Sustainability",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In a previous volume (ICT-Energy-Concepts Towards Zero-Power ICT; referenced below as Vol. 1), we addressed some of the fundamentals related to bridging the gap between the amount of energy required to operate portable/mobile ICT systems and the amount of energy available from ambient sources. The only viable solution appears to be to attack the gap from both sides, i.e. to reduce the amount of energy dissipated during computation and to improve the efficiency in energy-harvesting technologies. In this book, we build on those concepts and continue the discussion on energy efficiency and sustainability by addressing the minimisation of energy consumption at different levels across the ICT system stack, from hardware to software, as well as discussing energy consumption issues in high-performance computing (HPC), data centres and communication in sensor networks.\n
\r\n\tAcademicians and policy-makers are always searching for new econometric methods to answer specific policy questions. More importantly, the advent in the advances of computing power has enabled more advanced econometric techniques to be computed with ease. Econometrics uses statistical methods and real-world data to predict and establish specific trends within economics and other social sciences.
\r\n\r\n\tThis volume attempts to explore the practical aspects of econometrics to economics, and other social sciences that use econometric methods. This volume is expected to cover a broad range of topics that include but are not limited to spatial econometrics, time series, forecasting, and machine learning, This volume hopes to attract dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models which are gaining prominence in applied macroeconomics. This proposed volume could serve as a reference for academicians, researchers, policy-makers, graduate students, and very abled undergraduate students who are seeking current research on the various applications of econometrics as used in research and to answer specific policy questions.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-525-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-524-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-526-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",bookSignature:"Dr. Brian Sloboda",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",keywords:"Bayesian, Spatial Durbin Models, Spatial Autocorrelation, Spatial Panel Regression, Forecasting Models, Cointegration, Dynamic Factor Modes, State-Space Models, Causality, Clustering, Dynamic Stochastic General Equilibrium (DSGE), Loss Curves",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 29th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"15 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A mission-driven educator with expertise in Applied Econometrics, Regional Economics, and Labor Economics. Also, a skilled communicator who excels at interacting with students and motivating them to achieve their educational and career goals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",middleName:null,surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/452331/images/system/452331.jpg",biography:"Professional Profile Accredited as an Accredited Professional Statistician™ (PSTAT) by the American Statistical Association (ASA). Reaccredited through Aug.2022.\n\nComputer-proficient researcher skilled in statistical and econometric software, including E-Views, STATA, SPSS, and SAS Studio®. Working knowledge of MATHLAB and Dynare.\n\nResearch Fellow, Global Labor Organization (GLO), Oct.2017 to present\nAcademic and Professional Profiles \nResearch gate Profile:https: // www. researchgate. net/ profile/ Brian_ Sloboda\nORCID:https: // orcid. org/ 0000-0003-0007-1725\nGoogle Scholar Profile https: // scholar. google. com/ citations? user= RSLTrCsAAAAJ&hl= en\nEducation: Ph.D. Economics, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,1997.\nThesis: The Economic Impact of Southern Illinois University on the State of Illinois: The Human Capital Approach\nM.S. Economics, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,1992.\nB.A. Economics, Rowan University,1990.Minor: Mathematics.\nFields of Interest: Regional Economics, Economic Growth, Labor Economics, Economic and Statistical Education",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Global Campus",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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By contrast, any measurement result is inherently uncertain. Quantifying this uncertainty is the theme of this chapter.
\nThe chapter is based on three of the most authoritative sources of reference: ‘The Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement’ (GUM) [1], ‘The International Vocabulary of Metrology’ (VIM) [2] and ‘The International System of Units’ (SI), also known as the SI Brochure [3]. The concepts defined in these documents are analysed and illustrated with an example drawn from the assembly of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC).
\nThe main components of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) are described in the next section. In this way, examples from PEMFC manufacturing can be introduced in the following sections. In Section 3, the concept of measurement is explored. Reference is made to its fundamental components: the measurand, the reference and the measurement model. In Section 4, the definition of uncertainty in the GUM and in the VIM is discussed. Then, a method of analysis is introduced and illustrated with an example referring to a PEMFC critical measurement. In Section 5, some ideas about the relationship between uncertainty in measurement and intelligent systems are briefly presented. Conclusions are drawn thereafter.
\nThe main components of a fuel cell are illustrated in the schema of \nFigure 1\n. A cell provides a voltage of less than 1 V in typical working conditions. Multiple cells are usually connected in series in a stack to increase the voltage to a level suitable for the load that is intended to power.
\nSchema of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (BPP, bipolar plate; GDL, gas diffusion layer; MEA, membrane electrode assembly).
The bipolar plates (BPPs) represented in \nFigure 1\n are typically made of metal, graphite or composites. Their primary function is to support the cell and to provide electrical contact with neighbouring cells in the stack. A set of channels may be present on a BPP to convey the reactant gasses onto the gas diffusion layer (GDL). This set of channels is often called a flow field.
\nGDLs are thin porous sheets inserted to provide a pathway for the gaseous reactants to diffuse evenly from the plates to the membrane electrode assembly (MEA). GDL sheets also take away the water produced in the electrochemical reaction at the cathodic MEA surface and residue of the MEA hydration from the reaction area. A GDL must offer little resistance to the passage of electrons, to enable them to reach the BPP’s from the electrochemical reaction sites. These sheets are usually made either of carbon paper or carbon cloth. The first are hard and brittle, with negligible compressibility and generally thinner than the second, which are flexible and can sustain higher levels of compression when assembled in the stack. Therefore, paper-based GLD’s need care in handling to avoid chipping and tighter tolerances in the stack due to the poor compressibility. Instead, the compressibility of cloth-based GDLs enables them to be elastically deformed. GDLs may also have microporous layers (MPLs) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) hydrophobic coatings to balance the requirement of retaining some water to hydrate the MEA in order to keep it conductive with the requirement of mantaining the micropores open for the gaseous reactants to diffuse.
\nTwo variants of MEAs are generally used: three-layer MEAs, also called catalyst-coated membranes (CCMs), and five-layer MEAs. Three-layer MEAs are composed by a proton exchange membrane, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM), and two catalyst layers. Common membranes are made of an ion-conducting polymer (ionomer) that, when conveniently hydrated, are selectively permeable only to cations while having high electronic resistivity. PEM has also the function of keeping the fuel (hydrogen) and the oxidant (oxygen in the air) separate. The thickness of PEMs usually varies between 10 and 100 micrometres. A catalyst layer is typically made of a mixture of very thin powders of platinum and carbon powder blended with a ionomer. Catalyst layers are applied on the PEM surfaces and are the sites where the electrochemical reactions occur. The layer where the oxidation of hydrogen occurs is the anode electrode. The layer where the reduction of oxygen occurs is the cathode electrode. The electrodes, i.e. the catalyst layers, must have low electronic resistivity, to enable the reaction-generated electrons to reach the BPP via the GDL at the anode or to be reached by them at the cathode. Five-layer MEAs include also the two GDLs and may differ from CCMs for the sites of application of the catalyst layers, which can be the PEM-facing surface of the GDLs. In this chapter, only CCMs are considered.
\nThe gaskets prevent unexpected leakage of the fluids, i.e. gaseous reactants and water, to the environment and to the other side of the MEA. The first is often referred to as overboard leakage and the second as cross-over leakage. There is always, however, an expected flow rate of the gaseous reagents across the MEA. Such an expected flow rate can be calculated on the basis of a number of variables. Among these are, for example, the MEA thickness and the temperature [4]. The choice of the gasket material depends widely on the operating conditions of the PEMFC (e.g. temperature and pressure of the reactants). Among other materials, gaskets can be made of PTFE or of elastic polymers, e.g. silicone.
\nWith this chapter, a video has been provided which displays a graphical simulation of a PEMFC automated assembly system. The simulation shows the stations where the anode GDL and the gasket are placed onto the BPP and the station where the gap between anode GDL and gasket is inspected. The inspection is based on a vision system. The video is part of the simulation studies carried out by Mr. David Urquhart of the WMG Automation Systems research group of the University of Warwick (UK), within the scope of the EU-funded research project DigiMan. The video is available at the following link: https://bit.ly/2JalW8Z\n
\nMeasurement is any experimental process aimed at obtaining one or more number and reference pairs that can be attributed to a property of a body, a phenomenon or a substance (cf. Sections 1.1, 1.19, 2.1 in [2]). This property is called a quantity and its magnitude is defined as the number and the reference considered together. The reference typically is a measurement unit (e.g. the kilogramme, when measuring a mass), but it can be a measurement procedure (e.g. Rockwell C, when measuring hardness) or a reference material (e.g. the concentration of luteinizing hormone in a specimen of human blood plasma, cf. Sections 1.1 and 1.19 in [2]). The measurement unit is a quantity selected conventionally to which any other quantity of the same kind can be compared. The result of this comparison is called the ratio of the two quantities and is expressed as a number (Section 1.9 in [2]).
\nThe above definitions suggest that the following circumstances are necessary for a measurement result not to be intrinsically uncertain:
\nThe quantity intended to be measured should be defined without any indeterminacy. This quantity is called the measurand (Section 2.3 in [2]).
The reference, in particular the unit of measurement, should have an unambiguous magnitude.
The knowledge of which quantities are influencing the measurement and the effects of these quantities on the measurement result should be complete. For example, it should always be possible to compare the measurand and the measurement unit so that no indeterminacy is present in the numerical quantity value (cf. Section 1.20 in [2]).
Unfortunately, none of these conditions holds, as it is described in Sections 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3, respectively.
\nTo define unambiguously a measurand, an infinite amount of information is needed. This unavoidable intrinsic vagueness in the definition of a measurand is called definitional uncertainty (cf. Section 2.27 in [2]). An example can clarify. In PEMFC, if the GDL-gasket gap width is defined as ‘the length of a segment with extremes \n
GDL (A), gap (B), gasket (C), edges (d), straight line fitted to each edge (
A schema of a gap where the ‘length’
A range of different choices can be made when associating geometric entities, which are abstract concepts of the rational world, to entities of the sensory world.
\nIn the schema of \nFigure 3\n, the representation of two lines is associated with the GDL and the gasket boundaries, respectively. A line, by definition, is an entity without any width. So it does not exist in the sensory world, because it cannot be perceived. It can only be represented in an approximation.
\nFor the same reason, in \nFigure 3\n, there are only two representations of two straight lines in the visible world and not two real straight lines, which are abstract concepts existing only in the human mind. If a straight line representation is on a plane, as in this case, then it needs to occupy a surface portion to be perceived; if it is in space, then, for the same reason, it needs to occupy a volume region.
\nHow then to identify unambiguously in the sensory world a point \n
In \nFigure 3\n, \n
The representations \n
Additional detail may be included in the measurand definition to make its realisation in the sensory world less vague. But how much detail? When to stop adding?
\nA strategy is to define a parameter that expresses the vagueness of the measurement result of the measurand that is about to be defined, for example, a standard deviation, and then to define jointly the measurand and an upper limit for the just defined parameter. If this upper limit is not exceeded, it makes the measurement result fit for purpose. When expressed as a standard deviation, this parameter is called standard uncertainty \n
The kind of information contained in a measurement definition is ideally a balance between the need of representing the intended purpose of the measurement result and the need of performing the measurement.
\nFor example, in product design, the specification of the geometrical product characteristics are established by designers for a product to fulfil an intended purpose (e.g. functional, aesthetic, safety-related, regulatory). Often this purpose is referred to as the design intent. Designer product specifications should however account for the limits of available manufacturing and verification processes (sometimes they do not). Providing objective evidence of conformity of a product to its specification is called verification (cf. Section 2.44 in [2]). A verification where product requirement specifications are proved to be adequate for the intended purpose is called validation (cf. Section 2.45 in [2]). The objective evidence relied upon in verification of geometrical product characteristics is provided by measurement.
\nIn the gap width case, for example, a designer is given the information that if the GDL overlaps with the gasket, an overboard leakage of some significance is likely to occur. He or she therefore specifies a lower limit to the minimum gap width. The metrologist who is called to verify the conformity of a gap width to this specification needs to know how to associate the boundaries of the GDL and the gasket (sensory world) to two edges. He or she then needs also to associate a straight line to each of the two edges and to find on them two points at minimum distance. The detail of how they accomplish this depends on the specific characteristics of the measurement they select.
\nAs the example shows, a translation is needed into a practical measurand definition that however does not void the verification of the geometric characteristic.
\nTo facilitate this translation process, the geometrical product specification system of standards (GPS) has been established by the ISO. More formally, the aim of the ISO GPS system is ‘to describe certain workpiece characteristics through some of the different stages of its life cycle (design, manufacture, inspection, etc.)’ (cf. Section 2 in [5]).
\nUnits are the most typical reference used in a quantity value. Hence, they are discussed in this section. Adaptation may be needed if a measurement procedure or a reference material is used as reference of a quantity value. The units of measurement do not have an unambiguous unique magnitude. To support this statement, the concept of ‘definition of a unit’ must be distinguished and kept apart from the concept of ‘realization of a unit’, as explained in the SI Brochure (cf. Sections 1 and 2.2 in [3]). A measurement unit is a quantity that is conventionally defined so as it has solid theoretical foundations and it enables measurements as reproducible as possible. The realisation of a unit is instead a process where a quantity value is associated to a quantity of the same kind as the unit and that fulfils the definition given for the unit. A realised unit is a quantity existing in the sensory world and not just on the paper as the unit definition. The process of unit realisation is made clear by referring to the primary methods of realisation. For a method of unit realisation to be called primary, it needs to allow ‘a quantity to be measured in a particular unit directly from its definition by using only quantities and constants that themselves do not contain that unit.’ (Appendix 4 in [3]). This means that bringing the definition of a unit in existence into the sensory world requires a measurement where the measurand is the unit to be realised.
\nIf a measurement is involved in realising a unit, then the vagueness of a realised unit is the same as that of the measurement that realises it. To limit this vagueness, the realising measurement for the definition of a base unit is specified in a document called a
A measuring system is any set of devices that is designed to generate measured quantity values (cf. Sections 3.2 and 2.10 in [2]). Typically, the nature of the interaction measurand-measuring system cannot be isolated from other quantities characterising the conditions in which the measurement takes place.
\nFor example, when measuring the gap width between gasket and GDL with a vision system, the measurement result is not only a function of the gap but also of other quantities and conditions. Among these, there may be the temperature and humidity of the air affecting the PEMFC component size, the colours of the PEMFC components, the light conditions, the camera (e.g. field of view, magnification and resolution) and the algorithms used to process the acquired images.
\nThis interdependence between quantities is captured by ‘a mathematical relation among all quantities known to be
In Eq. 1, \n
In Eq. 2, the function \n
This situation generates indeterminacy of the measurement in at least two different ways: in the selection of the input quantities and in their effect on the measurement result.
\nThe input quantities in a measurement model are not uniquely known. Different people may consider different quantities to be relevant in a measurement on the basis of their knowledge of the phenomena involved in the process of measurement. The expression ‘all the quantities known to be
The VIM definition appears to suggest that an effort should be made to include in the model all the quantities believed to influence the measurement result, not just those influencing it the most.
\nThe GUM refers to the inclusion in the model of ‘every quantity that can contribute a
But how can a component of uncertainty contribution to the measurement result be considered
This difficulty may be overcome by considering the selection of input quantities on the basis of knowledge available prior to the formulation of the model. There is an element of subjectivity in this selection that ultimately relies on honesty and professional skill of those who are building the model (3.4.8 in [1]).
\nSome of the input quantities may then in their turn ‘be viewed as measurands and may themselves depend on other quantities’ (4.1.2 in [1]). That is to say, some of the quantities are the output of another measurement model. A measurement model is then a hierarchy of different models nested one in the other. How many levels of hierarchy do exist depends on the specific measurement. The levels, however, must be finite, because they ultimately reach the realisation of the definitions of the base units (see the SI Brochure for the recently changed definition of base unit [3]).
\nThe measuring model \n
For example, the effect of the air humidity on the GDL-gasket gap width could be estimated by conducting an experiment if the cost of the experiment was affordable and the width measurement result needed to be confidently relied upon. But what if that cost was not affordable? Should the model builders give up to their prior knowledge that led them to include air humidity in the model because they cannot estimate its effect on the gap width?
\nPerhaps, an option is to rely on the skill and scientific knowledge of the model builders in estimating the sensitivity of the gap width to the humidity on the basis of their prior knowledge that led them to include the humidity in the first place. But then, where would it be the experimental validation that is typical of any scientific investigation? The issue is controversial.
\nWhen using prior knowledge to determine the effect of the humidity on the gap width, the specialists building the model may for example subjectively adjudge that this effect is negligible. They may then be so confident in their judgement that they model the air humidity effect with a constant in the model. Differently, if they are less confident, they can model the effect as a random variable with a mean of small value and a standard deviation subjectively attributed (for example, by inferring it from a survey in handbooks or other reputable sources). If the constant or the mean of the random variable was zero, someone may wonder why they have included the humidity in the model. The sole reason would be to show due diligence in their analysis.
\nThe argumentation presented so far is aimed to make the intrinsic indeterminacy of measurement results apparent.
\nIn the GUM, this indeterminacy or vagueness that expresses a doubt about the result of a measurement is referred to as uncertainty (cf. Section 2.2.1 in [1]). In the same document, the term uncertainty is, however, also used in a more specific way to designate a parameter providing a quantitative measurement of this generic concept of doubt; namely in the GUM, uncertainty is defined as a ‘parameter, associated with the result of a measurement, that characterizes the dispersion of the values that could reasonably be attributed to the measurand’ (cf. Section 2.2.3 in [1]).
\nIn the VIM instead, measurement uncertainty is defined as a ‘non-negative parameter characterizing the dispersion of the quantity values being attributed to a measurand, based on the information used’ (cf. Section 2.26 in [2]).
\nTypically this parameter is the standard deviation of a probability density function that models the incomplete or partial knowledge of the measurand achievable with measurements. This partial knowledge is described respectively by the expressions ‘reasonably attributed’ and ‘based on information used’ in the two definitions.
\nIn the error approach, as the VIM puts it, ‘a true quantity value is considered unique and, in practice, unknowable’ (cf. Section 2.11, note 1 in [2]).
\nThe uncertainty approach is to recognise that owing to the inherently incomplete amount of detail in the definition of a quantity, there is not a single true quantity value but rather a set of true quantity values consistent with the definition. However, in principle and in practice, this set of values cannot be known (see Appendix D in the GUM [1], D.3 in particular). Then, even if an imaginary measurement is capable of producing measurement results of a measurand without any indeterminacy, that measurand would still be known with vagueness.
\nThe introduction of a probability density function of a measurand
This section has similarities with the BS EN ISO 14253-2:2011 ‘Procedure for Uncertainty MAnagement (PUMA)’ [6]. However, the analysis conducted here adheres more strictly to the GUM: the evaluated uncertainty is not overestimated as it is instead in the iterative PUMA procedure (cf. Section 5 in [6]). A measurement may be seen as an iterative process consisting of seven steps. These steps are listed below and illustrated in the diagram of \nFigure 4\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Diagram illustrating the steps of a measurement (u(Y) and
An Ishikawa (fish-bone) diagram displaying a categorical hierarchy of potential input quantities typically considered for inclusion in measurement models for uncertainty evaluation
The uncertainty of the measurand
According to the GUM definition, measurement uncertainty refers to the result of a measurement. If the conditions in which the measurement is carried out are believed to be influencing the result, they have also to be specified: input quantities are introduced in the measurement model to represent them. For example, if multiple measurement runs are necessary to calculate the result, as it is the case when the result is an average, then the repetition settings may enter the model, if believed influential. Typical repetition settings are repeatability and reproducibility conditions (2.20 and 2.24 in [2]). Repetition settings may not be quantities as defined in Section 3, because they represent conditions and not properties expressed as number and reference pairs. They enter the model as random variables. When they are meant to contribute only to the uncertainty of the measurement result, these random variables have location parameter (e.g. mean, median) set at zero and unknown standard deviations.
\nThe statement of the uncertainty \n
The steps of the gap width measurement are listed here below.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
A diagram of the sequence of modules that constitute the measurement procedure.
To enhance readability, the convention used in the example of Section H.1 of the GUM was adopted [1]: random variables are in lowercase italic shape and constants are in the normal lowercase shape. In the vision system, the image coordinate system with coordinates expressed in number of pixels is such as \n
\n
To clarify, the case of a CCD sensor with pixel size 6.45 μm and a lens magnification 100 would result in a calibration factor 0.0645. A new level of detail is introduced in the original measurement model of Eq. (3) by the nested model of Eq. (4). The uncertainty of the calibration factor \n
\n
The relationship between intelligent systems and the uncertainty in measurement is analysed in this section. The concept of uncertainty in measurement has been explored in the previous sections. The concept of an intelligent system is more elusive. It requires first to understand what intelligence means. With intelligence, it is typically intended a set of human rational abilities that include reasoning, learning and adaptation to changing conditions. Yet, which of these abilities are the distinguishing characteristics needed for a system to be called intelligent is controversial. Failing to recognise the differences in the behaviour between an artificial system and a human is often advocated as a criterion for considering the artificial system as intelligent (Turing test [9]).
\nIn uncertainty evaluation, circumstances arise where discretionary decisions of human specialists are necessary. Realising an intelligent system whose behaviour constitutes a reference for the specialists in making these decisions would greatly reduce their discretion. For example, in the definition of the gap width measurand and of its measurement model, a trusted intelligent system would facilitate the task. To be considered intelligent, such a system would need to demonstrate to take decisions independently from human input and not just ‘executing’ a pre-determined behaviour that the system is programmed to have. Conversely, an uncertainty evaluation is purposely carried out to quantify how much trust there is in a measurement result. The question then arises whether an uncertainty analysis where an artificial intelligent system is ‘the specialist’ taking discretionary decision unsupervised by humans can be trusted as a human (or more).
\nA framework to evaluate the uncertainty of an intelligent system providing a measurement uncertainty analysis is needed. No evidence of that has been found in the literature. Research surveyed about the adoption of intelligent systems in measurement uncertainty evaluations dates back to about 10 years ago. An expert system for uncertainty evaluation in analytical chemistry has been developed by Rösslein and Wampfler [10]. Their motivation was to provide a means of performing complex uncertainty evaluations that otherwise would have been too simple for their purpose or too costly. An analysis of how much trust to put into their system has not however been found.
\nIntelligent systems may then contribute to reduce uncertainty in any measurement phase where parameter-dependant software modules are involved. A parameter, by definition, needs to be given a value that is determined by a specialist. He or she does so drawing from their knowledge. This may leave room for subjective decisions that contribute to the uncertainty. With an intelligent system replacing the judgement of the specialist in the determination of the parameter value, it may seem possible to eliminate that uncertainty. This possibility would require the intelligent system not to be dependant in its turn on other parameters, which is hardly the case.
\nThe situation is illustrated with the edge detection module in the gap width case. If a Canny edge algorithm is used, then two threshold parameters need to be determined. An intelligent system (e.g. a neural network) may be trained on a set of images for this purpose. But this would still have at least one component of uncertainty which is how the choice of the training set of images (equivalently, the parameters identifying the training set of images).
\nUncertainty as a technical term introduced by authoritative international bodies as a means of representing the intrinsic indeterminacy in measurements has been discussed. The analysis presented in this chapter provides an interpretation of the documents elaborated by these international bodies. The framework defined in these documents is interpreted as a method that makes it possible to organise consistently the knowledge about measurement uncertainty within the limitations of the resources available.
\nAcknowledging that measurements are always unavoidably uncertain has some profound implications on how humans construct their knowledge about the physical world in science and technology. Measurements are the ultimate source of knowledge in science: any statement to be scientifically accepted must be substantiated by experiments or observations that are expressed in terms of measurement results. If measurement results are inherently uncertain, all that can be inferred from them can be only uncertain. One consequence is, for example, that talking of ‘exact science’ when referring to Physics can be quite prone to misinterpretations. Science may be considered exact only in its methods of dealing with approximations and uncertain or partial knowledge. Stretching this view to its extreme may lead to consider science as an activity with very useful practical effects but with little use in the unambiguous identification of the truth.
\nThe author acknowledges the support of the research project ‘DIGItal MANufacturing and Proof-of-Process for Automotive Fuel Cells’ (DigiMan) funded by the programme ‘The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking’ (FCH 2 JU, grant agreement ID: 736290) in the EU framework Horizon 2020 (H2020).
\nThe author is grateful to Mr. David Urquhart for his help.
\n\n\n\nY\n\n\n | output quantity in a measurement model |
\n\n\n\ny\ni\n\n\n\n | the ith observation or realisation of an output quantity |
\n\n\n\nX\ni\n\n\n\n | the ith input quantity in a measurement model |
\n\n\n\nx\nij\n\n\n\n | the jth observation or realisation of the input quantity \n\n\nX\ni\n\n\n\n |
\n\n\nE\n\n\nX\ni\n\n\n=\n\nμ\ni\n\n\n\n | mean or expected value of \n\n\nX\ni\n\n\n\n |
\n\n\np\n\n…\n\n\n\n | probability density function |
\n\n\nh\n\n…\n\n=\n0\n\n\n | measurement model |
\n\n\nY\n=\nf\n\n…\n\n\n\n | measurement function |
\n\n\nu\n\n\n\n\n\n | standard uncertainty |
\n\n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\n\n | target uncertainty |
\n\n\n\nl\nGDL\n∗\n\n\n, \n\n\nl\ng\n∗\n\n\n\n | GDL and gasket straight edges |
\n\n\n\nl\nGDL\n\n\n, \n\n\nl\ng\n\n\n\n | representations of the straight edges of GDL and gasket in the sensory world |
\n\n\n\nP\nGDL\n∗\n\n\n, \n\n\nP\ng\n∗\n\n\n\n | points defining the gap width |
\n\n\n\nP\nGDL\n\n\n, \n\n\nP\ng\n\n\n\n | representations in the sensory world of the points defining the gap width |
\n\n\n\n\nu\nGDL\n\n\nv\nGDL\n\n\n\n\n | coordinates of \n\n\nP\nGDL\n\n\n in the image reference system |
\n\n\n\n\nu\ng\n\n\nv\ng\n\n\n\n\n | coordinates of \n\n\nP\ng\n\n\n in the image reference system |
c | calibration factor, i.e. length of a pixel width in units of length |
k | image aspect ratio |
m | lens magnification |
s | physical size of a pixel on a CCD chip |
BIPM | Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures) |
BPP | bipolar plate |
CCM | catalyst coated membrane |
GDL | gas diffusion layer |
GPS | geometrical product specification |
GUM | Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement |
ISO | International Organisation for Standardisation |
MEA | membrane electrode assembly |
MPL | microporous layer |
ONLS | orthogonal non-linear least squares |
PEM | proton exchange membrane (polymer electrolyte membrane) |
PEMFC | proton exchange membrane fuel cell |
PTFE | polytetrafluoroethylene |
PUMA | procedure for uncertainty management |
SI | Le Système International d’unités (The International System of Units) |
SOP | standard operation procedure |
VIM | International Vocabulary of Metrology |
Jordan is an upper middle-income country with a total population of 10,806,000 inhabitants, where 44.3% of them are under the age of 19 years, and quite youthful with almost 75% under the age of 30. However, risk groups are the children below 15 years of age (34.4%), among which 11.1% are under the age of 5 years, and 3.67% are over 65 years of age. These age groups (children and elderly) are considered to be at risk from pneumococcal infections globally [1, 2, 3]. The prevalence of pneumococcal carriage was the only way in Jordan to detect the serotypes rotating in the Jordanian community, which reflects the clones of infections that might take place. The carriage rates in these areas were relatively high compared to other countries in the region. However, different serotypes were found in different areas. All of these isolates have high resistance rates and are covered to a high percentage with the PCV13 or PCV20. This implies the necessity for a “strategic plan for vaccination in Jordan”.
Number of cases and incidence/100,000 of non-meningococcal meningitis in Jordan.
An important study done by the GBD 2016 Lower Respiratory Infections Collaborators in 2016 showed that the lower respiratory infections are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality around the world [13]. This study provides an up-to-date analysis of the burden of lower respiratory infections in 195 countries for the past 26 years, and shows how the burden of lower respiratory infection has changed in people of all ages. Their Findings In 2016 indicate that lower respiratory infections caused 652,572 deaths in children younger than 5 years, 1,080,958 deaths in adults older than 70 years, and 2,377,697 deaths globally in people of all ages. In this regard,
The aim of this chapter is to show results of investigations of continuous surveillance on the carriage of
Research studies on the carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae were approved by the Independent Ethical Committee (IEC) of the Ministry of Health (MOH) of Jordan, followed by approval of the Ministry of Health (MOH) with approval number 8/75/2/2257, and other approvals of the directorates of each day care center (DCC). Informed written consent for the participants and the use of NP swabs was obtained from parents prior to collecting the swabs. Parents were educated on the benefits of future vaccination with the available PCVs. Nasopharyngeal swabs were taken from children attending the governmental Day Care Centers (DCCs) from the governorates of Ajlun (n = 415) [15], Madaba (n = 761) [1, 16], private clinic in Amman (n = 149) [16], Irbid (n = 423) [1], Wadi Alseer (n = 118) [17], with total number of samples 1866. Only one NP-swab was obtained from each child with exception to the research project from Ajlun, where 3 consequent samples were taken at 2 months at the time of the first vaccination, then at 4 months of age at the time of the second vaccination and finally a third sample was taken 2–3 months after the third vaccination with PCV7. NP-samples were collected in the period from 2008–2019. Processing, culturing and identification were done by classical methods [1, 18]. Resistance testing was performed according to the latest CLSI standards using
Four governorates and the capital of Jordan were tested during the whole period of carriage surveillance in Jordan. The total carriage rate for the whole period and for the whole population tested was 39.3% as presented in Table 1. The highest carriage rate was in the governorate of Ajlun with 58.1%, because three samples were obtained from the same child over one year period. Nevertheless, this carriage rate of Ajlun was not significantly different (p > 0.05) from the carriage rate obtained from Wadi Al Seer, even with only one NP-swab obtained from each child. Wadi Al Seer and Ajlun were tested almost at the same period. The most interesting finding of all cities is the findings in the capital of Amman, where only 13.4% of the children involved in the study were carriers and that the coverage of the PCVs was minimal as found in Table 1. This was due to the reason that 69 cases from 149 (46.3%) were vaccinated with PCV7. Only 11 cases from the vaccinated children of Amman were carriers, but none of them was carrier of PCV7 serotype. The second highest carriage was shown in Madaba with 37.1% carriage rate, followed by Irbid with carriage rate of 29.6%. Coverage rates of the PCVs were highest (76.0%) for Irbid with PCV20, and this coverage was not significantly different from the PCV20 coverage for Irbid city (p < 0.05). To-date, there are at least 220 publications all over the world investigating carriage or nasopharyngeal carriers of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Our findings are comparable with other studies all over the world; in the region as an example, a study done in Palestine in 2013 has found carriage rates in 11 cities of Palestine to be from 34.1% in Ramallah up to 66.7% in Tubas [20]. In the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, carriage rate was found in 2014 to be 6% [21]. Another study done in 11 countries of Asia and the Middle East on 4963 children below 5 years of age found nasal carriage rate of 22.3% of antibiotic-resistant pneumococci isolates [22]. In Israel, carriage rates tested on ages between 2 and 24 months was shown to increase with age from 2 months with 26% carriage rate to 62% at age of 24 months [23]. In a recent study about carriage of the pneumococcus in Indonesia showed high carriage rate of 73% in school children with acute otitis media (AOM) [24]. Dominant serotypes of the school children were 23A (11 %), 6A/6B (10 %), 3 (8 %), 14 (7 %), 6C/6D (7 %), 11A/11D (6 %), 15B/15C (4 %) and 35 B (4 %). Coverage of the PCV13 in the Indonesian study was 41%. Other study in south Italy on healthy children aged 1–7 years attending day-care centers and schools showed nasopharyngeal colonization rate of Streptococcus pneumoniae to be 18.29%. PCV13 serotypes of this study covered 60.34% of the isolates with serotypes 19A, 19F, 14, 6B, or 23F; and that 8.62% of the strains were intermediately resistant to penicillin, 65.5% were erythromycin-resistant, and 17.2% were resistant to Co-trimoxazole [25]. To date, there is no data describing the invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae infections in Jordan, but this bacterium was identified as the causative agent in 30% of meningitis cases in Yemen, 16% in the UAE, 19–21% in Kuwait, 13% in Qatar, 23–31% in Saudi Arabia, and 21–30% in Egypt [26].
City | Year from–to | No. of samples | Carriage rate (%) | Coverage of PCV7 (%) | Coverage of PCV10 (%) | Coverage of PCV13 (%) | Coverage of PCV20 (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wadi Al Seer | Mar. 2008–Nov. 2009 | 118 | 55.1 | 52.3 | 52.3 | 58.5 | 73.0 |
Ajlun | Jun. 2009–Nov. 2010 | 415 | 58.1 | 32.1 | 32.1 | 50.4 | 70.9 |
Amman | May 2015–Apr. 2016 | 149 | 13.4 | 5 | 5 | 10 | 35 |
Irbid | Dec. 2017–Mar. 2019 | 423 | 29.6 | 51.2 | 51.2 | 65.6 | 76.0 |
Madaba | May 2015–Mar. 2019 | 761 | 37.3 | 50.7 | 51.1 | 65.1 | 75.7 |
Total | Mar. 2008–Mar. 2019 | 1866 | 39.3 | 42.4 | 42.7 | 58.4 | 72.4 |
Carriage rate of
Resistance rates to antibiotics are increasing worldwide. The main reasons for this global threat of resistance are the misuse and abuse of the antibiotics [27]. Streptococcus pneumoniae is one of the major pathogens of community-acquired respiratory tract infections, where Alexander Project in 1997 for resistance showed the variation of antibiotic resistance in Europe [28]. In our studied 5 regions in Jordan as found in Table 2, resistance rates to penicillin varied from 80% to 95.4%, and for erythromycin from 55% to 73.6%, for clindamycin from 20%–44.4%, and for Co-trimoxazole (SXT) from 30%–78.5%. Extreme differences in antibiotic resistance were observed in this surveillance in the last 13 years. This resistance is increasing in Europe and in the United states [29, 30]. More than 80% of the resistance is covered by the new PCV20 [27].
City | No. of isolates | % PEN R | % ERY R | % CLI R | % TET R | % SXT R | % CHA R |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wadi Al Seer | 63/118 | 80.0 | 61.5 | 33.8 | 53.8 | 73.8 | 9.5 |
Ajlun | 241/415 | 82.0 | 55.7 | 36.3 | 46.8 | 62.3 | 2.5 |
Amman | 20/149 | 90.0 | 55.0 | 20.0 | 45.0 | 30.0 | 0.0 |
Irbid | 125/423 | 86.3 | 75.0 | 30.8 | 45.5 | 68.6 | 2.4 |
Madaba | 284/761 | 95.4 | 73.6 | 44.4 | 52.8 | 78.5 | 3.7 |
Total | 733/1866 | 89.4 | 64.8 | 36.3 | 47.6 | 73.0 | 3.1 |
Resistance rate of S. pneumoniae in 5 cities of Jordan.
Abbreviations: PEN (Penicillin), ERY (Erythromycin), CLI (Clindamycin), TET (Tetracycline), SXT (Sulfamethoxazole-Trimethoprim), CHA (Chloramphenicol), R (Resistance).
In Table 3, an uneven distribution of the serotypes in each city was found. Certain clones of the serotypes were found only in one city or two, but not in others. As an example, Serotype 5 was only found in Madaba. This serotype 5 is prevalent in many countries [31, 32, 33, 34, 35]. Serotype 4 was only found in Ajlun, but it is also prevalent in many countries as causative agent of an outbreak in a home for aged people [36, 37]. Serotype 13 was also only found in Ajlun, which was found as multidrug resistant in Russia [38]. Serotypes 19A and 19F were mainly found in Ajlun and Madaba.
Serotype | Total no. (%) | Ajlun no. | Wadi Al Seer no. | Amman no. | Irbid no. | Madaba no. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3 | 12 (1.6%) | 4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 7 |
4 | 1 (0.14%) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
5 | 1 (0.14%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
13 | 1 (0.14%) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
14 | 40 (5.5%) | 9 | 2 | 0 | 9 | 20 |
21 | 1 (0.14%) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
28A | 8 (1.1%) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 6 |
34 | 4 (0.55%) | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
42 | 1 (0.14%) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
10A | 10 (1.4%) | 4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 5 |
10F | 1 (0.14%) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
11A | 44 (6.0%) | 21 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 13 |
15A | 19 (2.6%) | 10 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 2 |
15B | 23 (3.1%) | 13 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 6 |
15C | 17 (2.3%) | 6 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 6 |
15F | 1 (0.14%) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
16A | 2 (0.27%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
16B | 1 (0.14%) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
16F | 13 (1.8%) | 7 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 1 |
17F | 12 (1.6%) | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 6 |
18A | 1 (0.14%) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
18C | 9 (1.2%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 8 |
19A | 38 (5.2%) | 19 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 13 |
19F | 129 (17.6%) | 29 | 12 | 1 | 26 | 61 |
22A | 2 (0.27%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
22F | 2 (0.27%) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
23* | 5 (0.68%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 |
23A | 26 (3.5%) | 9 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 12 |
23B | 1 (0.14%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
23F | 59 (8.0%) | 11 | 8 | 0 | 15 | 25 |
24F | 7 (0.95%) | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
33A | 3 (0.4%) | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
33F | 7 (0.95%) | 6 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
35A | 3 (0.4%) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
35B | 12 (1.6%) | 8 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
35C | 1 (0.14%) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
35F | 2 (0.27%) | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
6A | 65 (8.9%) | 29 | 2 | 1 | 13 | 20 |
6B | 58 (7.9%) | 14 | 11 | 0 | 12 | 21 |
6C | 4 (0.55%) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
7B | 5 (0.68%) | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
7C | 1 (0.14%) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
7F | 1 (0.14%) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
9N | 9 (1.2%) | 3 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 3 |
9V | 9 (1.2%) | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 |
Pool C | 6 (0.81%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 |
Pool D | 2 (0.27%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Pool E | 4 (0.55%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 |
Pool F | 1 (0.14%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Pool G | 9 (1.2%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 6 |
Pool I | 6 (0.81%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 5 |
Mixed 14 & 6B | 1 (0.14%) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
NT | 18 (2.5%) | 7 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 8 |
Others* | 15 (2.0%) | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 7 |
Serotypes detected in the surveillance studies with numbers isolated in each city.
Isolates from antisera pools C, D, E, F, G, I, which are not included in the PCVs
Table 4 gives an insight about the differences and comparisons of the Jordanian carriage rate, resistance and coverage of PCVs with other countries worldwide. In literature, pneumococcal nasopharyngeal carriage was studied in different directions, either to find out the carriage rate, to check the impact of the PCVs on colonization, or to check the rate of carriage before and after vaccination strategies, or the carriage rates after certain infection, and many other issues related. The data available in Table 4 are from the region, from Africa, from Europe, and Latin America. As an example, in Palestine 11 cities were tested for pneumococcal carriage with rates ranging from 34.1% in Ramallah to 77.7% in Salfeet [20].
Country | Study period | Rate of carriage | PEN R (%) | ERY R (%) | CLI R (%) | SXT R (%) | PCV7 coverage | PCV13 coverage | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Jordan | 2008/19 | 39.3 | 89.4 | 64.8 | 36.3 | 73.0 | 42.4 | 58.4 | [1, 15, 16, 17] |
Palestine | 2013 | 55.7 | 10.9 | 30.3 | nd | 45.9 | 55.7 | nd | [20] |
Ethiopia | 2017 | 18.4 | 15.0 | 23.9 | nd | nd | nd | nd | [39] |
Turkey | 2017 | 14.0 | nd | nd | nd | nd | 12.6 | nd | [40] |
Palestine (EJ) | 2014 | 30.7 | nd | nd | nd | nd | 47.0 | 62.0 | [41] |
Palestine | 2014 | 28.6 | nd | nd | nd | nd | 41.2 | 54.8 | [41] |
Gaza Strip | 2009 | 50.0 | 70.0 | nd | nd | nd | 54.0 | 71.0 | [42] |
Pakistan | 2013 | 73.6 | nd | nd | nd | nd | 38.9 | 53.1 | [43] |
Gambia | 2009 | 72.0 | nd | nd | nd | nd | 24.7 | 46.8 | [44] |
Finland | 1994/95 | 49.0 | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | nd | [45] |
Brazil | 2008/09 | 55 | 38.4 | nd | nd | 73.8 | nd | nd | [46] |
Comparison of carriage rate, resistance and coverage of PCV7 and PCV13 in other locations (regional and international).
Abbreviations: nd = not defined; PEN (Penicillin), ERY (Erythromycin), CLI (Clindamycin), SXT (Sulfamethoxazole-Trimethoprim), R (Resistance), PCV7 (7-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine), PCV13 (13-valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine).
The prevalence of pneumococcal carriage was the only way in Jordan to detect the serotypes rotating in the Jordanian community, which reflects the clones of infections that might take place. The carriage rates in these areas were relatively high compared to other countries in the region. However, different serotypes were found in different areas. All of these isolates have high resistance rates and are covered to a high percentage with the PCV13 or PCV20. This implies the necessity for a strategic plan for vaccination in Jordan.
The author would like to thank the supporting institutions for this prevalence including the German Jordanian University, Wyeth (Now Pfizer), and Pfizer. Special thanks for the participating children with their parents, and for the MOH for the approvals to make this study successful.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
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\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
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\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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which depolymerizes the cellulose into glucose. Cellulases are produced by a diverse array of microbes including fungi, bacteria, yeast and actinomycetes. Considerable research for understanding the mechanism of cellulases began in early 1950s because of the significant use of these enzymes in various industries. This review provides a general account structure and availability of lignocellulosic biomass, pretreatment strategies for effective digestion, cellulase producing organisms, cellulase activity assay, and enzymology of cellulose degradation. Cellulase production, optimization, purification and characterization studies in addition to the industrial application of cellulase have also been discussed. At last a brief account of present market scenario of cellulases and future prospects of the study are also taken into account.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Namita Singh, Anita Devi, Manju Bala Bishnoi, Rajneesh Jaryal, Avni Dahiya, Oleksandr Tashyrev and Vira Hovorukha",authors:[{id:"278205",title:"Prof.",name:"Namita",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"namita-singh",fullName:"Namita Singh"},{id:"282352",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Devi",slug:"anita-devi",fullName:"Anita Devi"},{id:"282353",title:"MSc.",name:"Avni",middleName:null,surname:"Dahiya",slug:"avni-dahiya",fullName:"Avni Dahiya"},{id:"282354",title:"MSc.",name:"Manju Bala",middleName:null,surname:"Bishnoi",slug:"manju-bala-bishnoi",fullName:"Manju Bala Bishnoi"},{id:"282355",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksandr",middleName:null,surname:"Tashyrev",slug:"oleksandr-tashyrev",fullName:"Oleksandr Tashyrev"},{id:"282356",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Jaryal",slug:"rajneesh-jaryal",fullName:"Rajneesh Jaryal"},{id:"282939",title:"Dr.",name:"Vira",middleName:null,surname:"Hovorukha",slug:"vira-hovorukha",fullName:"Vira Hovorukha"}]},{id:"56708",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69096",title:"Human Development and Research-Development-Extension Relationships",slug:"human-development-and-research-development-extension-relationships",totalDownloads:1733,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Human capital is the most important strategic factor for development; as new technologies emerge, the market demand for better and healthier products and consumer demand in terms of quality and delivery time are changing. In today’s world, it becomes increasingly important to know how information can be accessed, how it is adopted, and how it can be assimilated. In this respect, each country allocates budget for training, education, and extension according to its own conditions. This budget may be intended for rural community-based social assistance, but the economic and welfare effect is essential. In this way, it is aimed to increase the living standards of the families living in the rural areas. This will naturally contribute to national income and to the prosperity of society. The subject has been discussed generally in the world, especially in the case of Turkey. According to this, all over the world, particularly in developing countries, research and extension (R&E) is very important and should be considered at least as much as research and development (R&D). However, it will be ensured that societies meet with the technology produced. For this, the development of human resources should be emphasized and a suitable atmosphere should be prepared for this widespread prosperity.",book:{id:"5819",slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",fullTitle:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices - Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth"},signatures:"Orhan Özçatalbaş",authors:[{id:"170206",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Özçatalbaş",slug:"dr.-orhan-ozcatalbas",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş"}]},{id:"66110",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84770",title:"Gold Recovery Process from Primary and Secondary Resources Using Bioadsorbents",slug:"gold-recovery-process-from-primary-and-secondary-resources-using-bioadsorbents",totalDownloads:1996,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Bioadsorbents were prepared in a simple manner only by treating in boiling concentrated sulfuric acid from various biomass materials such as various polysaccharides, persimmon tannin, cotton, paper and biomass wastes such as orange juice residue and microalgae residue after extracting biofuel. These bioadsorbents exhibited high selectivity only to gold over other metals and extraordinary high loading capacity for gold(III), which were elucidated to be attributable to the selective reduction of gold(III) ion to elemental gold due to its highest oxidation-reduction potential of gold(III) of metal ions, catalyzed by the surface of bioadsorbents prepared in boiling sulfuric acid. By using these biosorbents, recovery of gold from actual samples of printed circuit boards of spent mobile phones and Mongolian gold ore was investigated. Recovery of trace concentration of gold(I) from simulated spent alkaline cyanide solution was also investigated using the bioadsorbent. Application of bioadsorbents to some recovery processes of gold from cyanide solutions was proposed.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Durga Parajuli, Manju Gurung, Bimala Pangeni, Kanjana Khunathai, Keisuke Ohto and Hidetaka Kawakita",authors:[{id:"198951",title:"Prof.",name:"Keisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ohto",slug:"keisuke-ohto",fullName:"Keisuke Ohto"},{id:"259238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakita",slug:"hidetaka-kawakita",fullName:"Hidetaka Kawakita"},{id:"289372",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",slug:"katsutoshi-inoue",fullName:"Katsutoshi Inoue"},{id:"298633",title:"Dr.",name:"Bimala",middleName:null,surname:"Pangeni",slug:"bimala-pangeni",fullName:"Bimala Pangeni"},{id:"298634",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Gurung",slug:"manju-gurung",fullName:"Manju Gurung"},{id:"298635",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanjana",middleName:null,surname:"Khunathai",slug:"kanjana-khunathai",fullName:"Kanjana Khunathai"},{id:"298636",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga",middleName:null,surname:"Parajuli",slug:"durga-parajuli",fullName:"Durga Parajuli"}]},{id:"66428",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84833",title:"Review of Biofuel Technologies in WtL and WtE",slug:"review-of-biofuel-technologies-in-wtl-and-wte",totalDownloads:1177,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Processing of biomass feedstocks to produce energy, fuels, and chemicals via a combination of different applied technologies is considered a promising pathway to achieve sustainable waste management, with many environmental and economic benefits. In this chapter, we review the current state of the main processes associated with energy recovery and biofuel production under the concept of waste biorefineries. The reviewed technologies are classified into thermochemical, biological, and chemical, including combustion, gasification, steam explosion, pyrolysis, hydrothermal liquefaction, and torrefaction; anaerobic digestion, fermentation, enzymatic treatment, and microbial electrolysis; and hydrolysis, solvent extraction, transesterification, and supercritical conversion. Their brief history, current status, and future developments are discussed within a perspective of valorization and managing of current waste streams with no solution.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Bruno B. Garcia, Gonçalo Lourinho, Paulo Brito and Pedro Romano",authors:[{id:"261653",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Brito",slug:"paulo-brito",fullName:"Paulo Brito"},{id:"261654",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Romano",slug:"pedro-romano",fullName:"Pedro Romano"},{id:"291751",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Bruno B.",middleName:"B",surname:"Garcia",slug:"bruno-b.-garcia",fullName:"Bruno B. 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This chapter shows how these issues can be addressed starting with measuring and modeling energy consumption patterns by collecting an energy consumption dataset at device level. The open dataset allows to extract typical usage patterns and subsequently to model test scenarios for energy management algorithms. Section 3 discusses means for analyzing measured data and for providing detailed feedback about energy consumption to increase customers’ energy awareness. Section 4 shows how renewable energy sources can be integrated in a smart microgrid and how energy production can be accurately predicted. Section 5 introduces a self-organizing local energy system that autonomously coordinates production and consumption via an agent-based energy auction system. The final section discusses how the proposed methods contribute to sustainable growth and gives an outlook to future research.",book:{id:"5819",slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",fullTitle:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices - Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth"},signatures:"Wilfried Elmenreich, Tamer Khatib and Andrea Monacchi",authors:[{id:"163771",title:"Dr.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Elmenreich",slug:"wilfried-elmenreich",fullName:"Wilfried Elmenreich"},{id:"197214",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Monacchi",slug:"andrea-monacchi",fullName:"Andrea Monacchi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66110",title:"Gold Recovery Process from Primary and Secondary Resources Using Bioadsorbents",slug:"gold-recovery-process-from-primary-and-secondary-resources-using-bioadsorbents",totalDownloads:1996,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Bioadsorbents were prepared in a simple manner only by treating in boiling concentrated sulfuric acid from various biomass materials such as various polysaccharides, persimmon tannin, cotton, paper and biomass wastes such as orange juice residue and microalgae residue after extracting biofuel. These bioadsorbents exhibited high selectivity only to gold over other metals and extraordinary high loading capacity for gold(III), which were elucidated to be attributable to the selective reduction of gold(III) ion to elemental gold due to its highest oxidation-reduction potential of gold(III) of metal ions, catalyzed by the surface of bioadsorbents prepared in boiling sulfuric acid. By using these biosorbents, recovery of gold from actual samples of printed circuit boards of spent mobile phones and Mongolian gold ore was investigated. Recovery of trace concentration of gold(I) from simulated spent alkaline cyanide solution was also investigated using the bioadsorbent. Application of bioadsorbents to some recovery processes of gold from cyanide solutions was proposed.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Durga Parajuli, Manju Gurung, Bimala Pangeni, Kanjana Khunathai, Keisuke Ohto and Hidetaka Kawakita",authors:[{id:"198951",title:"Prof.",name:"Keisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ohto",slug:"keisuke-ohto",fullName:"Keisuke Ohto"},{id:"259238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakita",slug:"hidetaka-kawakita",fullName:"Hidetaka Kawakita"},{id:"289372",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",slug:"katsutoshi-inoue",fullName:"Katsutoshi Inoue"},{id:"298633",title:"Dr.",name:"Bimala",middleName:null,surname:"Pangeni",slug:"bimala-pangeni",fullName:"Bimala Pangeni"},{id:"298634",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Gurung",slug:"manju-gurung",fullName:"Manju Gurung"},{id:"298635",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanjana",middleName:null,surname:"Khunathai",slug:"kanjana-khunathai",fullName:"Kanjana Khunathai"},{id:"298636",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga",middleName:null,surname:"Parajuli",slug:"durga-parajuli",fullName:"Durga Parajuli"}]},{id:"56708",title:"Human Development and Research-Development-Extension Relationships",slug:"human-development-and-research-development-extension-relationships",totalDownloads:1733,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Human capital is the most important strategic factor for development; as new technologies emerge, the market demand for better and healthier products and consumer demand in terms of quality and delivery time are changing. In today’s world, it becomes increasingly important to know how information can be accessed, how it is adopted, and how it can be assimilated. In this respect, each country allocates budget for training, education, and extension according to its own conditions. This budget may be intended for rural community-based social assistance, but the economic and welfare effect is essential. In this way, it is aimed to increase the living standards of the families living in the rural areas. This will naturally contribute to national income and to the prosperity of society. The subject has been discussed generally in the world, especially in the case of Turkey. According to this, all over the world, particularly in developing countries, research and extension (R&E) is very important and should be considered at least as much as research and development (R&D). However, it will be ensured that societies meet with the technology produced. For this, the development of human resources should be emphasized and a suitable atmosphere should be prepared for this widespread prosperity.",book:{id:"5819",slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",fullTitle:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices - Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth"},signatures:"Orhan Özçatalbaş",authors:[{id:"170206",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Özçatalbaş",slug:"dr.-orhan-ozcatalbas",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş"}]},{id:"68851",title:"Introductory Chapter: Objectives and Scope of Bioeconomy",slug:"introductory-chapter-objectives-and-scope-of-bioeconomy",totalDownloads:970,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Krzysztof Biernat",authors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}]},{id:"68007",title:"Overview of the Process of Enzymatic Transformation of Biomass",slug:"overview-of-the-process-of-enzymatic-transformation-of-biomass",totalDownloads:1378,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Cellulase is an enzyme which depolymerizes the cellulose into glucose. Cellulases are produced by a diverse array of microbes including fungi, bacteria, yeast and actinomycetes. Considerable research for understanding the mechanism of cellulases began in early 1950s because of the significant use of these enzymes in various industries. This review provides a general account structure and availability of lignocellulosic biomass, pretreatment strategies for effective digestion, cellulase producing organisms, cellulase activity assay, and enzymology of cellulose degradation. Cellulase production, optimization, purification and characterization studies in addition to the industrial application of cellulase have also been discussed. At last a brief account of present market scenario of cellulases and future prospects of the study are also taken into account.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Namita Singh, Anita Devi, Manju Bala Bishnoi, Rajneesh Jaryal, Avni Dahiya, Oleksandr Tashyrev and Vira Hovorukha",authors:[{id:"278205",title:"Prof.",name:"Namita",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"namita-singh",fullName:"Namita Singh"},{id:"282352",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Devi",slug:"anita-devi",fullName:"Anita Devi"},{id:"282353",title:"MSc.",name:"Avni",middleName:null,surname:"Dahiya",slug:"avni-dahiya",fullName:"Avni Dahiya"},{id:"282354",title:"MSc.",name:"Manju Bala",middleName:null,surname:"Bishnoi",slug:"manju-bala-bishnoi",fullName:"Manju Bala Bishnoi"},{id:"282355",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksandr",middleName:null,surname:"Tashyrev",slug:"oleksandr-tashyrev",fullName:"Oleksandr Tashyrev"},{id:"282356",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Jaryal",slug:"rajneesh-jaryal",fullName:"Rajneesh Jaryal"},{id:"282939",title:"Dr.",name:"Vira",middleName:null,surname:"Hovorukha",slug:"vira-hovorukha",fullName:"Vira Hovorukha"}]},{id:"67691",title:"The Use of Waste Management Techniques to Enhance Household Income and Reduce Urban Water Pollution",slug:"the-use-of-waste-management-techniques-to-enhance-household-income-and-reduce-urban-water-pollution",totalDownloads:1013,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Appropriate waste management options are major concerns in the developing world. Current methods include incineration in the open and accumulation of wastes in designated places where they constitute nuisance to the environment. Apart from air pollution from the incinerators, leachates from decomposed wastes are either washed off where they serve as source of pollutants to the adjourning streams and rivers or contaminate groundwater through deep percolation. We present viable options for managing agricultural wastes in this chapter. The options presented are so simple and sustainable such that it can be managed by individuals. Hence, they are independent of the government bureaucratic bottlenecks that have been the bane of the previous government interventions. If embraced, it will also serve as sources of income for the concerned household, hence enhance their livelihood.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Olayiwola A. Akintola, Olufunmilayo O. Idowu, Suraju A. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11409,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa and Alberto J. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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