",isbn:"978-1-80356-951-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-950-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-952-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"bb6fc82b35ad2c63618a9bc15aeb61ce",bookSignature:"Dr. Kim Ho Yeap and Dr. Magdalene Goh Wan Ching",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11948.jpg",keywords:"MOSFET, CMOS, OFET, JFET, FinFET, Integrated Circuit (IC), Oxidation, Metallization, Semiconductor, Silicon (Si), Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Silicon Carbide (SiC)",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"23 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A researcher in the fields of microelectronics and electromagnetics. Member of IEEE, IET, IEM.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"24699",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Yeap",slug:"kim-ho-yeap",fullName:"Kim Ho Yeap",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24699/images/system/24699.jpg",biography:"Kim Ho Yeap is an Associate Professor at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia. He is an IEEE senior member, a Professional Engineer registered with the Board of Engineers, Malaysia,a Chartered Engineer registered with the UK Engineering Council, and an ASEAN Chartered Professional Engineer (ACPE). He received his BEng (Hons) Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Universiti Teknologi Petronas in 2004, his MSc in microelectronics from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in 2005, and his PhD from Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman in 2011. In 2008 and 2015, respectively, Dr. Yeap underwent research attachment at the University of Oxford (UK) and Nippon Institute of Technology (Japan). Dr. Yeap is the external examiner and external course assessor of Wawasan Open University. He is also the Editor in Chief of the i-manager’s Journal on Digital Signal Processing. He has also been a guest editor for the Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences and Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences. Dr. Yeap has been given the university teaching excellence award, and 22 research grants. He has published more than 100 research articles (including refereed journal papers, conference proceedings, books, and book chapters). Prior to joining the academic industry, Dr. Yeap worked in Intel corporation in the pre-silicon validation group. He was awarded 4 Kudos awards by Intel for his contributions in the design and verification of the microchip’s design for testability (DFT) features.",institutionString:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"454196",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalene",middleName:null,surname:"Goh Wan Ching",slug:"magdalene-goh-wan-ching",fullName:"Magdalene Goh Wan Ching",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr Magdalene Goh Wan Ching\r\nDesignation: Senior lecturer\r\nQualifications: Diploma in Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Inti College), BEng in Electrical\r\nEngineering & Electronics (University of Liverpool, UK), PhD in Solid State\r\nDevice Physics & RF Transistors Design (University of Liverpool, UK)\r\n\r\nProfessional Body\r\nMemberships:\r\n\r\nInaugural Senior Member, International Engineering & Technology Institute\r\n(IETI), Hong Kong\r\n\r\nBiodata: Dr. Magdalene Goh obtained her Diploma in Electrical & Electronics Engineering\r\nfrom Inti College before leaving for the UK to pursue her BEng in Electrical\r\nEngineering & Electronics and later on, her PhD. Prior to joining the academia,\r\nshe has worked for a few years in the industry in the areas of semiconductor\r\nprocess technology, silicon wafer characterizations, mask layout design,\r\nanalogue circuits design and design for testability (DFT). While in the academic,\r\nshe had served as a judge for Innovate Malaysia undergraduate final year\r\nprojects competition from 2012 - 2015. She had served as an external examiner\r\nfor a PhD candidate from VIT University, India in 2013, and an external examiner\r\nfor SEGi College Penang from 2014 – 2018. She has been actively involved with\r\nthe Penang Science Cluster in their radio telescope team since 2014, where she\r\nworks with a team of volunteers (from both academia and the industry in\r\nPenang) to create curricula in radio astronomy, for the purpose of introducing the\r\nconcepts of radio astronomy and radio telescopes to both school pupils and\r\ncollege students. She has been a member of the Astronomical Society of\r\nPenang since 2016.\r\n\r\nCourse Development\r\nExperience:\r\n\r\nSince joining WOU, Dr. Goh has developed eight courses, namely Control\r\nSystems, Microprocessors, Digital Communications, Microelectronics, VLSI\r\nDesign, Process Control & Instrumentation, Power Electronics & Drives and\r\nElectrical Power & Drives.\r\n\r\nResearch Interest: Dr. Goh’s research interests are in the areas of semiconductor physics and\r\nelectromagnetics. She also has strong interest in the field of astronomy and is\r\nworking with a group of volunteers to promote astronomy education in the\r\nsecondary schools in Penang. She had also worked with some interns on the\r\nradio telescope project at the Penang Science Cluster.\r\n\r\nResearch Projects and\r\nConsultancy Work:\r\nSelected Publications: Design of Radio Frequency Metal-Insulator-Metal (MIM) Capacitors. \r\n\r\nExperimental Investigation on Thermoelectric Generator for Battery - Charger\r\nBased Oven.\r\nAnalyzing the Physics of Radio Telescopes and Radio Astronomy (book\r\nchapters).\r\n\r\nConferences,\r\nSeminars and\r\nWorkshops:\r\n\r\nDr. Goh was appointed as one of the Technical Committee Member for the\r\nVirtual Conference on Electronics and Communication: Loading Intelligence on\r\nFuture Electronics (October 2020).\r\n\r\nHonorary\r\nAppointments and\r\nAwards:\r\n\r\nDr. Goh is a reviewer of the following journals:-\r\n1. Microwave and Optical Technology Letters.\r\n2. Journal of Electrical Engineering.\r\n3. 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1. Introduction
Cervical cancer is the fourth common cancer among women in the world, and it accounts for about 530,000 new cases and 270,000 deaths annually, as reported in 2012. About 85% of these cases occur in developing countries. It represents 12% of incident cancers in women and 7.5% deaths due to cancer in women.
In a developing country like India, about 122,000 new cases of cervical cancer and about 67,400 deaths due cervical cancer are reported, every year, as per data of 2017. It is the second most frequent cancer among women of reproductive age group.
India also has the highest age standardized incidence of cervical cancer in South Asia at 22, compared to 19.2 in Bangladesh, 13 in Sri Lanka, and 2.8 in Iran [1, 2].
More than 115 types of HPV are present and 18 are high-risk carcinogenic types for cervical cancer. Other than this, HPV-16 is the most common high risk in cervical cancer [4].
In cervical cancer cases, HPV prevalence was in the range of 87.8 to 96.67%, in a study in India. In women without cervical cancer, HPV prevalence varied from 7.5 to 16.9%.
The worldwide prevalence of HPV infection, in normal woman, is between 9% and 13%.
3. HPV infection worldwide
HPV is associated with 50,000 new cases of cervical cancer and 250,000 associated cervical cancer deaths, worldwide, each year [5]. It also causes vulvar, vaginal, anal, and penile cancers and precancerous lesions of vulva/vagina, genital warts, and respiratory papilomatosis [5, 6, 7]. HPV infections are asymptomatic, and generally, individuals are not aware of being infected, thus facilitating the spread easily and unknowingly [5].
At least 50% of men and women will acquire genital HPV infection during their lifetime [8].
All sexually active women are infected with HPV at least once during their lifetime, and the highest prevalence is seen soon after the onset of sexual activities [9, 10].
A majority of episodes of type-specific HPV infection resolve spontaneously within 2 years, but this may be followed by an infection with a new type [7].
HPV transmission exclusively occurs following skin-to-skin contact with an infected partner. Sexual intercourse is not necessary, and the virus can be transmitted through sexual foreplay [5].
HPV can only replicate in the stratified squamous epithelium. HPV infection is the most common sexually transmitted diseases [11]. The major risk factor for HPV infection is sexual behavior, including early age of onset of sexual activity, multiple sexual partners, and coinfection with HIV [12].
Although the determinants of risk for persistent infection and progression to invasive diseases are not fully understood, persistence appears to be related to HPV type and concurrent infection with multiple virus types [12].
The prevalence and distribution of HPV types in the general population as well as in cervical neoplasia vary with geographic region and by the grade of disease [13].
4. Screening for cervical cancer
Secondary prevention involves screening for precancerous lesions and treating them. The three screening modalities are cytology, visual inspection, and HPV test.
5. Prevention of cervical cancer
HPV is necessary for the development of cervical cancer. Therefore, preventing HPV infection can prevent cervical cancer. This can be achieved by complete abstinence from sexual activity or by a vaccine [14].
Primary prevention involves a risk reduction approach through behavioral intervention for sexual and healthcare-seeking behavior or through mass immunization against high-risk HPV [15].
The objective of cervical screening/secondary prevention is to prevent invasive cervical cancer from developing by detecting and treating women with CIN2/3 lesions, and the effectiveness is determined by reduction in incidence and mortality.
The critical components of a screening program are an acceptable good-quality screening test, prompt diagnostic investigations, appropriate treatment, and posttreatment follow-up [16].
There is a strong support from nonexperimental studies in developed countries such as Denmark and Finland that the incidence and mortality of cervical cancer can be reduced by screening [17].
Ensuring high levels of participation and sufficient healthcare infrastructure and human resources are important for a screening program to succeed [18]. It is also important for screening to be guided by equity considerations for those who are more vulnerable or with lesser access to healthcare services because of social, economic, or demographic factors [19].
Recent screening recommendations for specific age groups as per the American Cancer Society (ACS) screening guidelines are as follows: [1, 2].
At the age of 21 years: Screening is recommended.
At the age of 21–29 years: Cytology (Pap smear) alone every 3 years.
At the age of 30–65 years: Human papillomavirus virus (HPV) and cytology contesting every 5 years or cytology alone every 3 years.
At the age of >65 years: No screening recommended if adequate prior screening has been negative and high risk is not present.
HPV Vaccines that aims to prevent cervical cancer are:
A bivalent vaccine which protects against subtypes 16 and 18.
A quadrivalent vaccine which protects against subtypes 16 and 18 plus 6 and 11.
A 9-valent vaccine which protects against the same subtypes as the quadrivalent plus subtypes 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58 (which cause about 15% of cervical cancers).
The HPV vaccine is ideally recommended to vaccinate boys and girls at age 11–12 years, but vaccination can begins at age 9.
6. The effect of HPV vaccination
Population-level impact and herd effects following the introduction of human papillomavirus vaccination programs
From the abstract: We did a systematic review and meta-analysis of the population-level impact of vaccinating girls and women against human papillomavirus on HPV infections, anogenital wart diagnoses, and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2+ (CIN2+). Our results show compelling evidence of the substantial impact of HPV vaccination programs on HPV infections and CIN2+ among girls and women, and on anogenital warts diagnoses among girls, women, boys, and men, programs with multi-cohort vaccination and high vaccination coverage had a greater direct impact and herd effects.
Ref: Population-level impact and herd effects following the introduction of human papillomavirus vaccination programmes: updated systematic review and meta-analysis
Drolet M, Bénard É, Pérez N, Brisson M, on behalf of the HPV Vaccination Impact Study Group. The Lancet. Open access
Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination significantly reduces the frequency of genital HPV 16 and 18 infections and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2+ (CIN2+) in young women and shows signs of herd effects with a reduced frequency of anogenital warts in both young women and men, a recent study showed.
As cited in infectious diseases.
9/16/2019 HPV vaccination programmes reduce HPV infection, precancerous lesions with potential crossover and herd effects | News for Doctor, N.
7. KAP studies reveal the presence of adequate knowledge but inadequate “practice “in the community
7.1 Recent study in India
Results: We observed that despite good knowledge and perception, less than 10 percent of workers have undergone screening. Significant association was seen between the level of knowledge and practice of screening.
Conclusion: It is of utmost importance narrowing of existing gap between the perception and practice of cervical cancer.
Screening should be initiated through introducing more educational programs for workers and encouraging them to participate.
The study cited is from: Khanna D, Khargekar N, Budukh A. Knowledge, attitude, and practice about cervical cancer and its screening among community healthcare workers of Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Family Med Prim Care 2019;8:1715–9.
8. How to translate “knowledge” in to “practice”
Author’s experiences in a cervical cancer screening program of the IARC/WHO, In India.
He has served as the principal investigator for the first 3 years, and the project was done at the Christian Fellowship Community Health Centre Society, Ambilikkai, Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu, India, and was in technical collaboration with the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), WHO.
9. Background
Proof of concept (POC)—The Lancet Publication 2007, the author’s paper.
Quote:
Effect of visual screening on cervical cancer incidence and mortality in Tamil Nadu, India: a cluster-randomized trial.
Lancet 2007; 370(9585):398-406.
Rengaswamy Sankaranarayanan, Pulikkottil Okkuru Esmy, Rajamanickam Rajkumar, et al.
10. Summary
Cervical cancer is the most common cancer among women in developing countries. We assessed the effect of screening using visual inspection with 4% acetic acid (VIA) on cervical cancer incidence and mortality in a cluster-randomized controlled trial in India.
11. Methods
Of the 114 study clusters in Dindigul district, India, 57 were randomized to one round of VIA by trained nurses and 57 to a control group. Healthy women aged 30–59 years were eligible for the study. Screen-positive women had colposcopy, directed biopsies, and, where appropriate, cryotherapy by nurses during the screening visit. Those with larger precancerous lesions or invasive cancers were referred for appropriate investigations and treatment.
Cervical cancer incidence and mortality in the study groups were analyzed and compared using Cox regression taking the cluster design into account, and analysis was by intention to treat. The primary outcome measures were cervical cancer incidence and mortality.
12. Results
Of the 49,311 eligible women in the intervention group, 31,343 (63·6%) were screened during 2000–2003; 30,958 control women received the standard care. Of the 3088 (9·9%) screened positive, 3052 had colposcopy and 2539 directed biopsy. Of the 1874 women with precancerous lesions in the intervention group, 72% received treatment. In the intervention group, 274,430 person years, 167 cervical cancer cases, and 83 cervical cancer deaths were accrued compared with 178,781 person years, 158 cases, and 92 deaths and in the control group during 2000–2006 (incidence hazard ratio 0·75 [95% CI 0·55–0·95] and mortality hazard ratio 0·65 [0·47–0·89]).
13. Interpretation
HPV vaccination and organized screening, in the presence of good training and sustained quality assurance, are effective methods, for HPV and cervical cancer prevention and control, in developing countries. New and innovative models and effective strategies for health education need to be developed to strengthen the “knowledge translation to action” component of the healthcare delivery systems,
14. Health education: for HPV prevention and control
Health education, with special strategies to effect the “practice” in a successful way, is the key, for prevention and control of HPV infections and cervical cancer.
It is very important that all the health-related programs have a very strong foundation with the component of health education, may it be to an individual, family, or a community. The healthcare planners, administrators, and providers are responsible for developing various methods, tools, strategies for the delivery of effective health education. In some health programs, it is called information, education, communication strategies. In this process, an idea, theme, concept, facts and figures, health topics, health problems, and solutions are being projected.
15.1.2 Negative projections
These are usually warning projections. For example, tobacco products have scary pictures of lung cancers, and head and neck cancers are printed on the packs. These are meant to arouse a sense of fear and discourage the consumer from using it. But, the feelings and its effect are temporary, resulting in continued habits. The consumers may not like the “advertisement” but likes the advertised. Such “dramatic “projections,” are not ideal for health education on sensitive issues like HPV.
Negative projections
15.1.3 Positive/pleasant projections
The messages to be delivered are projected in a positive, attractive way. This is also a temporary appeal to their emotions. Without in-depth analysis, the consumers patronize the messages but on the long run has no permanent implications. The advertisements on the health drinks are such “positive and pleasant projections.” Such projections are not suitable for behavior change targeted HP health education messages.
Positive/pleasant projections
15.1.4 Permanent behavior change projections
These projections are prosperous, progressive, peaceful, and productive. They imply that acceptance and adoption of the advertised message would lead to happy, healthy future. Health education messages in family planning are designed and developed like this. The example of one such advertisement shows a happy family with two children joyfully bonded with love and affection.
The consumer is highly impressed, inspired, and convinced to consider adopting family planning methods to have a small and self-sufficient family, in the future.
Likewise, in HPV-related health education messages, we should have permanent behavior change projections like HPV vaccination, menstrual hygiene, sexual hygiene, and regular periodic screening for cervix cancer, and these are the ideal and apt projections.
Permanent behavior change projections
15.1.5 The permanent behavior change projections model for HPV: cervical cancer prevention and control
Menstrual hygiene
15.2 P2. Perception
It is the formation of an idea or concept, depending upon the effects of various stimuli received, to perform an act.
15.2.1 Perception process: the i5
Ignite Imagine Interest Inspire Implement
Ignition: “Don’t let cervical cancer stop you.”
Imagine: End cervical cancer.
Interest: Easy two ways—“get vaccinated, get screened.”
Inspire: Peer group inspires.
Implement: Get vaccination/screening done.
15.3 P3. Promotion
15.3.1 Health promotion model
Successful and productive past experiences; beliefs getting renewed and rationalized; benefits accrued both temporarily and permanently; breaking of barriers by several inputs and interventions; positive influence from family, friends, peers, and society; esthetic situations favoring and promoting empowerment by self-efficacy, all these factors serve as a diving plank, providing strong and sustained leverage to effect “action.”
15.4 P4. Performance
15.4.1 Performance
This is a continuous process where each step is evaluated and replanned for better implementation in the next step.
Therefore in every performance, there is a betterment of the next practice. This is depicted in the performance enhancement cycle (PEC).
Performance enhancement cycle (PEC)
15.5 P5. Perseverance
Perseverance is constant, continued efforts and attempts, amidst of many difficulties, until the desired goal is achieved. This is an important process in healthcare delivery, where the health providers make sustained efforts to convince the healthcare recipients to adopt the desired behavior in order to achieve the appropriate and relevant goals. The act of “perseverance” largely depends upon the level and depth of perception of the health problem; the support given by family, peers, and society; and the evaluation of the eventual results and benefits. In the community, we can see the example of a pregnant woman in a family, where everyone realizes the preciousness of pregnancy and has in-depth perception and the family, relatives, community, and society offer all the support needed for the pregnant woman, amidst of many problems and difficulties, for a long period of maternity, and these acts of perseverance eventually result in the successful outcome of a safe delivery, healthy mother, and a healthy child.
In HPV control measures, perseverance is needed for effecting behavioral changes like menstrual hygiene, sexual health, adoption of HPV vaccine and most importantly screening and treatment for precancer status and regular follow-up as needed. Hence,“perseverance” in health education, healthcare delivery, and follow-up is a very important component of the goal-oriented system.
Perseverance in care during pregnancy for safe delivery
The common example of a pregnant woman and her family, community, and society, being offered all support and help for a successful outcome, amidst many difficulties, by acts of perseverance.
15.6 P6. Pursuit
The yacht in pursuit of destination amidst problems
In pursuit of excellence is a requirement by one and all for success and achievements. In the field of healthcare planning, delivery, and implementation, one is in pursuit of excellence in technologies, techniques, strategies, skills, and scientific—social achievements.
Goals, objectives, and indicators to reach are already fixed, defined, and targeted, in a well-planned health program. The health providers are in “pursuit” of attaining these goals. There would be many difficulties, obstacles, shortcomings, and hurdles in the entire process. But, the goal is clear, and all efforts are made to overcome these, and the aim is ultimately achieved. The yacht travel which overcomes all difficulties like the sun, rain, storm, and many others, to reach its destination safely, and it’s a symbolism of “pursuit.”
In the HPV control programs, many such draw backs are seen. For example, illiteracy, ignorance, and poverty, prevent the usage of sanitary napkins. This is overcome by health education and mobilization of resources. The HPV vaccine has obstacles like differing policies, cost of the vaccine, lack of infrastructure to reach the vaccine to the community, and illiteracy and ignorance among the target groups. Screening programs suffer from problems like ignorant community; lack of infrastructure; deficient manpower; nonavailability of techniques, technology, and technicians; and inadequate, inefficient systems in place. Yet, these can be overcome by appropriate and adequate inputs, during the process of pursuit towards the goals by the health planners.
The health programs in the developing world do experience this act of pursuit to achieve goals, and already the results have been seen in reducing the incidence of HPV infections and cervical cancer, especially in the low and limited resource settings of many countries.
16. Raj’s cancer control clock
A complimentary model
The Keys for the Cancer Control Clock’s 12 hours [20]:
Area—define a geographic area for your study/services
Enumerate—the resident population, document the sociodemographic data
Inference—prevalence of HPV-related diseases—establish registries
Education—about prevention at individual, family, and community levels
Invitation—to attend awareness programs, screening, and vaccination
Counseling—the participants about possible outcomes and solutions
Screening—acceptable, available, accessible, affordable, answerable, achievable—the A-6 model for screening and vaccination programs
Patterns—of diseases detected in screening—disclosure of results—individualized, ensure confidentiality and offer solution for health problems
Confirmation—diagnosis—at screening and follow-up stages
Treatment—of the HPV infections and related diseases, precancer lesions, and ensure the availability of posttreatment services
Follow-up—by confirmation of disease free status, counseling, and referrals to the government/private health systems
Monitoring, evaluation, replan—effectiveness of interventions, health economics,and advocating prevention policies
17. Conclusion
The problem of high incidence of HPV infections and cervical cancer, all over the world, especially in developing countries is of great concern and warrants immediate control measures. Many programs have been planned and implemented and they all show promising outcomes. The HPV vaccine uptake has increased due to various inputs in developing countries. The increased vaccine coverage has shown reduced incidence of cervical precancers in longitudinal studies. The screening programs for cervical cancer have resulted in reduction in the incidence rate of cervical cancer and mortality due to cervical cancer.
This is a time-tested concept of the author, which was found to be very successful in the proof of concept project quoted earlier. Hence, for effective implementation of HPV and cervical cancer screening programs, especially in the phase of translating knowledge into practice, the above model is recommended, for the benefit of health programs in developing countries.
Acknowledgments
The author thankfully acknowledges Google images for the diagrams used in this paper. Immense thanks and gratitude to Celin Rani, Rijula Raj, Rixon Raj, Pavith Raj, and the angel Helena Raj, for their limitless love and care which enabled me to write this chapter. My sincere thanks to Ms. Marina Dusevic, InTech, for her masterly inputs and expert guidance, which greatly encouraged me to write this chapter. My whole-hearted thanks to the InTech publishers, with whom I am editing this fifth book of mine, for their scholastic contributions, enabling socio-scientific achievements, in the field of HPV and cervical cancer prevention, all around the globe in general and developing countries, in particular.
Meenakshi Medical College Hospital and Research Institute of MAHER, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, India
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1. Introduction: extracellular matrix as an implantable graft material
Biologic materials used to repair soft tissue defects must be strong and easy to handle during implantation, but they must also be able to support tissue integration and maturation once implanted. ECM-based biologic grafts have been widely used in surgery over the last two decades. They are a good choice for surgeons because they can be safely implanted in contaminated settings where synthetic materials are contraindicated. Even though synthetic mesh materials continue to be favored in general surgical practice because of their versatility and low cost, they remain susceptible to chemical degradation over time, can create physical tissue erosion due to mismatches in their mechanical properties with the surrounding tissues, and may undergo encapsulation following placement because the body views them as foreign materials [1]. Of critical importance in many applications, synthetics can provide a nidus for microorganism growth; therefore, if they become infected when in the body, they typically need to be removed [2].
ECM biomaterials derived from natural tissue sources, however, have generally provided adequate strength, resistance to infection, and stability over time such that they make adequate materials for soft tissue reconstruction [3]. These materials can be obtained as autografts or allografts, but autografts result in donor site morbidity, while cadaveric allograft tissues may transmit disease, are inherently inconsistent, and are typically quite expensive.
Recent years have seen the advent of multiple off-the shelf tissue-based ECM biomaterials that claim to provide an optimal healing environment for soft tissues. They can be obtained from a wide variety of mammalian tissues, processed using a wide range of chemicals and cross-linking agents, or can be provided in such a way that retains the information-rich scaffold into which adjacent cells migrate to create a replacement tissue (Table 1). Many studies have shown constructive, functional tissue remodeling with partial restoration of site-appropriate tissue using these graft materials [4, 5, 6, 7], yet this is not always the case. Less favorable outcomes include the accumulation of serous fluid at the implant site, rapid degradation of the graft material with associated mechanical failure, or a lack of biomaterial integration with the patient’s tissues, resulting in a foreign body response [8, 9]. These less-than-favorable outcomes typically have been associated with variations in manufacturing methods that result in the failure of the material to maintain nature’s natural composition and three-dimensional architecture that makes the extracellular matrix (ECM) the ideal template for tissue repair and regeneration.
Product
Source
Crosslinking agent
Sterilization
Alloderm
Human dermis
N/A
N/A
AlloMax
Human dermis
N/A
Gamma radiation
Biodesign
Porcine small intestine
N/A
EtO
Gentrix
Porcine urinary bladder
N/A
E-beam
GraftJacket
Human dermis
N/A
N/A
Meso BioMatrix
Porcine mesothelium
N/A
EtO
MicroMatrix
Porcine urinary bladder
N/A
E-beam
Miroderm
Porcine liver
N/A
E-beam
OASIS
Porcine small intestine
N/A
EtO
Peri-Guard
Bovine pericardium
Glutaraldehyde
Liquid chemical
Permacol
Porcine dermis
HMDI
Gamma radiation
Strattice
Porcine dermis
N/A
E-beam
Tutoplast
Human pericardium
N/A
Gamma radiation
XenMatrix
Porcine dermis
N/A
E-beam
Table 1.
Source tissue and post-decellularization processing steps of some common commercially available ECM biomaterials.
EtO ethylene oxide, E-beam Electron beam irradiation, HMDI hexamethylene diisocyanate.
Materials that are minimally processed most closely recapitulate the structure and function of the original tissue while providing a safe, biocompatible material for soft tissue reconstruction. The natural ECM, when retained in its complex arrangement of matrix proteins and associated factors, can provide the key extracellular signals and inherent bioactivity needed to restore damaged tissues to their natural state [7]. This complexity allows the naturally occurring biologic graft to completely integrate with the recipient’s tissues and cells to ultimately form a vascularized, highly organized tissue structure that resembles the native tissue structure and architecture [4, 7, 10, 11].
2. Extracellular matrix as bioactive structure
The ECM is a three-dimensional network of extracellular macromolecules, such as collagens, glycoproteins, proteoglycans, and glycosaminoglycans, that provides structural and biochemical support to surrounding cells. Because of different structural and mechanical requirements, the composition of ECM varies from tissue to tissue; however, providing a structure for cell adhesion, directing cell-to-cell communication, and regulating cell processes such as growth, migration and differentiation are common functions of the ECM [12].
Regardless of the source, ECM is a complex three-dimensional scaffold consisting of structural and functional proteins and components arranged in a tissue-specific orientation [12]. The ECM components directly interact with fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and macrophages to maintain a natural and functional homeostatic environment through a process known as dynamic reciprocity (Figure 1) [13]. When injury occurs and the natural equilibrium is disrupted, the dynamic environment that exists between the ECM and cells orchestrates acute inflammation, wound healing and tissue remodeling to regain function and restore homeostasis. After injury occurs and the ECM is damaged, a biologic graft can be implanted to provide a surrogate matrix structure that allows dynamic reciprocity to begin immediately, ultimately achieving tissue restoration via the process of constructive tissue remodeling.
Figure 1.
Examples of dynamic reciprocity of fibroblasts, macrophages, endothelial cells (angiogenesis), and the extracellular matrix (ECM) during wound healing. These interactions occur through signals such as growth factors and/or binding of cells to the ECM.
Endogenous ECM functions as the intended bioactive structure when normal tissue turnover is taking place or when no significant tissue loss is encountered. The body has a remarkable ability to self-renew, in large part due to the instructional nature of the ECM, but in the presence of significant tissue loss, large areas of trauma, or surgical reconstructions, there is a need for an exogenous material to augment and to bring order to somewhat chaotic processes. An exogenous ECM can serve as this bioactive, instructive, and even mechanical blueprint for a constructive tissue remodeling process [7, 14, 15].
3. Extracellular matrix and constructive tissue remodeling
Constructive tissue remodeling is more than just another word for wound healing or for tissue repair. The stages of wound healing include initial hemostasis, characterized by clot formation; inflammation, characterized by the deposition of inflammatory and progenitor cells, leading to the formation of granulation tissue; proliferation, where resident cells secrete growth factors and cytokines and collagen deposition occurs; and remodeling, where the newly formed tissue matures and collagen strength increases to meet the demands of the body [16] (Figure 2). Tissue repair results in the formation of scar tissue, which is known to be less strong than native tissue and can therefore be more susceptible to reinjury [5].
Figure 2.
The phases of wound healing and the processes involved in each stage. The addition of an ECM graft material shortly after the injury occurs results in a more natural wound healing response than in its absence.
Unlike the tissue repair process that occurs in the absence of a biologic graft material, the constructive tissue remodeling process that can be directed by an ECM graft leads to a more natural healing process in the recipient that is characterized by the deposition of organized connective tissue, rather than just chaotic scar [17]. The ideal ECM graft is characterized by an open matrix structure to allow for rapid cellular ingrowth. It is also characterized by the presence of structural collagens and non-collagen ECM components (such as messenger nucleic acids, growth factors, glycoproteins, proteoglycans, and glycosaminoglycans), which act to facilitate the renewal of natural dynamic reciprocity [18]. When tissue homeostasis is disrupted, the biologic graft plays the role of the recipient’s natural ECM and works to bridge the recipient’s cells across the wound to ultimately restore a homeostatic environment. The restoration of homeostasis following injury in the presence of a biologic graft occurs through the constructive process of tissue remodeling.
Tissue remodeling is a process of tissue restoration that improves upon the scar tissue outcome typically achieved by tissue repair. It can be divided into three separate phases: 1) Cell recruitment; 2) Tissue renewal; and 3) Tissue reinforcement.
During cell recruitment, the remodeling process starts when the body’s inflammatory and progenitor cells populate the biologic graft and release cytokines and growth factors that bind to the graft and recruit collagen-secreting fibroblasts [18, 19]. In this phase, the graft primarily acts as a scaffold material to support the population of the open ECM structure by the patient’s own cells.
As remodeling progresses, the patient’s macrophages and fibroblasts in the newly populated matrix work together with matrix-bound signaling factors to renew the tissue through the complementary processes of phagocytosis, collagen deposition, and angiogenesis. In this phase, the biologic graft is gradually replaced by the patient’s own tissue and cells [18, 19].
Over the medium to long term, the resident fibroblasts secrete cytokines and growth factors to signal reinforcement of the deposited tissue through the processes of additional collagen deposition and maturation, resulting in a strong, repaired tissue [10, 20, 21, 22]. In this phase, the biologic graft is no longer needed as the patient’s own collagen has gradually matured into a stable structure that has long-term strength but is entirely the patient’s own [20, 21, 22]. The resulting tissue structure is mature, organized and strong, and can withstand (and is even driven by) the natural physiological forces that it encounters [17, 23].
A biologic graft with the correct composition and three-dimensional architecture directs the patient’s body to replace itself – to completely remodel – rather than to heal through a tissue repair process that results in chaotic, weak, and ineffective scar tissue formation [20, 21, 22]. By providing the correct cues to help the body restore itself, the graft provides both an essential temporary structure and the local tissue instructions to lead the patient to achieve a natural repair (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Mechanisms of action for ECM-directed tissue remodeling. The ECM graft initially provides for a direct mechanical tissue repair that has inherent strength. It also provides a matrix structure for the support, attachment, and orientation of cells. The ECM graft has the ability, through its inherent composition, to modulate the local wound environment to have a direct effect on endogenous growth factors and cytokines. The graft can provide signals of its own, which may include growth factors, binding sequences on extracellular matrix proteins, or other endogenous factors provided by the recipient. Signals control and modify cells and other elements. Together the ECM and signals stimulate cell division, proliferation, growth, and integration of the ECM graft with the recipient.
4. Mechanisms of action for ECM-directed tissue remodeling
An ECM-based biologic graft that has been optimally processed to harness the tissue remodeling properties of nature acts more than just a mechanical tissue reinforcement device. While mechanical reinforcement is still the primary mechanism of action for these materials, additional mechanisms of action include: providing a porous tissue scaffold matrix structure to allow for fibroblast infiltration and population; altering the surrounding wound environment by modulating local cytokine activity; and, optimally, acting as a reservoir for growth factors and signaling molecules that can be used by the patient as tissue renewal and reinforcement progress (Table 2).
Table 2.
Mechanisms of action for different types of implantable graft materials. While all implantable materials serve a mechanical function to reinforce soft tissue, synthetic and biosynthetic materials fail to provide a matrix structure and complex composition that is designed to positively interact with the wound healing environment and lead to constructive tissue remodeling that is seen with naturally complex ECM biologic graft materials.
4.1 Mechanical reinforcement during surgical repair
Poor wound healing after trauma, surgery, or due to chronic disease is the consequence of a poorly regulated tissue repair response that directly effects the processes of inflammation, angiogenesis, matrix deposition, and cell recruitment [24]. As a result, tissue healing typically takes a significant time to achieve in patients with advanced age or with comorbidities. Prolonged mechanical reinforcement is often needed to get proper approximation of the wound edges and to bolster the anatomy until tissue ingrowth is sufficient to achieve the required strength to maintain tissue integrity. This mechanical reinforcement mechanism is the primary (and often only) means by which most implantable devices achieve their effect. For example, synthetic mesh materials, such as polypropylene or polytetrafluoroethylene, derive their reinforcement benefit from the strength of their fibers at implant but never completely integrate with the patient’s tissues over time [25]. Synthetic materials are often recognized as foreign by the body – as a material that needs to be removed or expunged [26]. When this occurs, an inflammatory response is initiated by the patient’s immune system, setting up a chronic inflammatory state that never resolves and can result in chronic pain and fibrosis [26].
For a well-designed biologic ECM graft, the mechanical means of tissue support remains its primary mechanism of action. The ECM graft must allow the passage of suture and reinforce the area of weakness under significant pull-out force. It must also provide tensile strength and mechanical compliance commensurate with the surrounding tissues. Unlike synthetic or even many biosynthetic materials, such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB), ECM-based biologic devices are not meant to be static implants but are designed to fully integrate with the patient over time. Their mechanical properties change after implant as they undergo interaction with the patient’s cells, tissues, and the local wound environment [27] and must therefore be designed to retain their mechanical integrity even while actively participating in the process of tissue renewal. The dynamic process of tissue remodeling is a balance of ECM graft degradation with the formation of new patient-derived collagen, meaning that an ECM graft must be designed with known strength requirements and degradation rates to keep the repair intact during all phases of tissue remodeling: 1) Cell recruitment; 2) Tissue renewal; and 3) Tissue reinforcement (Figure 4) [20, 28].
Figure 4.
ECM-based graft materials must be designed to withstand physiologic forces while undergoing the active processes of tissue remodeling and tissue integration following implant. The overall repair strength must be maintained well above the normal tissue strength required to keep the repair intact while facilitating cell recruitment, tissue renewal, and tissue reinforcement.
4.2 Providing a tissue scaffold matrix structure
When foreign materials are implanted into the body, they are quickly recognized by the immune system as something either to rapidly destroy or to compartmentalize [29]. The body accomplishes these activities by secreting inflammatory enzymes and pH modifiers or by recruiting an army of macrophages to form a scarified wall around the implant. While permanent synthetic materials and crosslinked biologic grafts are typically walled off by the recipient because they are resistant to degradation [30], biosynthetic matrices are often hydrolyzed or otherwise degraded over time without allowing complete tissue integration and permanent reinforcement to occur [31].
Purified biologic ECM grafts typically contain few of the naturally occurring macromolecules of the complex ECM because they have been deconstructed with chemicals and then “purified” into single-component constructs or reconstituted into single-component implants. While this type of graft material can still act as a matrix structure to support cell ingrowth, the lack of complex signaling macromolecules from the natural ECM and its susceptibility to matrix-degrading enzymes, such as collagenases, limits its ability to actively promote fibroblast and endothelial cell proliferation and secretion of new ECM [32, 33].
Non-crosslinked biologic ECM grafts that have been processed to retain the composition and architecture of healthy ECM are neither encapsulated nor degraded upon implant [7]. Instead, they contain the complex information of the natural ECM that makes them an ideal scaffold environment upon which cells can move and proliferate, allowing for colonization of fibroblasts and endothelial cells, the eventual secretion of growth factors, and the deposition of a collagen matrix [10]. The porous nature of the ECM scaffold provides not only the structure and interstices for ingrowth but also the recognition and binding sites that facilitate cellular attachment and migration [10]. During the process of tissue renewal, the porous matrix structure of the non-crosslinked ECM graft allows for angiogenesis and ultimately the removal of byproducts of cellular metabolism, facilitating the process of tissue remodeling that is essential to obtaining a long-lasting, strong, and permanent repair [10, 34].
4.3 Modulating endogenous cytokine activity
The local wound environment is characterized by a dynamic milieu of signaling factors designed to shepherd an injury through the four phases of wound healing and to ultimately restore tissue strength and homeostasis [16]. In most instances this occurs in a well-defined series of events leading to complete tissue restoration that is modulated directly by the local ECM. Because the ECM is laden with macromolecules that explicitly bind cytokines and alter their half-lives, bioactivities, and concentrations, the presence of a healthy ECM in the local wound environment is essential for tissue remodeling to occur. When the ECM is corrupt, it cannot support tissue restoration and chronic inflammation results [35].
Chronic, non-healing wounds are characterized by increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, increased levels of MMPs, and low levels of growth factors known to stimulate wound closure [36, 37]. They are highly inflamed and proteolytic, have become stalled in the inflammation stage of wound healing, and cannot support fibroblast function [38]. In cases such as this, replacing the damaged ECM with a healthy ECM-based biologic graft can alter the local wound environment by modulating the endogenous cytokine profile of the injured area and stimulating normal fibroblast and endothelial cell function [39].
This tertiary mechanism of action for ECM-directed tissue remodeling, endogenous cytokine modulation, harnesses the natural structure and composition of the ECM to direct tissue remodeling down a productive pathway [37]. Unlike synthetic and biosynthetic materials that contain no ECM-binding sites and cannot directly influence the composition of the natural wound environment; unlike crosslinked ECM biologic graft materials which have had their binding sites obscured by the crosslinking process; and unlike purified biologic ECM grafts that are limited in the types of cytokines that can interact with them; well-designed, non-crosslinked, biologic ECM graft materials have been shown to positively alter the local environment and lead to constructive tissue remodeling and wound healing [10, 37, 39, 40].
4.4 Acting as a cytokine reservoir
Matrix biologists have long regarded the ECM as a repository for latent bioactivity in the form of growth factors, cytokines, and more recently, messenger nucleic acid depots. Even in their dehydrated state, these factors retain their potency and structure because they are tightly bound to proteins that protect them from degradation [41, 42]. Also, recently, science has uncovered the remarkable ability for these embedded matrix molecules to modulate cellular activity across species and after long periods of dormancy. Porcine growth factors can activate human cells, and vice-versa, with predictable potency and expected effects, even after dehydration and sterilization [41, 42]. It is this growth factor and cytokine repository that separates a complex biologic ECM graft from other types of non-instructional implant materials.
After implantation, a complex biologic ECM graft plays the role of the innate ECM, interacting with the patient’s cells through dynamic reciprocity to direct tissue repair down a positive, active state of wound healing and toward an organized repair that resembles native tissue structure and architecture rather than scar tissue. When its role has been fully realized, an ECM graft becomes completely replaced by patient tissue and removed from the body through the normal process of matrix turnover, leaving no graft components behind [43]. In many ways it is the repository of latent bioactivity that allows the well-designed ECM graft to stimulate transformation of itself, by the patient’s cells, into a new, complex and complete, functional tissue.
5. Summary: extracellular matrix past, present, and future
ECM graft materials have been used surgically for decades, but historically they have been enzymatically stripped of their biological information, chemically cross-linked to enhance their durability (while quite effectively silencing their biological activity), or otherwise adulterated in such a way as to act much more like synthetic mesh than a truly instructive matrix [34, 44]. A more modern approach to ECM graft design can capitalize on the inherent complexity and instructiveness of natural ECM to build an implant with multi-factorial mechanisms of action that harmonize with healing, serve as a surrogate ECM in the wound, and stimulate the processes of dynamic reciprocity toward renewed homeostasis. Such an implant can guide the patient’s cells through a series of cellular recruitment, renewal of lost matrix structures, and reinforcement of tissue strength while undergoing complete turnover and disappearance of the original implant.
The current state of the art for ECM grafts has been described. These materials have shown remarkable success in a wide variety of clinical applications [3, 7]. However, there is still room for improvement. Naturally occurring biologic ECM graft materials can be enhanced or fortified to accelerate some of these biological functions, stimulate cellular phenotype selection, or even create inherent antimicrobial activities that will better withstand infection. Ultimately, the goal of such “next generation” implants must be one of synergizing with natural biology and improving upon the complex interaction of the graft with the patient to allow tissue repair, remodeling, and regenerative processes to proceed unhindered.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Susan Erb and Samantha Stevenson for their review and edits of the final manuscript.
Conflict of interest
Jason P. Hodde and Michael C. Hiles are employees of Cook Biotech Incorporated and hold multiple patents covering ECM-based biomaterials.
\n',keywords:"wound healing, extracellular matrix, bioactivity, tissue remodeling, xenograft",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75828.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75828.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75828",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75828",totalDownloads:208,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 24th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 1st 2021",datePrePublished:"March 20th 2021",datePublished:"October 27th 2021",dateFinished:"March 20th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Wound healing is a complex natural process that involves the recruitment of cells, the renewal of tissue composition, and the reinforcement of structural tissue architecture. Following ischemic injury or chronic disease, wound healing is delayed, and can often result in chronic inflammation or permanent morbidity. Tissue engineering strategies to harness the wound healing process include the use of naturally derived extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds with inherent bioactivity to both passively facilitate and actively direct healing toward a successful resolution. As the body heals, the properly designed ECM scaffold is gradually remodeled and integrated into the body, leaving behind organized tissue that provides long-term strength. Herein we explain the interplay of the ECM (i.e., its complex composition and bioactivity) with the cells of the body throughout the process of tissue remodeling, thus explaining how even a tissue-engineered xenograft material can direct the body to restore itself.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75828",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75828",signatures:"Jason P. Hodde and Michael C. 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Plast Reconstr Surg. 2020;145:1288-1291. DOI: 10.1097/PRS.0000000000006767'},{id:"B3",body:'Cramer MC, Badylak SF. Extracellular matrix-based biomaterials and their influence upon cell behavior. Ann Biomed Eng. 2020;48:2132-2153. DOI: 10.1007/s10439-019-02408-9'},{id:"B4",body:'Sandusky GE, Badylak SF, Morff RJ, Johnson WD, Lantz GC. Histologic findings after in vivo placement of small intestinal submucosal vascular grafts and saphenous vein grafts in the carotid artery in dogs. Am J Pathol. 1992;140:317-324'},{id:"B5",body:'Liang R, Woo SL, Takakura Y, Moon DK, Jia F, Abramowitch SD. Long-term effects of porcine small intestine submucosa on the healing of medial collateral ligament: A functional tissue engineering study. J Orthop Res. 2006;24:811-819. DOI: 10.1002/jor.20080'},{id:"B6",body:'Badylak SF. The extracellular matrix as a biologic scaffold material. Biomaterials. 2007;28:3587-3593. DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.04.043'},{id:"B7",body:'Hodde JP. Use of small intestinal submucosa dECM in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. In: Yamaoka T, Hoshiba T, editors. Decellularized Extracellular Matrix: Characterization, Fabrication and Applications. London, England: The Royal Society of Chemistry; 2020. p. 181-198. DOI: 10.1039/9781788015998'},{id:"B8",body:'Ho KL, Witte VMN, Bird ET. 8-ply small intestinal submucosa tension-free sling: Spectrum of postoperative inflammation. J Urol. 2004;171:268-271. DOI: 10.1097/01.ju.0000098680.60020.32'},{id:"B9",body:'Soler JA, Gidwani S, Curtis MJ. Early complications from the use of porcine dermal collagen implants (Permacol) as bridging constructs in the repair of massive rotator cuff tears. A report of 4 cases. Acta Orthop Belg. 2007;73:432-436'},{id:"B10",body:'Nihsen ES, Johnson CE, Hiles MC. Bioactivity of small intestinal submucosa and oxidized regenerated cellulose/collagen. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2008;21:479-486. DOI: 10.1097/01.ASW.0000323561.14144.19'},{id:"B11",body:'Nguyen KP, Zotos V, Hsueh EC. Long-term outcome of biologic graft: A case report. J Med Case Rep. 2014;8:255. DOI: 10.1186/1752-1947-8-255'},{id:"B12",body:'Kular JK, Basu S, Sharma RI. The extracellular matrix: Structure, composition, age-related differences, tools for analysis and applications for tissue engineering. J Tissue Eng. 2014;5:2041731414557112. DOI: 10.1177/2041731414557112'},{id:"B13",body:'Schultz GS, Davidson JM, Kirsner RS, Bornstein P, Herman IM. Dynamic reciprocity in the wound microenvironment. Wound Rep Regen. 2011;19:134-148. DOI: 10.1111/j.1524-475X.2011.00673.x'},{id:"B14",body:'Zhu M, Li W, Dong X, Yuan X, Midgley AC, Chang H, Wang Y, Wang H, Wang K, Ma PX, Wang H, Kong D. In vivo engineered extracellular matrix scaffolds with instructive niches for oriented tissue regeneration. Nat Commun. 2019;10:4620. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12545-3'},{id:"B15",body:'Hodde J, Hiles M. Transforming surgery through biomaterial template technology. Br J Hosp Med (Lond). 2016;77:162-166. DOI: 10.12968/hmed.2016.77.3.162'},{id:"B16",body:'Lin PH, Sermersheim M, Li H, Lee PHU, Steinberg SM, Ma J. Zinc in wound healing modulation. Nutrients. 2017;10:16. DOI: 10.3390/nu10010016'},{id:"B17",body:'Woo SL, Takakura Y, Liang R, Jia F, Moon DK. Treatment with bioscaffold enhances the fibril morphology and the collagen composition of healing medial collateral ligament in rabbits. Tissue Eng. 2006;12:159-166. DOI: 10.1089/ten.2006.12.159'},{id:"B18",body:'Hodde JP. Extracellular matrix as a bioactive material for soft tissue reconstruction. ANZ J Surg. 2006;76:1096-1100. DOI: 10.1111/j.1445-2197.2006.03948.x'},{id:"B19",body:'Badylak SF, Park K, Peppas N, McCabe G, Yoder M. Marrow-derived cells populate scaffolds composed of xenogeneic extracellular matrix. Exp Hematol. 2001;29:1310-1318. DOI: 10.1016/s0301-472x(01)00729-9'},{id:"B20",body:'Badylak S, Kokini K, Tullius B, Whitson B. Strength over time of a resorbable bioscaffold for body wall repair in a dog model. J Surg Res. 2001;99:282-287. DOI: 10.1006/jsre.2001.6176'},{id:"B21",body:'Franklin ME Jr, Trevino JM, Portillo G, Vela I, Glass JL, Gonzalez JJ. The use of porcine small intestinal submucosa as a prosthetic material for laparoscopic hernia repair in infected and potentially contaminated field: a long term follow-up. Surg Endosc. 2008;22:1941-1946. DOI: 10.1007/s00464-008-0005-y'},{id:"B22",body:'Stelly M, Stelly TC. Histology of CorMatrix bioscaffold 5 years after pericardial closure. Ann Thorac Surg. 2013;96:e127-e129. DOI: 10.1016/j.athoracsur.2013.06.114'},{id:"B23",body:'Hodde JP, Badylak SF, Shelbourne KD. The effect of range of motion on remodeling of small intestinal submucosa (SIS) when used as an Achilles tendon repair material in the rabbit. Tissue Eng. 1997;3:27-37'},{id:"B24",body:'Eming SA, Martin P, Tomic-Canic M. Wound repair and regeneration: mechanisms, signaling, and translation. Sci Transl Med. 2014;6:265sr6. DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3009337'},{id:"B25",body:'Korzinskas T, Jung O, Smeets R, Stojanovic S, Najman S, Glenske K, Hahn M, Wenisch S, Schnettler R, Barbeck M. In vivo analysis of the biocompatibility and macrophage response of a non-resorbable PTFE membrane for guided bone regeneration. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19:2952. DOI: 10.3390/ijms19102952'},{id:"B26",body:'Farmer ZL, Domínguez-Robles J, Mancinelli C, Larrañeta E, Lamprou DA. Urogynecological surgical mesh implants: New trends in materials, manufacturing and therapeutic approaches. Int J Pharm. 2020;585:119512. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119512'},{id:"B27",body:'Harth KC, Blatnik JA, Anderson JM, Jacobs MR, Zeinali F, Rosen MJ. Effect of surgical wound classification on biologic graft performance in complex hernia repair: an experimental study. Surgery. 2013;153:481-492. DOI: 10.1016/j.surg.2012.08.064'},{id:"B28",body:'Ayubi FS, Armstrong PJ, Mattia MS, Parker DM. Abdominal wall hernia repair: a comparison of Permacol and Surgisis grafts in a rat hernia model. Hernia. 2008;12:373-378. DOI: 10.1007/s10029-008-0359-z'},{id:"B29",body:'Jordan SW, Fligor JE, Janes LE, Dumanian GA. Implant porosity and the foreign body response. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2018;141:103e-112e. DOI: 10.1097/PRS.0000000000003930'},{id:"B30",body:'Todros S, Pavan PG, Natali AN. Synthetic surgical meshes used in abdominal wall surgery: Part I-materials and structural conformation. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater. 2017;105:689-699. DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.33586'},{id:"B31",body:'Fatkhudinov T, Tsedik L, Arutyunyan I, Lokhonina A, Makarov A, Korshunov A, Elchaninov A, Kananykhina E, Vasyukova O, Usman N, Uvarova E, Chuprynin V, Eremina I, Degtyarev D, Sukhikh G. Evaluation of resorbable polydioxanone and polyglycolic acid meshes in a rat model of ventral hernia repair. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater. 2019;107:652-663. DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.34158'},{id:"B32",body:'Capella-Monsonís H, Tilbury MA, Wall JG, Zeugolis DI. Porcine mesothelium matrix as a biomaterial for wound healing applications. Mater Today Bio. 2020;7:100057. DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2020.100057'},{id:"B33",body:'Sun WQ, Xu H, Sandor M, Lombardi J. Process-induced extracellular matrix alterations affect the mechanisms of soft tissue repair and regeneration. J Tissue Eng. 2013;4:2041731413505305. DOI: 10.1177/2041731413505305'},{id:"B34",body:'Badylak S, Kokini K, Tullius B, Simmons-Byrd A, Morff R. Morphologic study of small intestinal submucosa as a body wall repair device. J Surg Res. 2002;103:190-202. DOI: 10.1006/jsre.2001.6349'},{id:"B35",body:'Clark RA. Fibrin and wound healing. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001;936:355-367. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb03522.x'},{id:"B36",body:'Lazaro JL, Izzo V, Meaume S, Davies AH, Lobmann R, Uccioli L. Elevated levels of matrix metalloproteinases and chronic wound healing: an updated review of clinical evidence. J Wound Care. 2016;25:277-287. DOI: 10.12968/jowc.2016.25.5.277'},{id:"B37",body:'Hodde JP, Hiles MC, Metzger DW. Characterization of the local wound environment following treatment of chronic leg ulcers with SIS wound matrix. J Tissue Viability. 2020;29:42-47. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtv.2019.12.003'},{id:"B38",body:'Przekora A. A concise review on tissue engineered artificial skin grafts for chronic wound treatment: Can we reconstruct functional skin tissue in vitro? Cells. 2020;9:1622. DOI: 10.3390/cells9071622'},{id:"B39",body:'Nihsen ES, Zopf DA, Ernst DM, Janis AD, Hiles MC, Johnson C. Absorption of bioactive molecules into OASIS Wound Matrix. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2007;20:541-548. DOI: 10.1097/01.ASW.0000294756.97425.c9'},{id:"B40",body:'Witherel CE, Graney PL, Freytes DO, Weingarten MS, Spiller KL. Response of human macrophages to wound matrices in vitro. Wound Repair Regen. 2016;24:514-524. DOI: 10.1111/wrr.12423'},{id:"B41",body:'Hodde JP, Ernst DMJ, Hiles MC. An investigation of the long-term bioactivity of endogenous growth factor in Oasis Wound Matrix. J Wound Care. 2005;14:23-25. DOI: 10.12968/jowc.2005.14.1.26721'},{id:"B42",body:'McDevitt CA, Wildey GM, Cutrone RM. Transforming growth factor-b1 in a sterilized tissue derived from the pig small intestine submucosa. J Biomed Mater Res. 2003;67A:637-640. DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.10144'},{id:"B43",body:'Record RD, Hillegonds D, Simmons C, Tullius R, Rickey FA, Elmore D, Badylak SF. In vivo degradation of 14C-labeled small intestinal submucosa (SIS) when used for urinary bladder repair. Biomaterials. 2001;22:2653-2659. DOI: 10.1016/s0142-9612(01)00007-2'},{id:"B44",body:'De Silva GS, Krpata DM, Gao Y, Criss CN, Anderson JM, Soltanian HT, Rosen MJ, Novitsky YW. Lack of identifiable biologic behavior in a series of porcine mesh explants. Surgery. 2014;156:183-189. DOI: 10.1016/j.surg.2014.03.011'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jason P. Hodde",address:"jason.hodde@cookbiotech.com",affiliation:'
Cook Biotech Incorporated, West Lafayette, IN, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Michael C. Hiles",address:null,affiliation:'
Cook Biotech Incorporated, West Lafayette, IN, USA
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Nowadays, extensive research on silver nanoparticles is going on due to their wide applicability in different fields. Silver nanoparticles possess excellent anticancer as well as antimicrobial efficacy (hence found major and wide applications as antimicrobial, wound healing, antidiarrheal, and antifungal agents). A huge and advanced perspective of silver nanoparticles is found in environmental hygiene and sterilization due to their magnificent disinfectant properties. The other major applications of silver nanoparticles include diagnostic (as biological tags in biosensors, assays, and quantitative detection), conductive (in conductive inks, pastes, and fillers), optical (metal-enhanced fluorescence and surface-enhanced Raman scattering), and household (pesticides and wastewater treatment) applications. The present review consists of an exhaustive detail about the biological and physical applications of silver nanoparticles along with the analysis of historical evolution, the present scenario, and possible future outcomes.",signatures:"Atamjit Singh and Kirandeep Kaur",authors:[{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",surname:"Singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",email:"atampanesar@yahoo.com"},{id:"240090",title:"Ms.",name:"Kirandeep",surname:"Kaur",fullName:"Kirandeep Kaur",slug:"kirandeep-kaur",email:"kaurkirandeep219@gmail.com"}],book:{id:"9109",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{id:"78589",title:"Mechanistic Insights of Drug Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus with Special Reference to Newer Antibiotics",slug:"mechanistic-insights-of-drug-resistance-in-em-staphylococcus-aureus-em-with-special-reference-to-new",abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is the most ubiquitous microorganism in both environment as well as animals and exists as commensal and pathogenic bacterium. In past few years it has been emerged as a superbug causing serious burden on healthcare system. This bacterium has been found to be the most resistant one toward most of the antibiotics due to its rapid structural and genetic modifications. This chapter will shed light on various types of molecular mechanisms responsible for resistance of Staphylococcus aureus showcasing how it has been emerged as a superbug. Moreover, the recent approaches which include exploring of different drug targets keeping in view the structural and functional behavior of the Staphylococcus aureus has also been discussed.",signatures:"Atamjit Singh, Kirandeep Kaur, Pallvi Mohana, Avneet Kaur, Komalpreet Kaur, Shilpa Heer, Saroj Arora, Neena Bedi and Preet Mohinder Singh Bedi",authors:[{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",surname:"Singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",email:"atampanesar@yahoo.com"},{id:"240090",title:"Ms.",name:"Kirandeep",surname:"Kaur",fullName:"Kirandeep Kaur",slug:"kirandeep-kaur",email:"kaurkirandeep219@gmail.com"},{id:"344857",title:"Ms.",name:"Shilpa",surname:"Heer",fullName:"Shilpa Heer",slug:"shilpa-heer",email:"shilpaheer51@gmail.com"},{id:"351125",title:"Ms.",name:"Komalpreet",surname:"Kaur",fullName:"Komalpreet Kaur",slug:"komalpreet-kaur",email:"gillkomal116@gmail.com"},{id:"351131",title:"Mr.",name:"Preet Mohinder Singh",surname:"Bedi",fullName:"Preet Mohinder Singh 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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
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In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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The IntechOpen timeline
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2004
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Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
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Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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2005
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
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2008
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Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
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2009
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Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
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2010
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Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
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IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
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2011
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
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IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
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IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
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IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
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Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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2005
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
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2008
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Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
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2009
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Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
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2010
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Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
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IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
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2011
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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Biernat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5087.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:12,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"67131",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84995",title:"Different Pretreatment Methods of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Use in Biofuel Production",slug:"different-pretreatment-methods-of-lignocellulosic-biomass-for-use-in-biofuel-production",totalDownloads:2114,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:"Lignocellulosic biomasses are carbon neutral and abundantly available renewable bioresource material available on earth. However, the main problem that hinders its frequent use is the tight bonding within its constituents that include cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The selection of pretreatment process depends exclusively on the application. Various pretreatment processes are primarily developed and utilized in effective separation of these interlinked components to take maximum benefit from the constitutes of the lignocellulosic biomasses especially for the production of biofuel. The major pretreatment methods include physical, chemical, thermophysical, thermochemical, and biological approaches. Various aspects of these different pretreatment approaches are discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Muhammad Nauman Aftab, Irfana Iqbal, Fatima Riaz, Ahmet Karadag and Meisam Tabatabaei",authors:null},{id:"60543",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75534",title:"Review of Catalytic Transesterification Methods for Biodiesel Production",slug:"review-of-catalytic-transesterification-methods-for-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:3489,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:"Attempts for improving the synthesis procedure of catalysts for fatty acid methyl ester production have been progressing for a considerable length of time. Biodiesel lessens net carbon dioxide emissions up to 78% with reference to conventional fuel. That is the reason for the improvement of new and operative solid catalysts necessary for inexhaustible and efficient fuel production. Homogenous base catalysts for transesterification is risky in light of the fact that its produces soap as byproduct, which makes difficult issues like product separation and not temperate for industrial application. In comparison, heterogeneous process gives higher quality FAME which can be effectively isolated and facilitate costly refining operations that are not required. A focus of this review article is to study and compare various biodiesel synthesis techniques that are being researched. The catalytic strength of numerous heterogeneous solid catalysts (acid and base), specially earth and transition metal oxides were also appraised. It was observed that catalytic proficiency relied upon a few factors, for example, specific surface area, pore size, volume and active site concentration at catalyst surface. This review article will give assistance in assortment of appropriate catalysts and the ideal conditions for biodiesel generation.",book:{id:"6784",slug:"biofuels-state-of-development",title:"Biofuels",fullTitle:"Biofuels - State of Development"},signatures:"Sadia Nasreen, Muhammad Nafees, Liaqat Ali Qureshi, Muhammad\nShahbaz Asad, Ali Sadiq and Syed Danial Ali",authors:[{id:"216103",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",middleName:null,surname:"Nasreen",slug:"sadia-nasreen",fullName:"Sadia Nasreen"},{id:"216918",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Nafees",slug:"muhammad-nafees",fullName:"Muhammad Nafees"},{id:"228115",title:"Prof.",name:"Liaqat",middleName:null,surname:"Qurashi",slug:"liaqat-qurashi",fullName:"Liaqat Qurashi"}]},{id:"66095",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83569",title:"Agro-Industrial Waste Revalorization: The Growing Biorefinery",slug:"agro-industrial-waste-revalorization-the-growing-biorefinery",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Agro-industrial residues have been the spotlight of different researches worldwide, due to some of their constituents being raw material to generate a diversified variety of industrial products. Nowadays, this situation keeps prevailing and will increase continuously in the future. In the agroindustry, diverse biomasses are subjected to distinct unit processes for providing value to different waste materials from agriculture, food processing, and alcoholic industries. In this chapter, we reported an updated survey of different renewable organic materials that including agricultural wastes can be converted to bioenergy. Similarly, these wastes encrypt different bioactive compounds with an excellent nutraceutical functions and with high adding value. In addition, biocomposites can be elaborated using fibers from wastes with a wide variety of applications in the automotive and packaging industry. Vinasses derived from tequila industry in Mexico represent a lot of potential to extract biocompounds, and we propose a process to obtain them. A perspective of market trend is mentioned in this chapter for compounds derived from agro-industrial wastes. Adding value to those agro-industrial wastes can provide the reduction of negative impact emission, discharge, or disposal, solves an environmental problem, and generates additional income.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Flora Beltrán-Ramírez, Domancar Orona-Tamayo, Ivette Cornejo-Corona, José Luz Nicacio González-Cervantes, José de Jesús Esparza-Claudio and Elizabeth Quintana-Rodríguez",authors:null},{id:"59749",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75111",title:"Prospective Biodegradable Plastics from Biomass Conversion Processes",slug:"prospective-biodegradable-plastics-from-biomass-conversion-processes",totalDownloads:2297,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"The biomass energy source has been a promising renewable alternative for fossil fuels and their inevitable environmental impacts on Earth’s life, from which the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the environment pollution followed by consequent ecosystem imbalance are major concerns. Biofuels and bioplastics are well-known examples of renewable products obtained from biomass that has shown increasing potential to succeed the conventional fuels and plastics. However, biofuels and especially bioplastics have faced their main hindrance in their uncompetitive costs. Furthermore, the “drop-in” plastics are the market leaders, which reduce the carbon footprint but continue to state the biodegradability concern attributed to most of plastic products, the packaging sector. This chapter outlines the common features and feedstocks of biofuels and bioplastics aiming to support their associated production set toward the bio-based and biodegradable poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) as promising models with fast-growing production capacity forecasted for the next years and biodegradable solution for short-lived and disposable plastic materials.",book:{id:"6784",slug:"biofuels-state-of-development",title:"Biofuels",fullTitle:"Biofuels - State of Development"},signatures:"Fabrício C. de Paula, Carolina B.C. de Paula and Jonas Contiero",authors:[{id:"193454",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonas",middleName:null,surname:"Contiero",slug:"jonas-contiero",fullName:"Jonas Contiero"},{id:"220984",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrício",middleName:null,surname:"Coutinho De Paula",slug:"fabricio-coutinho-de-paula",fullName:"Fabrício Coutinho De Paula"},{id:"222270",title:"BSc.",name:"Carolina",middleName:null,surname:"Bilia Chimello De Paula",slug:"carolina-bilia-chimello-de-paula",fullName:"Carolina Bilia Chimello De Paula"}]},{id:"67397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86701",title:"Lignocellulosic Ethanol: Technology and Economics",slug:"lignocellulosic-ethanol-technology-and-economics",totalDownloads:1659,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"The accelerated global warming calls for fast development of solutions to curb excessive Greenhouse gas emission. Like most of other forms of renewable energy, lignocellulosic ethanol can help the human beings mitigate the climate deterioration and gain independence from fossil fuels. This chapter gives a survey of bioethanol production in the U.S. and world, describes classifications of three generations of bioethanol, provides an overview of all the stages of currently adopted process for the second-generation bioethanol production, briefs on new development on enzymes for hydrolysis and fermentation and new processes for ethanol generation, summarizes on recent life-cycle assessments of greenhouse gas emission and techno-economic evaluation of ethanol production. To sustain the infant cellulosic ethanol industry, substantial improvement in the following areas need to happen in a timely manner: (1) Effective and low-cost biomass pretreatment method, (2) efficient fermentation of all sugars released during the pretreatment and hydrolysis steps, (3) development of enzymes that tolerate various inhibitors including monosaccharides (mainly glucose) and ethanol, and (4) heat-tolerant fermentation microbes and enzymes for efficient simultaneous saccharification and fermentation. Genetic engineering is expected to play a key role in addressing most of the issues in these areas.",book:{id:"7828",slug:"alcohol-fuels-current-technologies-and-future-prospect",title:"Alcohol Fuels",fullTitle:"Alcohol Fuels - Current Technologies and Future Prospect"},signatures:"Cheng Zhang",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66307",title:"Bio-hydrogen and Methane Production from Lignocellulosic Materials",slug:"bio-hydrogen-and-methane-production-from-lignocellulosic-materials",totalDownloads:2904,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This chapter covers the information on bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic materials and the factors affecting bio-hydrogen production, both dark- and photo-fermentation, and methane production are addressed. Last but not least, the processes for bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials are discussed.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Apilak Salakkam, Pensri Plangklang, Sureewan Sittijunda, Mallika Boonmee Kongkeitkajorn, Siriporn Lunprom and Alissara Reungsang",authors:null},{id:"72179",title:"Production Pathways of Acetic Acid and Its Versatile Applications in the Food Industry",slug:"production-pathways-of-acetic-acid-and-its-versatile-applications-in-the-food-industry",totalDownloads:1591,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Acetic acid is a commodity chemical with the global demand of approximately 15 million tons per year with several applications in the chemical and food industry. The production of acetic acid can be widely categorized into chemical and fermentative routes, with the chemical route being the predominant one in the current industrial practice. In this chapter, we have reviewed the most recent developments in acetic acid production and applications over past two decades, including process intensification and catalysis by keeping the main emphasis on process sustainability. Acetic acid is used in several industrial sectors such as chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, polymer and paints, food and beverages. Furthermore, acetic acid has several applications in food industry and is traditionally known as vinegar. In addition, it is an acidulant, which is used to give a characteristic flavor profile to food. It can be used for microbial decontamination of meat and as a mild descaling agent in the food industry. More recently, acetic acid is reported to be used as an antimicrobial edible food coating agent. The diversified food culture has a significant demand in the development of such kind of innovation and acetic acid can be an efficient solution.",book:{id:"10127",slug:"biotechnological-applications-of-biomass",title:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass",fullTitle:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass"},signatures:"Gunjan Deshmukh and Haresh Manyar",authors:[{id:"316193",title:"Dr.",name:"Haresh",middleName:null,surname:"Manyar",slug:"haresh-manyar",fullName:"Haresh Manyar"},{id:"316199",title:"Dr.",name:"Gunjan",middleName:null,surname:"Deshmukh",slug:"gunjan-deshmukh",fullName:"Gunjan Deshmukh"}]},{id:"60944",title:"Hydrogen Generation by Water Electrolysis",slug:"hydrogen-generation-by-water-electrolysis",totalDownloads:3899,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Hydrogen is a promising energy vector for the future. Among the different methods of its production, the electrolysis of water has attracted great attention because it is a sustainable and renewable chemical technology. Thus, hydrogen represents a suitable energy vector for the storage of intermittent energies. This chapter is devoted to the hydrogen generation by water electrolysis as an important part of both existing and emerging industrial electrochemical processes. It aims to give an insight into the theoretical foundations of the operating principles of different types of electrolyzers. Also, it is developed in this chapter, the thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of the reactions taking place at the electrodes of water electrolysis. The evolution reaction of hydrogen has a rapid kinetics, and thus, the polarization of the cathode is not critical. On the other hand, the evolution reaction of oxygen is characterized by a very slow kinetics and is thus responsible for most of the overvoltage in the electrolysis of water. The most important technologies of water electrolysis are addressed: alkaline electrolysis, proton exchange membrane electrolysis, and solid oxide high-temperature electrolysis.",book:{id:"6665",slug:"advances-in-hydrogen-generation-technologies",title:"Advances In Hydrogen Generation Technologies",fullTitle:"Advances In Hydrogen Generation Technologies"},signatures:"Youssef Naimi and Amal Antar",authors:[{id:"232378",title:"Prof.",name:"Youssef",middleName:null,surname:"Naimi",slug:"youssef-naimi",fullName:"Youssef Naimi"},{id:"236905",title:"Mrs.",name:"Amal",middleName:null,surname:"Antar",slug:"amal-antar",fullName:"Amal Antar"}]},{id:"74066",title:"Comparative Analysis of Bioethanol Production from Different Potential Biomass Sources in the Philippines",slug:"comparative-analysis-of-bioethanol-production-from-different-potential-biomass-sources-in-the-philip",totalDownloads:676,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"To pursue the continuous implementation of the bioethanol blending mandate by the Philippine Biofuels Law, part of the roadmap of the National Biofuels Board (NBB) through the Department of Energy (DOE) is to find a sustainable feedstock. This is due to the deficit in locally produced bioethanol as there is an insufficient supply of currently used feedstock, sugarcane. There are several biomasses available in the country with components viable for ethanol fermentation. Aside from sugarcane, these include sweet sorghum and cassava (first-generation), rice straw and corn stover (second-generation), and macroalgae (third-generation). Among which, sweet sorghum can be considered as the best complementary feedstock to sugarcane as its syrup can be directly fermented to produce bioethanol. Considering its maximum bioethanol potential yield of 100 L/ton for two croppings annually, a comparably low production cost of PhP 36.00/L bioethanol was estimated, competitive enough with the PhP33.43/L bioethanol from sugarcane. Aside from finding a promising feedstock, the bioethanol production volume in the country must be increased to meet the demand through either working on the optimum processing conditions to increase the capacity utilization from the current 77.9% or through installation of additional distilleries.",book:{id:"10379",slug:"bioethanol-technologies",title:"Bioethanol Technologies",fullTitle:"Bioethanol Technologies"},signatures:"Kristel M. Gatdula, Rex B. Demafelis and Butch G. Bataller",authors:[{id:"291875",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Kristel",middleName:"Manzanero",surname:"Gatdula",slug:"kristel-gatdula",fullName:"Kristel Gatdula"},{id:"328349",title:"Dr.",name:"Butch",middleName:null,surname:"Bataller",slug:"butch-bataller",fullName:"Butch Bataller"},{id:"328350",title:"Dr.",name:"Rex",middleName:null,surname:"Demafelis",slug:"rex-demafelis",fullName:"Rex Demafelis"}]},{id:"73832",title:"Biomass Conversion Technologies for Bioenergy Generation: An Introduction",slug:"biomass-conversion-technologies-for-bioenergy-generation-an-introduction",totalDownloads:950,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Over the last century, there has been increasing debate concerning the use of biomass for different purposes such as foods, feeds, energy fuels, heating, cooling and most importantly biorefinery feedstock. The biorefinery products were aimed to replace fossil fuels and chemicals as they are renewable form of energy. Biomass is a biodegradable product from agricultural wastes and residues, forestry and aquaculture. Biomass could be sourced from a variety of raw materials such as wood and wood processing by-products, manure, fractions of organic waste products and agricultural crops. As a form of renewable energy, they have the advantages of easy storage, transportation, flexible load utilization and versatile applications. The aim of this study is to provide an overview for thermochemical and biochemical biomass conversion technologies that were employed currently. Attention was also paid to manufacture of biofuels because of their potentials as key market for large-scale green sustainable biomass product.",book:{id:"10127",slug:"biotechnological-applications-of-biomass",title:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass",fullTitle:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass"},signatures:"Abdurrahman Garba",authors:[{id:"245271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdurrahman",middleName:null,surname:"Garba",slug:"abdurrahman-garba",fullName:"Abdurrahman Garba"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"885",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"ofsBook.detail",path:"/welcome/bb6fc82b35ad2c63618a9bc15aeb61ce",hash:"",query:{},params:{hash:"bb6fc82b35ad2c63618a9bc15aeb61ce"},fullPath:"/welcome/bb6fc82b35ad2c63618a9bc15aeb61ce",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()