The four classes of PHA synthases
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10006",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Remote Sensing",title:"Remote Sensing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This Edited Volume is a collection of reviewed and relevant research chapters, offering a comprehensive overview of recent developments in the field of Remote Sensing. The book comprises single chapters authored by various researchers and edited by an expert active in this research area. All chapters are complete in themselves but united under a common research study topic. This publication aims at providing a thorough overview of the latest research efforts by international authors on this field of study, and open new possible research paths for further novel developments.",isbn:"978-1-83880-979-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-978-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-980-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87829",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"remote-sensing",numberOfPages:140,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ccf3326511ecfc48a7b5b7a4fa15e6c5",bookSignature:"Andrew Hammond and Patrick Keleher",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10006.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2261,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 20th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 10th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 9th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 28th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 27th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"259487",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Hammond",slug:"andrew-hammond",fullName:"Andrew Hammond",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259487/images/system/259487.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hammond is a Senior Lecturer in Geoscience within the School of Engineering & Technology at Central Queensland University’s Rockhampton Campus, Central Queensland, Australia. He holds undergraduate degrees in Geology and Geography from the University of Tasmania and postgraduate degrees, Master of Applied Science in Pedology from the University of Canterbury, and Ph.D. in Earth Science from Massey University, both in New Zealand. His research interests are basin tectonics and stratigraphy, sedimentology, soil/regolith geology, hydrogeology, geohazards, mining education, and the use and interpretation of geospatial imagery for environmental assessment and land resource management. He has over 30 years\\' geoscience consultancy, research, and teaching experience having worked in a range of geological landscapes within Australia and New Zealand. He held senior research scientist positions in State (Tasmania) and Australian Government agencies and as a researcher in Queensland university research centers.",institutionString:"Central Queensland University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Central Queensland University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"320735",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Keleher",slug:"patrick-keleher",fullName:"Patrick Keleher",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320735/images/system/320735.jpg",biography:"Dr. Patrick Keleher has qualifications in physics, mathematics, education, robotics and management psychology. His career has focused on developing and delivering innovative curriculum in the areas of physics, mathematics, maintenance engineering, chemistry, Futures Studies, control systems and environmental science. Dr. Keleher has conducted research, including the supervision of undergraduate and postgraduate candidates, into the areas of maintenance engineering, environmental monitoring, management practices and work-integrated learning. He has served as a visiting professor and/or a keynote speaker at the Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom, the Duale Hochschule Baden-Württemberg Co-operative University (DHBW), Ravensburg, Germany and at Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China. Delivering workshops and keynotes on such diverse topics as Work Integrated Learning, Futures Studies, Corporate Governance, Intercultural Management and Engineering Professional Standards. Dr. Keleher has been the recipient of a CQUniversity Vice Chancellor’s Awards for Outstanding Contributions to Learning and Teaching for the design and delivery of two undergraduate first-year physics units. He has been acknowledged as a distinguished scholar, as a Fellow of the Practice-Based Professional Learning Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CETL), at The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom.",institutionString:"Central Queensland University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Central Queensland University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"637",title:"Spatial Analysis",slug:"spatial-analysis"}],chapters:[{id:"74625",title:"Lidar Observations in South America. Part I - Mesosphere and Stratosphere",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95038",slug:"lidar-observations-in-south-america-part-i-mesosphere-and-stratosphere",totalDownloads:357,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"South America covers a large area of the globe and plays a fundamental function in its climate change, geographical features, and natural resources. However, it still is a developing area, and natural resource management and energy production are far from a sustainable framework, impacting the air quality of the area and needs much improvement in monitoring. There are significant activities regarding laser remote sensing of the atmosphere at different levels for different purposes. Among these activities, we can mention the mesospheric probing of sodium measurements and stratospheric monitoring of ozone, and the study of wind and gravity waves. Some of these activities are long-lasting and count on the support from the Latin American Lidar Network (LALINET). We intend to pinpoint the most significant scientific achievements and show the potential of carrying out remote sensing activities in the continent and show its correlations with other earth science connections and synergies. In Part I of this chapter, we will present an overview and significant results of lidar observations in the mesosphere and stratosphere. Part II will be dedicated to tropospheric observations.",signatures:"Eduardo Landulfo, Alexandre Cacheffo, Alexandre Calzavara Yoshida, Antonio Arleques Gomes, Fábio Juliano da Silva Lopes, Gregori de Arruda Moreira, Jonatan João da Silva, Vania Andrioli, Alexandre Pimenta, Chi Wang, Jiyao Xu, Maria Paulete Pereira Martins, Paulo Batista, Henrique de Melo Jorge Barbosa, Diego Alves Gouveia, Boris Barja González, Felix Zamorano, Eduardo Quel, Clodomyra Pereira, Elian Wolfram, Facundo Ismael Casasola, Facundo Orte, Jacobo Omar Salvador, Juan Vicente Pallotta, Lidia Ana Otero, Maria Prieto, Pablo Roberto Ristori, Silvina Brusca, John Henry Reina Estupiñan, Estiven Sanchez Barrera, Juan Carlos Antuña-Marrero, Ricardo Forno, Marcos Andrade, Judith Johanna Hoelzemann, Anderson Guimarães Guedes, Cristina Tobler Sousa, Daniel Camilo Fortunato dos Santos Oliveira, Ediclê de Souza Fernandes Duarte, Marcos Paulo Araújo da Silva and Renata Sammara da Silva Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74625",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74625",authors:[{id:"144711",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Landulfo",slug:"eduardo-landulfo",fullName:"Eduardo Landulfo"},{id:"329343",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Cacheffo",slug:"alexandre-cacheffo",fullName:"Alexandre Cacheffo"},{id:"334022",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Ristori",slug:"pablo-ristori",fullName:"Pablo Ristori"},{id:"334023",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan-Carlos",surname:"Antuña-Marrero",slug:"juan-carlos-antuna-marrero",fullName:"Juan-Carlos Antuña-Marrero"},{id:"337104",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Batista",slug:"paulo-batista",fullName:"Paulo Batista"},{id:"337105",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Pimenta",slug:"alexandre-pimenta",fullName:"Alexandre Pimenta"},{id:"337106",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Martins",slug:"maria-martins",fullName:"Maria Martins"},{id:"337107",title:"Dr.",name:"Vania",surname:"Andrioli",slug:"vania-andrioli",fullName:"Vania Andrioli"},{id:"337108",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi",surname:"Wang",slug:"chi-wang",fullName:"Chi Wang"},{id:"337109",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiyao",surname:"Xu",slug:"jiyao-xu",fullName:"Jiyao Xu"},{id:"337185",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Barja González",slug:"boris-barja-gonzalez",fullName:"Boris Barja González"},{id:"337186",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego Alves",surname:"Gouveia",slug:"diego-alves-gouveia",fullName:"Diego Alves Gouveia"},{id:"337187",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Quel",slug:"eduardo-quel",fullName:"Eduardo Quel"},{id:"337189",title:"Prof.",name:"Felix",surname:"Zamorano",slug:"felix-zamorano",fullName:"Felix Zamorano"},{id:"337190",title:"Prof.",name:"Gregori Arruda",surname:"Moreira",slug:"gregori-arruda-moreira",fullName:"Gregori Arruda Moreira"},{id:"337846",title:"Prof.",name:"Henrique",surname:"Barbosa",slug:"henrique-barbosa",fullName:"Henrique Barbosa"},{id:"337848",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacobo",surname:"Salvador",slug:"jacobo-salvador",fullName:"Jacobo Salvador"},{id:"337850",title:"Dr.",name:"Lidia",surname:"Otero",slug:"lidia-otero",fullName:"Lidia Otero"},{id:"337851",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Andrade",slug:"marcos-andrade",fullName:"Marcos Andrade"},{id:"337852",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Forno",slug:"ricardo-forno",fullName:"Ricardo Forno"},{id:"337853",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Reina",slug:"john-reina",fullName:"John Reina"},{id:"337854",title:"Dr.",name:"Estivén",surname:"Sanchez",slug:"estiven-sanchez",fullName:"Estivén Sanchez"},{id:"337855",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Yoshida",slug:"alexandre-yoshida",fullName:"Alexandre Yoshida"},{id:"337857",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Lopes",slug:"fabio-lopes",fullName:"Fabio Lopes"},{id:"338860",title:"Dr.",name:"Facundo",surname:"Casasola",slug:"facundo-casasola",fullName:"Facundo Casasola"},{id:"338873",title:"Dr.",name:"Clodomira",surname:"Pereyra",slug:"clodomira-pereyra",fullName:"Clodomira Pereyra"},{id:"338875",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Prietro",slug:"maria-prietro",fullName:"Maria Prietro"},{id:"338876",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvina",surname:"Brusca",slug:"silvina-brusca",fullName:"Silvina Brusca"},{id:"339163",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Sousa",slug:"cristina-sousa",fullName:"Cristina Sousa"},{id:"339164",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Santos",slug:"daniel-santos",fullName:"Daniel Santos"},{id:"339166",title:"Dr.",name:"Ediclê",surname:"Duarte",slug:"edicle-duarte",fullName:"Ediclê Duarte"},{id:"339167",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Montilla-Rosero",slug:"elena-montilla-rosero",fullName:"Elena Montilla-Rosero"},{id:"339169",title:"Prof.",name:"Judith",surname:"Hoelzemann",slug:"judith-hoelzemann",fullName:"Judith Hoelzemann"},{id:"339170",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Araujo",slug:"marcos-araujo",fullName:"Marcos Araujo"},{id:"339171",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonatan",surname:"Da Silva",slug:"jonatan-da-silva",fullName:"Jonatan Da Silva"},{id:"339172",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Pallotta",slug:"juan-pallotta",fullName:"Juan Pallotta"},{id:"339173",title:"Dr.",name:"Eliam",surname:"Wolfram",slug:"eliam-wolfram",fullName:"Eliam Wolfram"},{id:"339174",title:"Dr.",name:"Facundo",surname:"Orte",slug:"facundo-orte",fullName:"Facundo Orte"},{id:"339175",title:"BSc.",name:"Renata",surname:"Sammara",slug:"renata-sammara",fullName:"Renata Sammara"},{id:"339176",title:"MSc.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Arleques",slug:"antonio-arleques",fullName:"Antonio Arleques"}],corrections:null},{id:"74607",title:"Lidar Observations in South America. Part II - Troposphere",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95451",slug:"lidar-observations-in-south-america-part-ii-troposphere",totalDownloads:431,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Part II of this chapter, we intend to show the significant advances and results concerning aerosols’ tropospheric monitoring in South America. The tropospheric lidar monitoring is also supported by the Latin American Lidar Network (LALINET). It is concerned about aerosols originating from urban pollution, biomass burning, desert dust, sea spray, and other primary sources. Cloud studies and their impact on radiative transfer using tropospheric lidar measurements are also presented.",signatures:"Eduardo Landulfo, Alexandre Cacheffo, Alexandre Calzavara Yoshida, Antonio Arleques Gomes, Fábio Juliano da Silva Lopes, Gregori de Arruda Moreira, Jonatan João da Silva, Vania Andrioli, Alexandre Pimenta, Chi Wang, Jiyao Xu, Maria Paulete Pereira Martins, Paulo Batista, Henrique de Melo Jorge Barbosa, Diego Alves Gouveia, Boris Barja González, Felix Zamorano, Eduardo Quel, Clodomyra Pereira, Elian Wolfram, Facundo Ismael Casasola, Facundo Orte, Jacobo Omar Salvador, Juan Vicente Pallotta, Lidia Ana Otero, Maria Prieto, Pablo Roberto Ristori, Silvina Brusca, John Henry Reina Estupiñan, Estiven Sanchez Barrera, Juan Carlos Antuña-Marrero, Ricardo Forno, Marcos Andrade, Judith Johanna Hoelzemann, Anderson Guimarães Guedes, Cristina Tobler Sousa, Daniel Camilo Fortunato dos Santos Oliveira, Ediclê de Souza Fernandes Duarte, Marcos Paulo Araújo da Silva and Renata Sammara da Silva Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74607",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74607",authors:[{id:"144711",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Landulfo",slug:"eduardo-landulfo",fullName:"Eduardo Landulfo"},{id:"329343",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Cacheffo",slug:"alexandre-cacheffo",fullName:"Alexandre Cacheffo"},{id:"334022",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Ristori",slug:"pablo-ristori",fullName:"Pablo Ristori"},{id:"337104",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Batista",slug:"paulo-batista",fullName:"Paulo Batista"},{id:"337105",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Pimenta",slug:"alexandre-pimenta",fullName:"Alexandre Pimenta"},{id:"337106",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Martins",slug:"maria-martins",fullName:"Maria Martins"},{id:"337107",title:"Dr.",name:"Vania",surname:"Andrioli",slug:"vania-andrioli",fullName:"Vania Andrioli"},{id:"337108",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi",surname:"Wang",slug:"chi-wang",fullName:"Chi Wang"},{id:"337109",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiyao",surname:"Xu",slug:"jiyao-xu",fullName:"Jiyao Xu"},{id:"337185",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Barja González",slug:"boris-barja-gonzalez",fullName:"Boris Barja González"},{id:"337186",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego Alves",surname:"Gouveia",slug:"diego-alves-gouveia",fullName:"Diego Alves Gouveia"},{id:"337189",title:"Prof.",name:"Felix",surname:"Zamorano",slug:"felix-zamorano",fullName:"Felix Zamorano"},{id:"337190",title:"Prof.",name:"Gregori Arruda",surname:"Moreira",slug:"gregori-arruda-moreira",fullName:"Gregori Arruda Moreira"},{id:"337846",title:"Prof.",name:"Henrique",surname:"Barbosa",slug:"henrique-barbosa",fullName:"Henrique Barbosa"},{id:"337851",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Andrade",slug:"marcos-andrade",fullName:"Marcos Andrade"},{id:"337852",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Forno",slug:"ricardo-forno",fullName:"Ricardo Forno"},{id:"337853",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Reina",slug:"john-reina",fullName:"John Reina"},{id:"337854",title:"Dr.",name:"Estivén",surname:"Sanchez",slug:"estiven-sanchez",fullName:"Estivén Sanchez"},{id:"337855",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Yoshida",slug:"alexandre-yoshida",fullName:"Alexandre Yoshida"},{id:"337857",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Lopes",slug:"fabio-lopes",fullName:"Fabio Lopes"},{id:"338873",title:"Dr.",name:"Clodomira",surname:"Pereyra",slug:"clodomira-pereyra",fullName:"Clodomira Pereyra"},{id:"338875",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Prietro",slug:"maria-prietro",fullName:"Maria Prietro"},{id:"338876",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvina",surname:"Brusca",slug:"silvina-brusca",fullName:"Silvina Brusca"},{id:"339163",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Sousa",slug:"cristina-sousa",fullName:"Cristina Sousa"},{id:"339166",title:"Dr.",name:"Ediclê",surname:"Duarte",slug:"edicle-duarte",fullName:"Ediclê Duarte"},{id:"339169",title:"Prof.",name:"Judith",surname:"Hoelzemann",slug:"judith-hoelzemann",fullName:"Judith Hoelzemann"},{id:"339172",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Pallotta",slug:"juan-pallotta",fullName:"Juan Pallotta"},{id:"339173",title:"Dr.",name:"Eliam",surname:"Wolfram",slug:"eliam-wolfram",fullName:"Eliam Wolfram"},{id:"339174",title:"Dr.",name:"Facundo",surname:"Orte",slug:"facundo-orte",fullName:"Facundo Orte"},{id:"339175",title:"BSc.",name:"Renata",surname:"Sammara",slug:"renata-sammara",fullName:"Renata Sammara"},{id:"343929",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Antonio",surname:"Gomes",slug:"antonio-gomes",fullName:"Antonio Gomes"},{id:"343930",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonatan João",surname:"da Silva",slug:"jonatan-joao-da-silva",fullName:"Jonatan João da Silva"},{id:"343931",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Quel",slug:"eduardo-quel",fullName:"Eduardo Quel"},{id:"343932",title:"Dr.",name:"Facundo Ismael",surname:"Casasola",slug:"facundo-ismael-casasola",fullName:"Facundo Ismael Casasola"},{id:"343934",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacobo Omar",surname:"Salvador",slug:"jacobo-omar-salvador",fullName:"Jacobo Omar Salvador"},{id:"343935",title:"Dr.",name:"Lidia Ana",surname:"Otero",slug:"lidia-ana-otero",fullName:"Lidia Ana Otero"},{id:"343936",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Antuña-Marrero",slug:"juan-carlos-antuna-marrero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Antuña-Marrero"},{id:"343937",title:"Dr.",name:"Anderson",surname:"Guedes",slug:"anderson-guedes",fullName:"Anderson Guedes"},{id:"343938",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel Camilo Fortunato",surname:"dos Santos Oliveira",slug:"daniel-camilo-fortunato-dos-santos-oliveira",fullName:"Daniel Camilo Fortunato dos Santos Oliveira"},{id:"343939",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Paulo",surname:"Araújo da Silva",slug:"marcos-paulo-araujo-da-silva",fullName:"Marcos Paulo Araújo da Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"74569",title:"Application of Remote Sensing in Natural Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94468",slug:"application-of-remote-sensing-in-natural-sciences",totalDownloads:124,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Generally, the term biomass is used for all materials originating from photosynthesis. However, biomass can equally apply to animals. Conservation and management of biomass is very important. There are various ways and methods for biomass evaluation. One of these methods is remote sensing. Remote sensing provides information about biomass, but also about biodiversity and environmental factors estimation over a wide area. The great potential of remote sensing has received considerable attention over the last few decades in many different areas in biological sciences including nutrient status assessment, weed abundance, deforestation, glacial features in Arctic and Antarctic regions, depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths, and density mapping.",signatures:"Ehsan Atazadeh and Mostafa Mahdavifard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74569",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74569",authors:[{id:"27584",title:"Dr.",name:"Ehsan",surname:"Atazadeh",slug:"ehsan-atazadeh",fullName:"Ehsan Atazadeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"73665",title:"Assessment of Ecological Disturbance Caused by Flood and Fire in Assam Forests, India, Using MODIS Time Series Data of 2001-2011",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94282",slug:"assessment-of-ecological-disturbance-caused-by-flood-and-fire-in-assam-forests-india-using-modis-tim",totalDownloads:353,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The forest area of Assam State is known for its rich biodiversity. In the present study, the disturbance regime within the Assam forest area caused by periodic flood and forest fire, was assessed using the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) time-series (2001–2011) data. The MODIS Global Disturbance Index (MGDI) images were generated using MODIS derived Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) and Land Surface Temperature (LST) images. The temporal intensity of flood and forest fire in sixteen representative forests was analyzed to develop the MGDI based thresholds for detecting the disturbed area. The threshold for the non-instantaneous disturbance, i.e. flood, was found to be 107% whereas it was 111% for instantaneous disturbance, i.e. forest fire. The thresholds were applied on the MGDI images to delineate disturbed caused by flood and fire, separately for each year. The time-series disturbance areas were integrated over the years (2001–2011) to generate the classified disturbance prone maps.",signatures:"Dibyendu Dutta, Akanksha Balha, Prabir Kumar Das, Pragyan Jain, Libeesh Lukose and Wasim Akram",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73665",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73665",authors:[{id:"290483",title:"Dr.",name:"Dibyendu",surname:"Dutta",slug:"dibyendu-dutta",fullName:"Dibyendu Dutta"},{id:"330054",title:"Ms.",name:"Akanksha",surname:"Balha",slug:"akanksha-balha",fullName:"Akanksha Balha"},{id:"330055",title:"Mr.",name:"Prabir Kumar",surname:"Das",slug:"prabir-kumar-das",fullName:"Prabir Kumar Das"},{id:"330057",title:"Mr.",name:"Pragyan",surname:"Jain",slug:"pragyan-jain",fullName:"Pragyan Jain"},{id:"330058",title:"Mr.",name:"Libeesh",surname:"Lukose",slug:"libeesh-lukose",fullName:"Libeesh Lukose"},{id:"330059",title:"Mr.",name:"Wasim",surname:"Akram",slug:"wasim-akram",fullName:"Wasim Akram"}],corrections:null},{id:"73560",title:"Delineation of Open-Pit Mining Boundaries on Multispectral Imagery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94120",slug:"delineation-of-open-pit-mining-boundaries-on-multispectral-imagery",totalDownloads:334,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the last decades, monitoring the spatial growth of open-pit mining areas has become a common procedure in an effort to comprehend the influence that mining activities have on the adjacent land-use/land-cover types. Various case studies have been presented, focusing on land-cover mapping of complex mining landscapes. They highlight that a rapid as well as accurate approach is critical. This paper presents a methodological framework for a rapid delineation of open-pit mining area boundaries. For that purpose an Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) methodology is implemented. Sentinel-2 data were obtained and the Mean-Shift segmentation algorithm was employed. Among the many methods that have been presented in literature in order to evaluate the performance of an image segmentation, an unsupervised approach is carried out. A quantitative evaluation of segmentation accuracy leads to a more targeted selection of segmentation parameter values and as a consequence is of utmost importance. The proposed methodology was mainly conducted through python scripts and may constitute a guide for relevant studies.",signatures:"Ioannis Kotaridis and Maria Lazaridou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73560",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73560",authors:[{id:"323304",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Lazaridou",slug:"maria-lazaridou",fullName:"Maria Lazaridou"},{id:"323305",title:"MSc.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Kotaridis",slug:"ioannis-kotaridis",fullName:"Ioannis Kotaridis"}],corrections:null},{id:"76031",title:"Stereoscopic Precision of the Large Format Digital Cameras",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97125",slug:"stereoscopic-precision-of-the-large-format-digital-cameras",totalDownloads:196,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stereoscopic vision is fundamental in the task of photogrammetric restitution (stereo compilation) in which, by inserting a floating mark in the 3D observation of pairs of images, it is possible to draw the elements of the terrain in space and obtain cartography of a part of the land cover from aerial images. Initially with film photographs, which were later scanned, and finally with large format digital cameras that began in the 2000s, photogrammetry has undergone a series of technological revolutions up to the present time. In this chapter, after a brief exposition of the basic principles of photogrammetric restitution, a review of current large-format digital cameras and their main implications in restitution is made, which, despite the advances and other similar semi-automatic products (DTM, orthophoto) is still manual and must be operated by a person with the implications that this entails in stereoscopic vision.",signatures:"Benjamin Arias-Perez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76031",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76031",authors:[{id:"100713",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin",surname:"Arias-Perez",slug:"benjamin-arias-perez",fullName:"Benjamin Arias-Perez"}],corrections:null},{id:"73376",title:"Remote Sensing Applications in Disease Mapping",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93652",slug:"remote-sensing-applications-in-disease-mapping",totalDownloads:468,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Disease mapping utilizes disease maps as visual representations of sophisticated geographic data that provide a general overview of the disease situation in a defined geographic area. Epidemiology is concerned with investigating the causes of diseases, and often, these causes vary in frequency and in space. This variation in space gave a niche to remote sensing to find its way into the public health domain as disease researchers sought to investigate the explaining environmental and climatic factors. Studies have demonstrated the potential offered by remote sensing application to disease mapping and epidemiology and to support surveillance and control efforts. We used some examples from a case study conducted in Eswatini in Southern Africa. Remote sensing imagery when combined with GIS spatial analyses techniques could support and guide existing disease surveillance and control programs at local, regional, and even continental scales. Researchers have also studied factors influencing the patterns and distributions of vector-borne diseases at a variety of landscape scales. However, successful application of remote sensing technology depends on the ability of nonexperts’ remotely sensed data and end users to access, retrieve, and analyze the data captured from satellites. The exploration of some of the opportunities presented by remote sensing to disease mapping and epidemiology is still unfolding as new opportunities are being presented.",signatures:"Sabelo Nick Dlamini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73376",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73376",authors:[{id:"323947",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabelo Nick",surname:"Dlamini",slug:"sabelo-nick-dlamini",fullName:"Sabelo Nick Dlamini"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5241",title:"Applications of Spatial Statistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"acc5941907640ecc7a3e350c5fe3df19",slug:"applications-of-spatial-statistics",bookSignature:"Ming-Chih Hung",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5241.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184413",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming",surname:"Hung",slug:"ming-hung",fullName:"Ming Hung"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7362",title:"Geographic Information Systems and Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b0ac3aa0063d6a10dd3fe90ff78cddd7",slug:"geographic-information-systems-and-science",bookSignature:"Jorge Rocha and Patrícia Abrantes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7362.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145918",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Rocha",slug:"jorge-rocha",fullName:"Jorge Rocha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7262",title:"Spatial Analysis, Modelling and Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed7c7f4193e3951e715569ca454f7077",slug:"spatial-analysis-modelling-and-planning",bookSignature:"Jorge Rocha and José António Tenedório",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7262.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145918",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Rocha",slug:"jorge-rocha",fullName:"Jorge Rocha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7304",title:"Geospatial Analyses of Earth Observation (EO) data",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e90c7cda0e7f94a6620d6ec83db808ae",slug:"geospatial-analyses-of-earth-observation-eo-data",bookSignature:"Antonio Pepe and Qing Zhao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7304.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99269",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Pepe",slug:"antonio-pepe",fullName:"Antonio Pepe"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9846",title:"Spatial Variability in Environmental Science",subtitle:"Patterns, Processes, and Analyses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cfa4fa7b982bbff46ffbe6fbdbffbdf1",slug:"spatial-variability-in-environmental-science-patterns-processes-and-analyses",bookSignature:"John P. 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More than 6 million individuals across the globe are suffering from PD. The death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) is the characteristic pathophysiological feature of PD. The loss of dopaminergic neurons leads to improper motor functions which are characterized by bradykinesia, tremors, and rigidity. Other non-motor symptoms such as sleep disturbances, constipation, cognitive decline, depression, fear, anxiety, bladder problems, weight changes, fatigue and loss of energy, hypotension, and sexual problems are also characterized in patients with PD.
\r\n\r\n\tThe proposed book will aim to provide a comprehensive account of current knowledge on:
\r\n\t1. Role and utility of animal models to understand the pathophysiology of PD and screening therapeutic molecules of dopaminergic neuroprotection
\r\n\t2. Importance of epidemiological studies and available therapeutic strategies for PD
\r\n\t3. Mechanistic insights into dopaminergic neuroprotection/neurodegeneration relating to PD
\r\n\tThe present project concerns “reducing the burden of disease” which is the prime aim of biomedical research.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-489-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-488-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-490-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"99788a4a7f9ee0b4de55de293a2ed3d0",bookSignature:"Prof. Sarat Chandra Yenisetti",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11583.jpg",keywords:"Cell Culture, Nutraceuticals, L-dopa, Deep Brain Stimulation, Paraquat, Rotenone, MPTP, Oxidative Stress, SOD, JNK, Catalase, ToR",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 4th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"24 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Sarat obtained post-doctoral training in neurogenetics from the University of Regensburg, Germany, and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, USA. He follows Drosophila approaches to understand dopaminergic neurodegeneration and identification of therapeutic targets for neuroprotection; knowledge of which may help to reduce the burden of Parkinson’s disease (PD) in humans.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"181774",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarat Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Yenisetti",slug:"sarat-chandra-yenisetti",fullName:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181774/images/system/181774.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Sarat Chandra Yenisetti is an Associate Professor and Head of Drosophila Neurobiology Laboratory in Department of Zoology, Nagaland University (Central), Nagaland, India. He completed M.Sc. from Bangaluru University, India and was awarded a Ph.D. from Kuvempu University, India. Dr. Sarat obtained post-doctoral training in 'modelling Parkinson’s disease using Drosophila” from Neurogenetics, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) of National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, USA and University of Regensburg, Germany. His laboratory, funded through multiple research grants from Department of Biotechnology (DBT), India, University of Grants Commission (UGC), India and Department of Science and Technology (DST), India, focuses on Drosophila approach to understand Parkinson's Disease associated neurodegeneration as well as identification of novel therapeutic targets which may help to reduce the burden of PD in human.",institutionString:"Nagaland University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Nagaland University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453624",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Scerbe",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453624/images/20399_n.jpg",email:"martina.s@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7256",title:"Dopamine",subtitle:"Health and Disease",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e46d08f526c35d787be15bcb17126fb8",slug:"dopamine-health-and-disease",bookSignature:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181774",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarat Chandra",surname:"Yenisetti",slug:"sarat-chandra-yenisetti",fullName:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6406",title:"Parkinson's Disease",subtitle:"Understanding Pathophysiology and Developing Therapeutic Strategies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0038453d1272466535c41e37d94ee52f",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-understanding-pathophysiology-and-developing-therapeutic-strategies",bookSignature:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6406.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181774",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarat Chandra",surname:"Yenisetti",slug:"sarat-chandra-yenisetti",fullName:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"44795",title:"Protein Engineering of Enzymes Involved in Bioplastic Metabolism",doi:"10.5772/55552",slug:"protein-engineering-of-enzymes-involved-in-bioplastic-metabolism",body:'The last half century has witnessed the development of synthetic plastics from petroleum resources, and more than 300 million tons of synthetic plastics are annually produced at present. The recently increased consumption of petroleum resources has led to environmental problems such as a depletion of the resources as well as a global warming due to a marked increase of atmospheric CO2 level. In addition to these problems, wasted plastics used in short-term applications may cause the environmental damage to a wide variety of wild animals including terrestrial, aquatic animals and birds. Furthermore, it has been suggested that even the wasted plastics in the form of small particles potentially induce the alteration of pelagic ecosystems [1]. Therefore, the development of environmentally sound alternatives, such as bioplastics, to conventional petroleum-based plastics is urgently desired to sustain the environment [2-4].
Bioplastics include biodegradable and bio-based plastics (Figure 1) [5, 6]. The former are produced from renewable or petroleum resources via biological or chemical processes, and degraded by enzymes and microorganisms in natural environment. The latter are synthesized from renewable resources via biological or chemical processes, and some of them show non-biodegradability although bio-based plastics are generally biodegradable. Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(ethylene succinate) (PES) and poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) are synthesized from petroleum resources via chemical processes, but they show an excellent biodegradability. Currently, cost-effective processes for the production of succinic acid and 1,4-butanediol, raw materials of PBS, from biomass resources are being developed. Meanwhile, poly(ethylene) (PE) and poly(propylene) (PP) are chemically synthesized from their monomers derived from biological sources, but they are not biodegradable. Poly(hydroxyalkanoate)s (PHAs) and poly(lactide) (PLA) show an excellent biodegradability, and are produced from renewable resources via biological and chemical processes, respectively. Thus, the bio-based bioplastics having biodegradability, such as PHAs and PLA, are the most favorable bioplastics to avoid the above-mentioned problems associated with the use of petrochemical-based synthetic plastics.
Bioplastics comprised of biodegradable and bio-based plastics.
PHAs are the only bioplastics completely synthesized from renewable resources by a wide variety of microorganisms in soil, active sludge, marine and extreme environments [7, 8]. In the cells, PHAs form amorphous granules and is degraded by intracellular PHA depolymerases (i-PHA depolymerases) produced by the PHA-accumulating bacterium itself. In contrast, after PHAs are extracted from the cells, PHAs are converted to semicrystalline form and is degraded by extracellular PHA depolymerases (e-PHA depolymerases) secreted from microorganisms in natural environments, such as soil, active sludge, fresh water, and seawater [9, 10].
Many bacteria can synthesize various types of PHAs containing 3-, 4-, and 5-hydroxyalkanoate units, and over 150 different hydroxyalkanoates other than 3-hydroxybutyrate have been reported as constitutive units of PHAs [11]. PHAs consisting of short-chain hydroxyalkanoates (SCL-HAs; 3–5 carbon atoms) or medium-chain hydroxyalkanoates (MCL-HAs; 6–14 carbon atoms) have been detected. The former are thermoplastic in nature, whereas, the latter are elastomeric in nature. The physical and mechanical properties of PHAs can be regulated by varying monomer composition in order to gain properties comparable to petrochemical-based thermoplastics that have been used for various applications in industry, medicine, pharmacy, agriculture, and electronics [12]. Accordingly, PHAs have attracted industrial interest as bio-based, biodegradable, biocompatible, and versatile thermoplastics [13, 14].
PLA is representative bio-based plastics with good processability and transparency that are used in packaging, containers, stationary, etc. [15]. In addition, medical and agricultural uses of the material have been investigated because of their biocompatibility and biodegradability [16]. PLAs are produced from renewable biomass through a chemo-bioprocess consisting of fermentative production of lactic acid (LA) and chemical polymerization. LA is spontaneously polymerized by refluxing, but the molecular mass of yielded polymer tends to be low [17]. There are several methods for synthesizing high-molecular-mass PLAs: condensation, chain elongation, and ring-opening polymerization of cyclic lactides [15]. Currently, the major industrial method to produce PLAs is ring-opening polymerization which is catalyzed by heavy metal catalysts, typically tin [18, 19]. However, the trace residues of the heavy metal catalyst are unfavorable for certain applications, in particular, medical and food applications. Thus, replacement of the heavy metal catalyst with a safe and environmentally acceptable alternative is an important issue. For this purpose, enzymes are attractive targets because they are natural non-harmful catalysts that can drive the reactions under mild conditions. In addition, highly specific enzymatic reactions may be capable of synthesizing polymers with fine structure from crude materials, which would reduce the cost of preparing the starting substances. This could be an advantage over chemical polymerization of LA or lactides, since the chemoprocess requires extremely pure monomers (contamination of carbonic acids is known to inhibit polymerization), along with anhydrous and high temperature conditions to proceed.
In such a situation, LA-polymerizing enzyme (LPE) functioning in replacement of metal catalysts should enable the biosynthesis of PLA, even though it is enormously challenging both in terms of research and industrial implementation. The best solution could be the development of a PLA-producing microorganism introduced with LPE gene, but this has not been reported so far. In 2008, Taguchi et al. nonetheless successfully obtained encouraging results by developing a recombinant
Three main issues have hindered widespread use of PHAs: (1) the high production cost compared to petroleum-based polymers with similar properties; (2) the inability to produce high-performance PHAs in substantial amounts; and (3) the difficulty in controlling the life cycle of PHAs, i.e., the control of their biodegradability and their effective chemical recycling.
To solve the former two issues, we have focused on the genetic engineering of PHAs metabolism, which will lead to the cost-effective biological production of PHAs and the improvement of their properties, such as molecular mass and monomer composition. In particular, protein engineering of PHA synthase can improve both PHA production efficiency and the properties of the generated polymer because PHA synthase plays a central role in PHA biosynthesis [26]. Here we would like to highlight the current special topic on the biosynthesis of new PHA polymers incorporating unusual monomer units such as LA by PHA synthase engineering. Further, gene cloning and expression in plants has created new possibilities of using photosynthesis to convert atmospheric CO2 directly into PHA, in hopes of reducing production cost in the future.
In addition, to solve the latter issue, we have also focused on the engineering of PHB depolymerases. PHB is the most common form of PHAs. In natural environment, the microbial and enzymatic degradation of PHB is an important first step in the PHB recycling process. However, PHB degradation depends on the surrounding conditions and proceeds on the order of a few months in anaerobic sewage or a few years in seawater [13]. Such PHB degradation process is undesirable from the standpoint of the efficient use of biomass resources. To overcome this issue, chemical recycling using spent PHB materials as recyclable monomer-concentrated resources is rapidly gaining importance due to its high degradation rate [27]. In addition, as chemical recycling is cost-efficient and has low CO2 emissions, it has great potential as a low-cost and environmentally compatible process. PHB monomerization, the first step in chemical recycling, is currently carried out via a thermal decomposition process. However, this chemical recycling method presents some drawbacks, such as racemization of the decomposed products, high reaction temperature, and contamination with residual metal catalysts [28-31]. As one of the solutions, the development of alternative PHB monomerization methods that use such enzymes as PHB depolymerases is highly awaited because those methods do not produce undesirable byproducts, have high enantio- and regioselectivities, and can be performed at moderate temperatures [32, 33]. Moreover, as the efficient use of biocatalysts requires suitable enzymes with high activity and stability under process conditions, the desired substrate selectivity, and high enantioselectivity, the improvement of PHB depolymerases is expected to result in the construction of an effective PHB chemical recycling system. In this chapter we will also provide some case studies on protein engineering of PHB depolymerase based on domain structure-based and random mutagenesis approaches.
PHA synthases catalyze the polymerization reaction of hydroxyalkanoate (HA) to polymer PHA. The monomer substrates of PHA synthase are mainly 3HA-CoAs with various side-chain lengths, and only
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
I | \n\t\t\tPhaC | \n\t\t\tC3 - C5 C3 – C7 | \n\t\t|
II | \n\t\t\tPhaC | \n\t\t\tC6 – C14 C3 – C12 | \n\t\t|
III | \n\t\t\tPhaC - PhaE | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tC3 – C5 | \n\t\t
IV | \n\t\t\tPhaC - PhaR | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
The four classes of PHA synthases
T. Hiraishi and S. Taguchi
Type I and type II PHA synthases consist of single subunits (PhaC). Type I PHA synthases, represented by
The lack of a suitable structural model for any PHA synthase has limited attempts to improve the activity and to alter the substrate specificity of these enzymes in “irrational” manners, such as random mutagenesis and gene shuffling [36, 37]. Generally, natural diversity provides us with attractive starting materials for artificial evolution as it represents functionalized sequence spaces to some extent. A tremendous population (over 60 species) of randomly screened PHA producing bacteria suggests that attractive prototype enzymes for molecular breeding would exist. Among them, enzyme evolution approach has been applied to the following type I and type II PHA synthases derived from some bacteria.
A pioneering study that established methods for protein engineering PHA synthase initiated in 2001 using the best-studied enzyme, the
As a next case, screened beneficial mutation, Gly4Asp (G4D), exhibited higher levels of protein accumulation and PHB production compared to the recombinant
Junction site for interconnection of heterogeneous enzymes based on the predicted secondary structures allowed chimeragenesis of the PHA synthase from
Contrasted with the type I PHA synthases, type II PHA synthases typically have substrate specificity towards MCL-3HA-CoA substrates but relatively poor substrate specificity towards SCL-3HA-CoA substrates like 3HB-CoA. An exception to this is the type II PHA synthase of
The findings obtained in these studies for the type II PHA synthase would be very useful for evaluating a similar evolution strategy to the other types of PHA synthases based on the amino acid sequence alignment of the PHA synthases. For example, position 481 in PhaC1 PHA synthase from
The other two beneficial positions, Glu130 [49] and Ser477 [50], were also identified through the
Structural diversities in main-chain and side-chain of PHA back bone which can be recognized by natural and artificially evolved PHA synthases. Asterisks indicate the chiral center in monomer units of PHA.
The pioneering work on the exploration of LA-polymerizing activity by PHA synthases was reported by Valentin et al. [57]. In that attempt, the PLA biosynthesis was carried out by monitoring the activity of PHA synthases towards synthetic LA-CoAs (
In this context, Taguchi et al. formally reported the first prototype LPE in the year 2008 as a PHA synthase with an acquired LA-polymerizing activity through
The finding that PhaC1Ps(STQK) could polymerize LA was a demonstration of evolutionary engineering as a powerful tool for the generation of biocatalysts with desired properties. By demonstrating the
In a subsequent study, based on the improved activity of a point mutation at position 420 (F420S) of a type I PHA synthase (PhaCRe) from
Functional mapping of beneficial positions (A) and relationships among the residues related to enzymatic activity and substrate specificity of PHA synthase from
Regarding the reports on LPE, the following several studies have been published [63, 64]. Currently, the best-studied PHA synthase from
A number of PHA depolymerases have been purified from diverse PHA-degrading microorganisms and characterized [9, 10, 12]. As described earlier, depending on the substrates and localization of PHA depolymerases, PHA depolymerases are grouped generally into four families: PHA depolymerases degrading the native intracellular granules (i-PHAMCL depolymerases and i-PHASCL (i-PHB) depolymerases) and PHA depolymerases degrading the denatured extracellular PHA granules (e-PHAMCL depolymerases and e-PHASCL (e-PHB) depolymerases). To date, the genes of about 30 PHA depolymerases with experimentally verified PHA depolymerase activity have been identified. On the basis of their sequence similarity, the PHA Depolymerase Engineering Database has been established as a tool for systematic analysis of PHA depolymerase family [66].
Among the PHA depolymerases, multi-domain e-PHB depolymerases have been extensively examined [9]. The multi-domain e-PHB depolymerases generally have a domain structure consisting of a catalytic domain (CD) at N-terminus, a substrate-binding domain (SBD) at C-terminus, and a linker region connecting the two domains, while e-PHB depolymerases from
A) Domain structure of e-PHB depolymerase from
From a biological viewpoint, the structure-function relationship of maluti-domain e-PHB depolymerases has been studied extensively, and several mutants were designed to analyze the function of each domain, in particular, SBD. Using a truncated multi-domain e-PHB depolymerases, Behrends et al., Nojiri and Saito, and our group revealed that the C-terminal domain is essential for PHB-specific binding [74-76]. Further, Nojiri and Saito genetically prepared many mutants of PhaZRpiT1 in various forms such as inversions, chimeras, and fusion to extra linker domains, and demonstrated that its SBD organization also influences the PHB degradation but not water-soluble substrates. Doi and co-workers prepared fusion proteins of SBDs of several PHB depolymerases with glutathione-S-transferase [77-81], and demonstrated specific interactions based on molecular recognition between SBD and polyester surface.
Chemical structures of PHAs have influence on their enzymatic hydrolysis by multi-domain e-PHB depolymerases. Various types of PHAs including racemic PHA [82-89] and 3HA oligomers [90, 91], PHAs with different main- and side-chain lengths (Kasuya et al., 1997) [77], and random copolymers of (
Schematic model of enzymatic cleavage of an ester bond in various sequences by PHB depolymerase.
To investigate the influence of the chemical structure or surface properties of polymer on enzymatic adsorption at nano-level sensitivity, several studies using quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) have been performed. Yamashita et al. investigated the PhaZRpiT1 adsorption to the film surface of several polymers including polyethylene, polystyrene and PHA using the QCM technique, and found that the enzyme showed adsorption specificity for PHA [100-102]. In addition, AFM analysis of PhaZRpiT1 on polyester surface has revealed that small ridges are formed around the enzyme molecule due to movement of some polyester chains at the adsorption area, suggesting that a strong chemical interaction exists between the enzyme and the polyester chains [102, 103]. Furthermore, AFM analysis of interaction between PHB single crystal and a hydrolytic-activity-disrupted PhaZRpiT1 mutant has demonstrated that its SBD disturbs the molecular packing of PHB polymer chains, resulting in fragmentation of the PHB single crystal [104]. Taking these findings into consideration, the specific adsorption of PHB depolymerase to the PHB surface probably involves both the adsorption of the enzyme to the surface and the non-hydrolytic disruption of the substrate to promote PHB degradation. Recently, we have developed the AFM technique by using an AFM tip modified with SBD protein to evaluate the interaction between the SBD molecule and the PHB surface at the molecular level. Through this, it has been shown that the adsorption force of one SBD molecule to the PHB surface is approximately 100 pN [105, 106].
The structural aspects of an enzyme generally provide crucial information about the interaction between the enzyme and its ligand. Some researchers have reported the tertiary structures of polymer-degrading enzymes, such as glycoside hydrolases and single-domain e-PHB depolymerases, and proposed an interaction model between the enzymes and the polymer surfaces [68, 107-109]. However, because of the paucity of information about the 3D structures of multi-domain e-PHB depolymerases, there are few insights into which and how amino acid residues in their SBD are involved in the enzyme adsorption to PHB surface.
Directed evolution is a useful and powerful tool to explore, manipulate, and optimize the properties of an enzyme as no information on the tertiary structure of the enzyme is required and new and unexpected beneficial mutations can be discovered [110-112]. Random mutagenesis via error-prone PCR (epPCR) and DNA recombination are widely used approaches to generate a large mutant pool and screen for the desired characteristics [113, 114]. Using those approaches, many enzymes with improved substrate specificity, catalytic activity, thermostability, or solubility were obtained [115]. Further, analysis of the effects of mutations could also provide useful information for the improvement of enzyme function.
To improve e-PHB depolymerases, it is important to understand the mechanisms underlying its adsorption and hydrolysis, such as which and how amino acid residues participate in the catalytic process. To clarify this issue, we have investigated the interaction between PhaZRpiT1 and PHB surface by a combination of PCR random mutagenesis targeted to only SBD and an
A)
Nevertheless, because only little knowledge was obtained on the biochemistry and kinetics of the purified mutant enzymes, the roles of these amino acids (Ser410, Tyr412, Val415, Tyr428, Ser432, Leu441, Tyr443, Ser445, Ala448, Tyr455, and Val457) and their contributions to the enzymatic activity remain poorly understood, resulting in little information to develop e-PHB depolymerases. Among these positions, Leu441, Tyr443, and Ser445 were predicted to form a β-sheet structure to orient in the same direction as shown in Figure 6(B). As polymer-degrading enzymes generally align their amino acid residues in a plane to interact with polymer surfaces, these three residues in PhaZRpiT1 may interact directly with the PHB surface. Since the hydropathy indices of such mutations as L441H (replacement of Leu441 with His), Y443H (replacement of Tyr443 with His), and S445C (replacement of Ser445 with Cys) dramatically changed among the mutations at these positions, their PHB-binding and -degrading properties were examined in detail [117]. Functional analyses of the purified L441H, Y443H, and S445C enzymes indicated that these mutations had no influence on their structures and their ability to cleave the ester bond, while their PHB-degrading activity differed from that of the wild type. Kinetic analysis of PHB degradation by the mutants suggested that the hydrophobic residues at these positions are important for the enzyme adsorption to the PHB surface, and may more effectively disrupt the PHB surface to enhance the hydrolysis of PHB polymer chains than the wild-type enzyme. Further, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analysis revealed that these substitutions mentioned above altered the association phase rather than the dissociation phase in the enzyme adsorption to the polymer surface.
Recently, Hisano et al. determined the crystal structure of PhaZPfu and proposed that hydrophobic residues, including Tyr, Leu, Ile, and Val, contribute to adsorption to the PHB surface, and that hydrophilic residues (Ser and Asn) located around the mouth of the enzyme crevice may also contribute to the affinity of the enzyme for PHB [68]. Jendrossek group determined PhaZ7Ple crystal structure and demonstrated that the enzyme was enriched in hydrophobic amino acids including eight tyrosine residues [108]. All tyrosine residues (Tyr103, Tyr105, Tyr172, Tyr173, Tyr189, Tyr190, Tyr203, and Tyr204), which are located at the surface of PhaZ7Ple but are far from the active site (Ser136), were changed to alanine or serine and the substitution effects were examined [118]. It turned out that mutation of Tyr105, Tyr189 or Tyr190 resulted in reduced PHB-degrading activity and in occurrence of a lag phase of the depolymerase reaction, indicating that these residues are possibly involved in the enzyme adsorption. Similar results have been obtained for the e-PHAMCL depolymerase of
The above-mentioned findings imply that PHB binding ability of PhaZRpiT1 can be improved by substituting a hydrophilic residue with a hydrophobic one at the positions of 441, 443 and 445. Tyr at position 443 was targeted for substitution with a more highly hydrophobic amino acid residue because its hydrophobicity shows medium to high degree compared to those of general naturally occurring amino acid residues [121].
Table 2 shows the hydrophobicity, the potential for β-sheet formation, and the volume of 20 common amino acid residues [122-124]. In this table, the properties of the original amino acid residue are colored blue and the desirable characteristics of the amino acid residues are colored orange, respectively. In the design of a mutant enzyme with an amino acid substitution at this position, the following factors were taken into consideration: (1) to achieve higher hydrophobicity than the original residue, (2) to retain the β-sheet structure, and (3) to change as little as possible the volume of the amino acid residue after the substitution. As a result, the substitution of Tyr443 with Phe (Y443F) was considered to be appropriate. Analysis of the purified Y443F enzyme indicated that the mutation had no influence on the structure and the ester bond cleavage activity, while this mutant had higher PHB degradation activity than the wild type. Thus, this finding supports our previous assumption and indicates the importance of highly hydrophobic residues at these positions for PHB degradation.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ile | \n\t\t\t4.5 | \n\t\t\t1.60h | \n\t\t\t100.1 | \n\t\t
Val | \n\t\t\t4.2 | \n\t\t\t1.70h | \n\t\t\t83.9 | \n\t\t
Leu | \n\t\t\t3.8 | \n\t\t\t1.30h | \n\t\t\t100.1 | \n\t\t
Phe | \n\t\t\t2.8 | \n\t\t\t1.38h | \n\t\t\t113.9 | \n\t\t
Cys | \n\t\t\t2.5 | \n\t\t\t1.19h | \n\t\t\t65.1 | \n\t\t
Met | \n\t\t\t1.9 | \n\t\t\t1.05h | \n\t\t\t97.7 | \n\t\t
Ala | \n\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t0.83i | \n\t\t\t53.2 | \n\t\t
Gly | \n\t\t\t-0.4 | \n\t\t\t0.75b | \n\t\t\t36.1 | \n\t\t
Thr | \n\t\t\t-0.7 | \n\t\t\t1.19h | \n\t\t\t69.7 | \n\t\t
Ser | \n\t\t\t-0.8 | \n\t\t\t0.75b | \n\t\t\t53.4 | \n\t\t
Trp | \n\t\t\t-0.9 | \n\t\t\t1.37h | \n\t\t\t136.7 | \n\t\t
Tyr(wild type) | \n\t\t\t-1.3 | \n\t\t\t1.47h | \n\t\t\t116.2 | \n\t\t
Pro | \n\t\t\t-1.6 | \n\t\t\t0.55b | \n\t\t\t73.6 | \n\t\t
His | \n\t\t\t-3.2 | \n\t\t\t0.87i | \n\t\t\t91.9 | \n\t\t
Asn | \n\t\t\t-3.5 | \n\t\t\t0.89i | \n\t\t\t70.6 | \n\t\t
Gln | \n\t\t\t-3.5 | \n\t\t\t1.10h | \n\t\t\t86.3 | \n\t\t
Asp | \n\t\t\t-3.5 | \n\t\t\t0.54b | \n\t\t\t66.7 | \n\t\t
Glu | \n\t\t\t-3.5 | \n\t\t\t0.37b | \n\t\t\t83.0 | \n\t\t
Lys | \n\t\t\t-3.9 | \n\t\t\t0.74b | \n\t\t\t101.1 | \n\t\t
Arg | \n\t\t\t-4.5 | \n\t\t\t0.93i | \n\t\t\t104.1 | \n\t\t
Hydrophobicity, potential for β-sheet formation, and volume of amino acid residues
Cell surface display is a valuable technique for the expression of peptides or proteins on the surface of bacteria and yeasts by fusion with the appropriate anchoring motifs [125]. Therefore, the cell surface display of functional and useful peptides and proteins, such as enzymes, receptors, and antigens, has become an increasingly used strategy in various applications, including whole-cell biocatalysts and bioabsorbents, live vaccine development, antibody production, and peptide library screening. In addition, this method is very useful for enzyme library screening because the displayed protein is accessible to the external environment and thus, is able to interact with substrates easily, allowing the screening of large libraries [126].
A variety of surface anchoring motifs, including outer membrane proteins, lipoproteins, autotransporters, subunits of surface appendages, and S-layer proteins, have been employed to achieve the display systems [125, 127, 128]. We used the OprI anchoring motif for the functional display of PhaZRpiT1 on
In contrast to SBD, there is little knowledge on the CD of PhaZRpiT1, such that which and how amino acid residues in the CD contribute to the enzymatic activity remain poorly understood, and this has resulted in the lack of information for the improvement of the CD function of PhaZRpiT1. The CD of PhaZRpiT1 was targeted for the directed evolution, employing random mutagenesis and DNA recombination to enhance its ester bond cleavage ability (Figure 7) [130]. The mutant genes generated from these reactions were expressed as surface-displayed enzymes, and the mutant enzymes were screened through a high-throughput system using pNPC4, a water-soluble substrate. As a result, clones displaying mutant enzymes with a 4- to 8-fold increase in pNPC4 hydrolysis activity were obtained in comparison with those displaying the wild type. This result was roughly consistent with the results of pNPC4 hydrolysis using purified enzymes with the unfused and undisplayed forms, concluding that the current screening system is feasible and effective for the search of improved enzymes.
Directed evolution targeted at the catalytic domain (CD) of PhaZRpiT1 using the
As the aliphatic part in pNPC4 is similar to the monomer unit in PHB polymer chain and pNPC4 is generally used as a model substrate, changes in pNPCn hydrolysis rates by the purified mutant enzymes as a function of the chain length of the aliphatic part in
As opposed to pNPCn hydrolysis by the N285D and N285Y mutant enzymes, their PHB degradation rates were slower than that of the wild-type enzyme, indicating that these mutations are unfavorable for PHB degradation. The kinetics of PHB degradation demonstrated that the N285D and N285Y mutations lowered the hydrolysis activity for the PHB polymer chain compared to the wild-type enzyme despite retention of the binding activity for the PHB polymer surface.
The correct orientation of a PHB polymer chain to the active site is necessary to realize effective PHB degradation by e-PHB depolymerase. Hisano et al. have determined the crystal structures of PhaZPfu-3HB trimer complex as well as PhaZPfu enzyme alone [68]. In the PhaZPfu-3HB trimer complex, 3HB trimer binds to the crevice with its carbonyl terminus towards the catalytic residues (Figure 8(A)). From the structural insight gained from PhaZPfu, they proposed the mechanism of action of PhaZPfu. Figure 8(B) shows the location of the catalytic residues and the interaction between PHB polymer chain and the residues in the subsite of the active site of PhaZPfu. In their model, Ser39 participates in the nucleophilic attack of the carbonyl carbon of a PHB chain, resulting in the formation of a covalent acyl-enzyme intermediate followed by the hydrolysis by an activated water molecule. The nucleophilicity of the hydroxyl group of Ser39 is enhanced by the His155-Asp121 hydrogen bonding system.
A) Molecular surface representation of PhaZPfu. 3HB trimer in the crevice is shown as a ball and stick model. The positions of catalytic triad residues (S39A, D121, and H155) (cyan), as well as residue S170 (color-coded according to molecular species) are indicated. (B) Proposed model of the active site in PhaZPfu by Hisano et al. (Hisano et al. 2006).
For PhaZRpiT1, Bachmann and Seebach proposed that this enzyme has four subsites (2, 1, -1, and -2) in its active site, in which three of the subsites must be occupied by (
A) Molecular surface representation of the homology model of PhaZRpiT1. The positions of catalytic triad residues (S139, D214, and H273) (cyan), as well as residue N285 (color-coded according to molecular species) are indicated. (B) Newly proposed schematic model of the active site in the CD of PhaZRpiT1.
This review describes the development of PHA synthases to synthesize the wide variety of custom-made bioplastics as well as PHB depolymerase with higher activity for PHB adsorption or pNPCn hydrolysis.
Bioplastics present a multitude of benefits as substitutes for conventional petroleum-based plastics. Among them, PHAs are one of the desirable alternatives to petrochemical-derived polymers because PHAs are produced directly from renewable resources completely by biological process and can be renewed over a relatively-short time. However, three main issues have hindered widespread use: the high production cost compared to petroleum-based polymers with similar properties; the inability to produce high-performance PHA polymers in substantial amounts; and the difficulty in controlling the life cycle of PHA polymers, i.e., the control of their biodegradability and their efficient recycling. Thus, with the development in recombinant DNA technology and high-throughput screening techniques, protein engineering methods and applications on the improvement of processes of bioplastic production as well as bioplastic degradation are becoming increasingly important and widespread.
The enzyme modification by protein engineering is an increasingly important scientific field. The well-known methods of rational design and directed evolution as well as new techniques including computational design, catalytic antibodies and mRNA display will be crucial for de novo design of enzymes. With recent advances in recombinant DNA technology tools including omics technologies and high-throughput screening facilities, improved methods for protein engineering will be available for easy modification or improvement of more enzymes for further specific applications.
Against such backgrounds, directed evolution of enzymes involved in PHA biosynthesis as well as metabolic engineering approaches of bacterial hosts will become the driving force to establish bioprocesses for the controlled production of PHAs with desired monomer compositions. In addition, systems-level analysis of metabolic, signaling, and regulatory networks is also making it possible to comprehensively understand global biological processes taking place in PHA-accumulating strains. The resultant knowledge will provide new targets and strategies for the improvement of PHA production, including tailor-made PHAs with desired monomer compositions and molecular masses.
Furthermore, from the viewpoint of preserving the ecosystem, bioplastics are most beneficial when they can be actually biodegraded. In order to achieve it, it is vital to elucidate the biodegradation mechanism of bioplastics and engineer their depolymerases. By contrast to PHA synthases, there have been very few protein engineering studies of PHA depolymerases using directed evolutionally methods, resulting in the less information about the improvement of PHA biodegradability as well as PHA depolymerases so far. In addition, as one of the recent trends in green polymer chemistry,
Here, we present the recent approaches of protein engineering with potential for a total recycle system of bioplastics via combination of biological production with biological degradation. In the future, custom-made prominent enzymes generated via evolutionary engineering will be utilized extensively to create high-performance bioplastics from renewable resources in various organisms and applied to effective and eco-friendly chemical recycling of bioplastics.
Crohn’s disease (CD) is an inflammatory disease of the gut, it and ulcerative colitis is called inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The etiology of CD is unknown that related to genetics, environment, humoral immunity and cellular immunity to some extent. It may be due to the complex interaction between genetic susceptibility, environmental factors, and changes in intestinal microflora, resulting in mucosal immune response abnormalities and impaired epithelial barrier function, giving rise to congenital and adaptive immune response disorders [1, 2].
CD is a proliferative disease that runs through all layers of the intestinal wall and it can occur anywhere in the gastrointestinal tract, the most common being the terminal ileum and colon [2, 3]. CD has various clinical manifestations, mainly characterized by diarrhea, mucous pus and blood stool, accompanied by abdominal pain, tenesmus, fever, anemia, nutritional disorders and other systemic symptoms of varying degrees. It can also be accompanied by joint, skin, eyes, oral mucosa, liver and other extraintestinal lesions, or cause perianal lesions, intestinal obstruction, gastrointestinal bleeding, perforation and other complications [4]. This disease is mainly divided into inflammatory stage, stenosis stage and perforation stage, patients usually develop from inflammation to stenosis or perforation [3]. At present, the global incidence of CD is on the rise, and the onset age is mostly between 20 and 40 years old, with no significant gender difference [5]. CD has prolonged course, repeated attacks, and not easy to cure, which seriously affects the quality of life of patients, and aggravates the social and economic burden. Therefore, it urgently needs to be solved and further studied.
In 2012, the Inflammatory Bowel Disease Group of Gastroenterology Branch of Chinese Medical Association formulated The Consensus Opinion on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, which standardized the clinical diagnosis and treatment of CD. In recent years, with the increasing incidence of CD, in order to meet clinical needs and better guide the clinical work, the staff of the Inflammatory Bowel Disease Group of Gastroenterology Branch of Chinese Medical Association, finally revised the 2018 edition of The Consensus Opinion on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease after extensive discussions.
As the etiology of CD is unknown, there is no radical cure at present and the side effects of drugsare obvious in some CD patients. However, the advantages of Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in CD treatment are gradually emerging. With the in-depths of research on CD, more and more TCM doctors and scholars have summarized the etiology and pathogenesis, TCM classification, syndrome differentiation methods and treatment principles, and summarized the characteristic treatment methods of TCM, providing the diagnosis and treatment ideas and guidance for the understanding and treatment of CD.
The diagnosis of CD depends on a combination of symptoms, endoscopy, radiology, and histopathological findings. Colonoscopy and mucosal biopsy are usually the main methods. A history of smoking, family history, gastrointestinal infection, malnutrition or anemia are all factors that should be taken into account when making a diagnosis [1].
The clinical presentation of CD depends on the site of pathological changes and the severity of inflammation, which can be divided into four aspects [6]:
(1) Digestive system performance: Spasmodic pain in right lower abdomen or peri-umbilicus, accompanied by borborygmus, aggravation after meals, it can be alleviated after defecation; diarrhea intermittent attacks in early stage, and more persistent in later stage. If the lesions involve the lower colon or rectum, mucinous blood stool and tenesmus may be present. Abdominal mass occurs in the right lower abdomen and around the umbilicus, mostly caused by mesenteric lymph node enlargement, internal fistula or local abscess formation. (2) General performance: Patients with intermittent low or moderate fever, a few show remittent fever, accompanied by toxemia; Nutritional disorders due to anorexia, and chronic diarrhea, including emaciation, anemia, hypoproteinemia, vitamin deficiency, calcium deficiency, osteoporosis, etc. The balance of water, electrolyte, acid and base is disturbed in acute stage. (3) Extraintestinal manifestations: Some patients have iridocyclitis, uveitis, finger pestles, arthritis, erythema nodosum gangrenous pyoderma, oral mucosal ulcer, chronic hepatitis, small bile duct peripheral inflammation, sclerosing cholangitis and so on. Amyloidosis or thromboembolic disease can be seen occasionally. (4) Perianal manifestations: Fistulas, fissures, abscesses, and stenosis around the anus or rectum [7]. It even affects the organs outside the gut.
Colonoscope is the most sensitive method in the diagnosis of CD, which can improve the accuracy of clinical diagnosis and the efficiency of treatment [8]. Under endoscopy at the early stage of the disease, 2 ~ 3 mm diameter round shallow pitting ulcers or Afta aphthous ulcer can be seen with surrounding mucosa hyperemia and redness. After the disease progresses, the ulcer increases and deepens, and merges with each other to form longitudinal ulcer. The relatively specific endoscopic manifestations include cobblestone changes, annular, multiple, segmental stenosis, and inflammatory polyp hyperplasia. Capsule endoscopy is very sensitive to the judgment of abnormal mucosa, but its specificity is low, and it is not applicable to all CD patients. For patients with stenosis, there is a certain risk. Wireless video capsule endoscope has the advantages of no radiation, no pain, no sedation, easy outpatient use and high patient satisfaction. When traditional diagnostic tools such as endoscope cannot make a clear diagnosis, it can be mainly used. During the development of CD, some patients may involve the upper digestive tract. This type of CD usually presents insidiously without obvious symptoms. Gastroscopy is often used, under which worm etched ulcer, longitudinal ulcer, slub like appearance, stenosis and fistula can be seen [9].
Based on the principle of multi-point and multi-segment sampling, CD mucosal biopsy is the most main diagnostic basis of CD. Its pathologic findings are typically non-caseous granulomas that are more easily detected on biopsy in about 30% of cases and are more common in smaller ulcers. In addition, common pathological features include segmental lesions, the presence of inflammatory cell infiltration in the inherent membrane, and submucosal broadening, marked fibrosis, whole-wall inflammation, fissured ulcers, and whole-layer lymphatic follicles in the intestinal wall [10, 11].
Imaging also plays a very important role in the diagnosis of CD. CT small intestine imaging or magnetic resonance enterography is the first choice for imaging examination, which is mainly used to evaluate inflammatory lesions in the small intestine. Magnetic resonance enterography is expensive but has the advantage of avoiding radiation and using no iodized contrast agents. The use of contrast-enhanced ultrasound can effectively improve the detection sensitivity of color Doppler ultrasound, which is outstanding in the diagnosis of the combined sensitivity and specificity of CD activity [12]. The sensitivity of small intestinal barium contrast is low and only suitable for dynamic observation in patients with intestinal cavity stenosis, and for the primary medical unit cannot conduct CT small intestinal imaging examination. Barium enema is not used much at present and has been replaced by colonoscopy.
The blood counts are used to monitor anemia in CD patients. The concentration of calcium protective protein in feces was associated with neutrophil infiltration in the intestinal mucosa, it has a strong sensitivity and specificity for CD diagnosis. As an inflammation marker, C-reactive protein and other inflammatory markers are used simultaneously to monitor disease activity to assess disease activity.
Although there is no corresponding name of CD in ancient Chinese medical books, there are abundant discussions about it, so the TCM diagnosis of CD was mainly based on symptom diagnosis. According to the main symptoms, CD is diagnosed as abdominal pain, diarrhea, bowel carbuncle, hemafecia, anal fistula, spouting bleeding from anus and other diseases [13, 14].
CD is associated with a number of pathogenic factors, either alone or in combination. Exogenous pathogenic factors, improper diet, emotional disorders, chronic physical deficiency were the main causes [14]. Exogenous pathogenic factors, such as cold, dampness and heat invade the body, resulting in blood stasis and abdominal pain and diarrhea. Unclean food, or overeating, or eating greasy and cold food can cause damp-heat or cold-dampness accumulating in stomach and spleen, blockage of abdomen Qi, producing diarrhea, bowel carbuncle; Internal injury of emotions, such as moodiness and worry leads to stagnation of qi induce pain easily; Weakness, prolonged illness or excessive fatigue, resulting in weakness of the spleen and stomach, transport and transformation weak that induce abdominal pain and diarrhea. CD mainly occurs in the intestine. In the theory of TCM, CD is also closely related to the spleen, stomach, liver and kidney, and is mainly caused by lesions in middle-jiao and lower-jiao.
The basic pathogenesis of CD is a mixture of deficiency and excess, cold and heat [15]. The deficient root include the deficiency of natural endowments, the deficiency of spleen and kidney, or the prolonged illness and overwork; Damp-heat accumulation, qi stagnation, phlegm and dampness, blood stasis are all belong to excessive superficial. The basic pathogenesis of CD varies according to the main symptoms. If abdominal pain is the main manifestation, the basic pathogenesis is exogenous pathogenic factors of coldness, wetness, heat, it result in qi stagnation, blood stasis, viscera and qi adverse, pain [16]; If the main manifestation is diarrhea, the basic pathogenesis is spleen deficiency and overabundance of dampness [16, 17]; If the main manifestation is intestinal carbuncle, the pathogenesis includes accumulation of dampness and heat, blood stasis, and the accumulation of phlegm and blood stasis [14].
According to the Guidelines of Traditional Chinese Medicine Diagnosis and Treatment of Digestive Diseases compiled by the Committee of Spleen-stomach Diseases of The Chinese Association of TCM in 2006, the common TCM syndromes of CD include the syndrome of liver-stagnation and spleen-deficiency, the syndrome of deficiency and cold of spleen and stomach, the syndrome of yang deficiency of spleen and kidney, the syndrome of cold-dampness impairing spleen splenic function, the syndrome of qi stagnation and blood stasis syndrome, the syndrome of damp-heat accumulation [18, 19].
The main symptoms are anorexia, belching, right abdominal pain or periumbilical distension pain and diarrhea while during abdominal pain and relief of pain after diarrhea. Acute abdominal pain, loose stools, belching and eat less, tongue reddish, and pulsed strings. Its attacks or exacerbations are often caused by irritation or nervous tension. The principle of treatment is soothing the liver and strengthening the spleen. The main prescriptions are Chaihu Shugan powder and Shenlinbaizhu powder [20] including bupleurum,
The main symptoms are dull abdominal pain, prefer warm and pressing, prolonged diarrhea, bowel bloating and abdominal distension, vomiting of clear water, loss of appetite, sallow complexion, dizziness, cold limbs, fatigue, pale tongue, thin and white coating, and slow and sunken pulse. The principle of treatment is to warm stomach and strengthen spleen. The main prescription is Shenling Baizhu powder and Fuzi Lizhong pill [21], including fried semen coicis, fried atractylodes macrocephala koidz, poria cocos,
The main symptoms are dull abdominal pain, irregular pain attacks and stop, prefer warm and pressing, thin pus around the anus, dull anal pain, loose stool, or diarrhea at dawn, loss of appetite, fatigue, cold limbs, soreness of waist and polyuria, pale tongue, or fat tongue with teeth marks, white coating, sunken or or thin and weak pulse. The principle of treatment is warming kidney and strengthening spleen. The main prescription is Changyangan soup [22], including astragalus membranaceus, poria cocos,
The main symptoms are acute abdominal pain, loose stool or water stool, or dysentery with blood and pus, heavy head and body, pale tongue, white and greasy coating, soft and slow pulse. The principle of treatment is clearing damp and strengthening spleen. The main prescription is Weiling soup, including atractylodes rhizome, dried tangerine peel, magnolia officinalis, polyporus umbellatus, rhizoma alismatis, cortex cinnamomi, atractylodes macrocephala koidz, radix glycyrrhizae.
The main symptoms are immovable abdominal lumps, abdominal distension or pricking, loose or bloody stools, purplish or petechial tongue, string and thin and hesitant pulse. The principle of treatment is regulating qi and dispersing blood stasis. The main prescription is infradiaphragmatic stasis-expelling decoction, including peach kernel, safflower, radix rehmanniae, radix angelicae sinensis, red peony, fructus aurantii,
The main symptoms are abdominal pain refusing to press, brown and smelly stool, or diarrhea with blood and pus, distending pain and scorching hot anus, thirsty and drinking cold, few and yellow urine, red tongue, yellow greasy coating, string and slippery or slippery and rapid pulse. The treatment principle is clearing heat and expelling damp. The main prescription is Baitouweng soup, including pulsatilla, coptis chinensis, phellodendron, ash bark.
Chinese herbal medicine.
Name | Pharmacological effects |
---|---|
Bupleurum | Diaphoresis; prevent malaria |
enrich blood; immunity enhancement | |
Poria cocos | Calm; promote healthy digestion |
Chinese yam | Improve immune and digestive function |
White lablab bean | Antibacterial and antiviral |
Atractylodes macrocephala koidz | Adjust gastrointestinal motility; inhibit ulcer |
Fructus aurantii | Increases gastrointestinal motility and contractility rhythms |
Lotus seed | Immune regulation; improve digestive function |
Amomum | bacteriostatic action; peristalsis enhancement |
Coix seed | Eliminate edema; immune regulation |
Rhizoma cyperi | Relaxes intestinal smooth muscle; anti-inflammatory |
Pericarpium citri reticulatae | Promote secretion of digestive juices; relieve asthma |
Raidix paeoniae alba | Antibacterial activity; analgesic |
Platycodon grangdiflorum | Dilate blood vessels; antitussive expectorant |
Radix glycyrrhizae | Regulate immunity; inhibit ulcer; protect liver |
Fried hawthorn | Help digestion; stop diarrhea |
Malt | Help digestion; antifungal |
Pinellia ternate | Antitussive expectorant; inhibit ulcer |
Inula flower | Relieve asthma; antitussive expectorant |
Giant typhonium rhizome | Anti-inflammatory; sedation; expectorant |
Corydalis yanhusuo | Spasmolysis, analgesia; suppression of gastric ulcer |
Common bletilla pseudobulb | Hemostasis; protect gastric mucosa |
Dried ginger | Inhibit ulcer; dilate blood vessels |
Panax notoginseng powder | Promote blood clotting; dilate blood vessels |
Nutmeg | Antibacteria; anti-inflammatory |
Antibacteria; antitumor; antidiarrhea | |
Roasted ginger charcoal | Hemostasis; acesodyne |
Atractylodes | Adjust gastrointestinal motility; diuresis |
Astragalus membranaceus | Strengthen immune system; inhibit ulcer; improve substance metabolism |
Cooked monkshood | Cardiac; antishock; dilate blood vessels |
Fructus psoraleae | Antibacteria; improve immune system |
Epimedium | Improve immune system; delay the progression of renal failure |
Magnolia officinalis | Promote the secretion of digestive fluids; anti ulcer |
Polyporus umbellatus | Diuresis; enhance immunity |
Rhizoma alismatis | Diuresis; anti-inflammatory |
Cortex cinnamomi | Cardiotonic; anti ulcer; anti-inflammatory |
Peach kernel | Reduce vascular resistance and improve hemodynamics; relax bowels |
Safflower | Dilate blood vessels; excited uterus; anticoagulation |
Radix rehmanniae | Hemostasis; antibiosis; immuno-enhancement |
Radix angelicae | Anti-microbico; Antipyretic analgesic |
Sinensis | Promote hematopoietic function; immunity enhancement |
Red peony | Antithrombus; reduce blood lipid; liver protection |
Radix scrophulariae | Antibiosis; dilate coronary arteries |
Pulsatilla | Anti-microbico; anti-inflammatory; immunity enhancement |
Coptis chinensis | Resistance of pathogens; Antipyretic; antineoplastic |
Phellodendron | anti-microbico; excite gastrointestinal smooth muscle |
Ash bark | Anti-inflammatory; analgesic; diuresis |
A large number of studies and clinical evidence show that TCM has obvious curative effect and function in the treatment of CD. The following is a brief summary of commonly used Chinese patent medicines.
It has the effect of harmonizing liver and spleen, astringent intestine to relieve pain [23] and commonly used in patients with disharmony of liver and spleen, diarrhea and abdominal pain, and nonspecific ulcerative colitis.
It has the effect of activating blood circulation and removing blood stasis, improving microcirculation. The cure rate can be improved by improving the high coagulation state of CD patients [24].
It has the effect of strenthening spleen and tonifying kidney. It can improve the humoral immunity of patients also used todiseases caused by the deficiency of spleen and kidney.
It has the effect of dispelling wind and detoxifying, dehumidifying and detumescence, relaxing tendons and dredging collaterals. Studies have shown that it can effectively improve the clinical symptoms of CD patient [25], but its toxicity of liver and kidney should be valued.
It has the effect of warming kidney and dispelling cold, astringent intestine and relieving diarrhea and commonly used for diarrhea caused by deficiency of kidney yang, the symptoms are borborygmus, intestinal distension, diarrhea at dawn, anorexia and indigestion, continuous diarrhea, yellowish complexion and cold limbs.
It has the effect of smoothing liver and regulating intestine, clearing the upper Jiao and warming lower Jiao and used for patient with chronic dysentery, the symptoms are abdominal pain, dysentery, vertex headache, attack intermittently, irritation and vomiting, extremities cold.
It has the effect of invigorating spleen and kidney, warming stomach and relieving pain, astringent intestine and relieving diarrhea, and used for patient with diarrhea of deficiency of spleen and kidney Yang, the symptoms are irregular stool, diarrhea at dawn with mucus, abdominal distention and pain, epigastric discomfort, and distention of lower abdominal.
It has the effect of invigorating and benefiting spleen qi and lifting collapsed qi, be used for diarrhea caused by weakness of spleen and stomach and collapse of middle qi.
It has the effect of invigorating spleen and warming kidney, astringing intestine to relieve diarrhea, and be used for chronic diarrhea caused by spleen deficiency or Yang deficiency of spleen-kidney, the symptoms are chronic abdominal pain and diarrhea, loose stools, anorexia and abdominal distension, weak waist, fatigue and cold limbs.
It has the effect of clearing away heat and eliminating dampness, promoting qi circulation to relieve pain, and be used for dysentery caused by dampness-heat of large intestine, the symptoms are stool with pus and blood, tenesmus, fever and abdominal pain.
It has the effect of warming spleen dispersing cold, relieving diarrhea and pain, and can be used for cold syndrome of spleen and stomach, the symptoms are anorexia and abdominal distension, abdominal pain and nausea, weak pulse, cold limbs, or headache attacked by cold, and any chronic disease caused by cold.
It has the effect of nourishing Yin and blood, tonifying qi and strong intestine, removing blood stasis and generating muscles. The symptoms are dull abdominal pain, persistent diarrhea, stool with pus and blood, low fever in afternoon, dizziness, insomnia, night sweats, irritability, weight loss and fatigue, red tongue, thin and less coating, thin and rapid pulse.
Acupuncture therapy is widely applicable to mild and moderate CD patient with no age or gender restrictions, but not for patients with severe CD, in pregnancy and lactation, with mental disorders, with severe tumors, or patients with serious diseases of the heart, liver, kidney, brain and hematopoietic system [26], they need adopt appropriate western medicine to save lives and avoid critical situations.
The basic acupoint prescriptions for CD treatment include Tianshu (ST25), Zusanli (ST36), Shangjuxu (ST37), Guanyuan (RN4), Qihai (RN6), Zhongwan (RN12) [27]. Patients with syndrome of liver depression and spleen deficiency can add Taichong (LR3) and Pishu (BL20); Patients with syndrome of deficiency and cold of spleen and stomach can add Shangwan (RN13) and Xiawan (RN10); Patients with syndrome of yang deficiency of spleen and kidney were added with Mingmen (DU4), Pishu (BL20) and Shenshu (BL23); Patients with syndrome of cold dampness disturbing spleencan add Yanglingquan (GB34) and Fenglong (ST40); Patients with syndrome of qi stagnation and blood stasis can add Taichong (LR3) and Qihai (SP10); Patients with syndrome of dampness-heat accumulation can add Quchi (LI11) and Hegu (LI4). During the acupuncture treatment, the abdomen of CD patients is usually the main part, including the legs and back. The treatment is normally performed for about 20-30 minutes each time, once every other day. If the patient is in serious condition, the curative effect can be enhanced once a day.
Acupuncture therapy is mainly targeted at excess, heat syndrome and relatively simple symptom. For patients with syndrome of intermingled deficiency and excess, acupuncture therapy often combines with moxibustion therapy. The research of Wu Huangan research group showed [28, 29] that moxibustion can effectively improve the clinical symptoms and the quality of life of CD patient. The methods were mainly acupuncture at Tianshu (ST25), Zhongwan (RN12), Qihai (RN6). Mix the powder of aconite, cinnamon, salvia miltiorrhiza, safflower, costusroot, coptis chinensis and borneol; add yellow rice wine and mix it to form a thick paste; Make a medical cake in a mold and place it at the above acupoints, and place moxa cone on medical cake, moxibustion twice for each acupoint; Combined with acupuncture at Zusanli (ST36), Shangjuxu (ST37), Sanyinjiao (SP6) and Gongsun (SP4), the goal of synergetic treatment and enhanced curative effect was finally achieved.
In addition to TCM, Chinese patent medicine, acupuncture and moxibustion treatment methods, there are other unique therapies, and the effect is also very effective. Through clinical controlled experiments, Songnian proved [30] that auricular application can effectively alleviate the abdominal pain of CD patients. Enema administration combined with internal medicine can greatly improve the curative effect of CD [31]. Hu Zhengchao and et al. [32] have found that Chinese medicine fumigation, external washing and sitz bath could effectively alleviate the symptoms of anal fistula patients with CD, not only improving local blood circulation, but promoting the healing of anal fistula canal. In addition, fecal flora transplantation is also a new treatment method for CD combined with Chinese medicine, it works by transplanting fecal material from a healthy donor into the patient’s gut to restore the intestinal flora diversity and thus achieve a good therapeutic effect [33].
CDAI can be used to evaluate the disease activity and the efficacy of CD, including five aspects of the patient’s general condition, such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, abdominal mass and complications [34]. The higher the total score, the more serious the disease. A score of ≤4 indicates remission, a score of 5-8 indicates moderate activity, and a score of ≥9 indicates severe activity. It can be scored in three stages before, during and after treatment to dynamically observe the changes of the disease.
The total score of TCM syndromes was used to evaluate the clinical symptoms of abdominal pain, diarrhea, pus and blood stool, tenesmus, belching, nausea and vomiting and fever. The total scores before and after treatment was compared, if the total score decreased by ≥90% compared with that before treatment, it is judged as clinical remission. If the total score decreased by ≥70% and < 90%, it is judged as significant effect; if the total score decreased ≥30%and < 70%, it is judged to be valid; if the total score decreased <30%, it is judged to be invalid.
Simplified endoscopy score for CD (SESCD) can be used for diagnosis and efficacy evaluation of CD. The score items mainly include ulcer size, ulcer area, affected intestinal area, intestinal lumen stenosis and the condition of mucosal healing. The lower the score, the better the mucosal healing degree. A score ≤ 3 is remission, a score 4-10 is mild activity, a score 11-19 is moderate activity, and a score more than 20 is severe activity [35].
Inflammatory bowel disease quality of life questionnaire (IBDQ) was used for CD evaluation, including intestinal symptoms, systemic symptoms, emotional ability and social ability. Scores were recorded for both the pre-treatment and post-treatment stages, with higher scores indicating better quality of life.
Self-rating anxiety scale (SAS) and self-rating depression scale (SDS) were used to evaluate the severity of the anxiety and the depressive symptoms of CD patients. Scores were performed according to the symptoms, and the patients were divided into mild, moderate and severe by 50 score. Scores were recorded before and after treatment. Scores below 50 after treatment indicated efficacy.
The development of CD is a long-term and progressive process. The clinical efficacy evaluation should combine the short-term with long-term efficacy. In addition to the general clinical symptoms, it is also important to observe the status with the ulcer of intestinal mucosa and actively prevent perianal lesions it should also focus on the observation of intestinal mucosal ulcer and the active prevention of perianal lesions of CD patients.
Improper diet is one of the major causes of CD. In TCM, dampness, heat and cold pathogens easily invade the body through improper diet, damage spleen and stomach, and accumulate in intestines. Therefore, CD patients should pay attention to their daily diet, light and easy digestible food is better, avoid eat irritating food, try not to eat or eat less fat and greasy food, or raw and cold food.
CD is a chronic disease in the developing course of disease, patients are prone to anxiety or depression that aggravating the symptoms of body and mind. Therefore, in the process of diagnosis and treatment, attention should be paid to the psychological and emotional intervention of the patients to avoid negative emotional stimuli, relieve their anxiety or depression situation, guide the correct understanding of disease with good positive attitude [36, 37].
CD is persistent and prone to relapse, so it is important to adjust lifestyle, control risk factors and change improper habits. Smoking is an important factor for CD patient, which often aggravates the disease and more likely to cause complications. For CD patients, the first step is to quit smoking, adjust lifestyle, and eliminate risk factors. In addition, patients should have regular daily life, reasonable work and rest, moderate diet, maintain the spleen and stomach, do proper exercise, avoid fatigue, adjust emotions, comply with four seasons, and maintain healthy energy [38].
The development of CD is a long-term process, attention should always be paid to physical changes through outpatient, inpatient follow-up, telephone follow-up, and regular review, to understand the recurrence of disease, cancer prevention.
The cause of CD is still unclear, it is mainly related to improper diet, disorder emotion, attack of external evil, internal deficiency in TCM theory. The main pathogenesis is deficiency of spleen and kidney combined with damp-heat accumulation, qi stagnation, phlegm and dampness and blood stasis. The holistic concept and syndrome differentiation are the general principles of TCM treatment, the diagnostic criteria of CD are generally accorded to the consensus Opinions on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease as the reference, and comprehensive judgments are mainly made based on the clinical symptoms, endoscopy results, imaging examinations and pathological tissues of the patients. For example, the concentration of fecal calprotectin was positively correlated with CDAI score, SEC-CD score, CD clinical activity and mucosal healing, it could objectively reflect the inflammatory activity of CD [39]. Imaging diagnostic techniques, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computerized tomography (CT), can be used to assess the activity of CD by showing changes in the thickness of the intestinal wall, abnormal intensification of the intestinal wall, intestinal segment stenosis, abnormal increase in mesenteric vessels, enlarged lymph nodes, fistulas, ulcers, and abscesses [40]. According to the symptoms and characteristics of different syndroms of CD, corresponding treatment methods were adopted, among which Chinese herbal medicine and acupuncture and moxibustion treatment were the most common and had significant curative effects.
With the development of TCM treatment of CD in recent years, certain progress and achievements have been made in clinical and experimental research, such as the gray matter structure of CD patients had significant changes, which was correlated with anxiety and depression status and course of disease [41]. In resting-state, the brain abnormal activities in insula and MCC of CD patients are different between remissive CD patients with and without abdominal pain, and are closely related to the severity of abdominal pain [42], aberrant functional connectivity of the amygdala may be involved in processing of visceral pain and sensation, and emotion in CD [43]. Herb-partition moxibustion combined with acupuncture can improve the clinical common symptoms of abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue and anorexia for mild and moderate CD [26]. Both treatments of electro-acupuncture and moxibustion improved cortex-subcortical coupling in remissive CD patients, but electro-acupuncture regulated homeostatic afferent processing network, while moxibustion mainly regulated the default mode network [44]. In CD rats, moxibustion can up-regulate the A20 expression level and down-regulate the expression of TNFR1, TRADD, and RIP1, and increase cell apoptosis in the intestinal epithelial barrier [45]. It is important to relieve the damage of intestinal mucosal barrier and maintain its functional integrity for patients [46]. Many experimental studies have shown that moxibustion can significantly down-regulate the expression of NF - κB P65, TNF-α and IL-1 in the colon tissue of CD model rats [47] and down-regulate the proteins expression of MCP-1 and IL-8 to reduce the expression of downstream inflammatory factors, relieve intestinal inflammation, and improve the morphological structure of colon tissue [48].
However, the pathogenesis of CD is still unclear, there is a lack of prospective studies even large sample and multicenter clinical trials, which still need to be further studied and explored.
Authors thank the Inflammatory Bowel Disease Group of Gastroenterology Branch of Chinese Medical Association for the Consensus opinions of TCM diagnosis and treatment experts on Crohn’s disease.
Authors thank for the support of National Basic Research Programme of China (973 programme, grant number 2015CB554501).
There is no conflict of interest among authors.
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Growth?",slug:"why-coevolution-of-culture-and-institutions-matters-for-economic-development-and-growth-",totalDownloads:704,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Theoretical considerations that choose to make reference to the institutional and cultural considerations presuppose that these are in an optimal form. However, this is not the case in the real world. This chapter argues that the coevolution requirements of institutional and culture change are critical for economic outcomes. When institutions and culture coevolve in an optimal pattern, economic development and growth are facilitated. In contrast, when institutions and culture deviate from the optimal pace of coevolution, incompatible alterations of institutions and culture may end up causing an inability of the policy designers to implement the required changes in institutions and/or cultural behaviors. The result can be a series of failing attempts to implement a modernized progrowth framework of institutional settings and cultural behaviors. Using a dataset of 80 countries for the period 1981–2019, the analysis concludes that institutions and culture are complements—and not substitutes—in terms of their role in economic development, as when both sizes are strong it leads to higher levels of GDP per capita. When either or both of them are at a weak level, economic development is much lower.",book:{id:"9030",slug:"perspectives-on-economic-development-public-policy-culture-and-economic-development",title:"Perspectives on Economic Development",fullTitle:"Perspectives on Economic Development - Public Policy, Culture, and Economic Development"},signatures:"Kyriaki I. Kafka, Pantelis C. Kostis and Panagiotis E. Petrakis",authors:null},{id:"56708",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69096",title:"Human Development and Research-Development-Extension Relationships",slug:"human-development-and-research-development-extension-relationships",totalDownloads:1733,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Human capital is the most important strategic factor for development; as new technologies emerge, the market demand for better and healthier products and consumer demand in terms of quality and delivery time are changing. In today’s world, it becomes increasingly important to know how information can be accessed, how it is adopted, and how it can be assimilated. In this respect, each country allocates budget for training, education, and extension according to its own conditions. This budget may be intended for rural community-based social assistance, but the economic and welfare effect is essential. In this way, it is aimed to increase the living standards of the families living in the rural areas. This will naturally contribute to national income and to the prosperity of society. The subject has been discussed generally in the world, especially in the case of Turkey. According to this, all over the world, particularly in developing countries, research and extension (R&E) is very important and should be considered at least as much as research and development (R&D). However, it will be ensured that societies meet with the technology produced. For this, the development of human resources should be emphasized and a suitable atmosphere should be prepared for this widespread prosperity.",book:{id:"5819",slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",fullTitle:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices - Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth"},signatures:"Orhan Özçatalbaş",authors:[{id:"170206",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Özçatalbaş",slug:"dr.-orhan-ozcatalbas",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş"}]},{id:"68007",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85036",title:"Overview of the Process of Enzymatic Transformation of Biomass",slug:"overview-of-the-process-of-enzymatic-transformation-of-biomass",totalDownloads:1378,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Cellulase is an enzyme which depolymerizes the cellulose into glucose. Cellulases are produced by a diverse array of microbes including fungi, bacteria, yeast and actinomycetes. Considerable research for understanding the mechanism of cellulases began in early 1950s because of the significant use of these enzymes in various industries. This review provides a general account structure and availability of lignocellulosic biomass, pretreatment strategies for effective digestion, cellulase producing organisms, cellulase activity assay, and enzymology of cellulose degradation. Cellulase production, optimization, purification and characterization studies in addition to the industrial application of cellulase have also been discussed. At last a brief account of present market scenario of cellulases and future prospects of the study are also taken into account.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Namita Singh, Anita Devi, Manju Bala Bishnoi, Rajneesh Jaryal, Avni Dahiya, Oleksandr Tashyrev and Vira Hovorukha",authors:[{id:"278205",title:"Prof.",name:"Namita",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"namita-singh",fullName:"Namita Singh"},{id:"282352",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Devi",slug:"anita-devi",fullName:"Anita Devi"},{id:"282353",title:"MSc.",name:"Avni",middleName:null,surname:"Dahiya",slug:"avni-dahiya",fullName:"Avni Dahiya"},{id:"282354",title:"MSc.",name:"Manju Bala",middleName:null,surname:"Bishnoi",slug:"manju-bala-bishnoi",fullName:"Manju Bala Bishnoi"},{id:"282355",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksandr",middleName:null,surname:"Tashyrev",slug:"oleksandr-tashyrev",fullName:"Oleksandr Tashyrev"},{id:"282356",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Jaryal",slug:"rajneesh-jaryal",fullName:"Rajneesh Jaryal"},{id:"282939",title:"Dr.",name:"Vira",middleName:null,surname:"Hovorukha",slug:"vira-hovorukha",fullName:"Vira Hovorukha"}]},{id:"59430",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74381",title:"Taxation and Economic Growth in a Resource-Rich Country: The Case of Nigeria",slug:"taxation-and-economic-growth-in-a-resource-rich-country-the-case-of-nigeria",totalDownloads:3860,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In this chapter, we examine the relationship between taxation and economic growth in a resource rich country, using Nigeria as a case study. We explore the linkages between availability of higher resource revenue and lower taxation effort of other revenue categories and the effects of these on growth. Ordinary least square (OLS) estimation technique is employed in estimating the specified model. Also, descriptive analysis is carried out regarding tax trends and tax efforts in Nigeria to determine the effectiveness of existing tax structures, as well to as examine relevant national and cross-country data. Empirical results reveal that taxation has a significant impact on Real GDP growth rates. However, the proportion of tax contribution to the growth rate falls short of the optimal level in terms of the volume of economic activities and value of total output. Nigeria also lags other African countries with respect to tax effort and as such has a huge untapped potential for enhanced revenue mobilisation. We recommend therefore, that the Government should institute an appropriate tax system with an emphasis on broadening the tax base and in some cases, reviewing upwards the tax rates in order to increase the tax effort as well as ensure optimal contribution of taxation towards economic growth and development.",book:{id:"6008",slug:"taxes-and-taxation-trends",title:"Taxes and Taxation Trends",fullTitle:"Taxes and Taxation Trends"},signatures:"Ojijo Odhiambo and Oluwatosin Olushola",authors:[{id:"203736",title:"Mr.",name:"Ojijo",middleName:null,surname:"Odhiambo",slug:"ojijo-odhiambo",fullName:"Ojijo Odhiambo"},{id:"206483",title:"Mr.",name:"Oluwatosin",middleName:null,surname:"Olushola",slug:"oluwatosin-olushola",fullName:"Oluwatosin Olushola"}]},{id:"66110",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84770",title:"Gold Recovery Process from Primary and Secondary Resources Using Bioadsorbents",slug:"gold-recovery-process-from-primary-and-secondary-resources-using-bioadsorbents",totalDownloads:1996,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Bioadsorbents were prepared in a simple manner only by treating in boiling concentrated sulfuric acid from various biomass materials such as various polysaccharides, persimmon tannin, cotton, paper and biomass wastes such as orange juice residue and microalgae residue after extracting biofuel. These bioadsorbents exhibited high selectivity only to gold over other metals and extraordinary high loading capacity for gold(III), which were elucidated to be attributable to the selective reduction of gold(III) ion to elemental gold due to its highest oxidation-reduction potential of gold(III) of metal ions, catalyzed by the surface of bioadsorbents prepared in boiling sulfuric acid. By using these biosorbents, recovery of gold from actual samples of printed circuit boards of spent mobile phones and Mongolian gold ore was investigated. Recovery of trace concentration of gold(I) from simulated spent alkaline cyanide solution was also investigated using the bioadsorbent. Application of bioadsorbents to some recovery processes of gold from cyanide solutions was proposed.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Durga Parajuli, Manju Gurung, Bimala Pangeni, Kanjana Khunathai, Keisuke Ohto and Hidetaka Kawakita",authors:[{id:"198951",title:"Prof.",name:"Keisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ohto",slug:"keisuke-ohto",fullName:"Keisuke Ohto"},{id:"259238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakita",slug:"hidetaka-kawakita",fullName:"Hidetaka Kawakita"},{id:"289372",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",slug:"katsutoshi-inoue",fullName:"Katsutoshi Inoue"},{id:"298633",title:"Dr.",name:"Bimala",middleName:null,surname:"Pangeni",slug:"bimala-pangeni",fullName:"Bimala Pangeni"},{id:"298634",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Gurung",slug:"manju-gurung",fullName:"Manju Gurung"},{id:"298635",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanjana",middleName:null,surname:"Khunathai",slug:"kanjana-khunathai",fullName:"Kanjana Khunathai"},{id:"298636",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga",middleName:null,surname:"Parajuli",slug:"durga-parajuli",fullName:"Durga Parajuli"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66110",title:"Gold Recovery Process from Primary and Secondary Resources Using Bioadsorbents",slug:"gold-recovery-process-from-primary-and-secondary-resources-using-bioadsorbents",totalDownloads:1996,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Bioadsorbents were prepared in a simple manner only by treating in boiling concentrated sulfuric acid from various biomass materials such as various polysaccharides, persimmon tannin, cotton, paper and biomass wastes such as orange juice residue and microalgae residue after extracting biofuel. These bioadsorbents exhibited high selectivity only to gold over other metals and extraordinary high loading capacity for gold(III), which were elucidated to be attributable to the selective reduction of gold(III) ion to elemental gold due to its highest oxidation-reduction potential of gold(III) of metal ions, catalyzed by the surface of bioadsorbents prepared in boiling sulfuric acid. By using these biosorbents, recovery of gold from actual samples of printed circuit boards of spent mobile phones and Mongolian gold ore was investigated. Recovery of trace concentration of gold(I) from simulated spent alkaline cyanide solution was also investigated using the bioadsorbent. Application of bioadsorbents to some recovery processes of gold from cyanide solutions was proposed.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Durga Parajuli, Manju Gurung, Bimala Pangeni, Kanjana Khunathai, Keisuke Ohto and Hidetaka Kawakita",authors:[{id:"198951",title:"Prof.",name:"Keisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ohto",slug:"keisuke-ohto",fullName:"Keisuke Ohto"},{id:"259238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakita",slug:"hidetaka-kawakita",fullName:"Hidetaka Kawakita"},{id:"289372",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",slug:"katsutoshi-inoue",fullName:"Katsutoshi Inoue"},{id:"298633",title:"Dr.",name:"Bimala",middleName:null,surname:"Pangeni",slug:"bimala-pangeni",fullName:"Bimala Pangeni"},{id:"298634",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Gurung",slug:"manju-gurung",fullName:"Manju Gurung"},{id:"298635",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanjana",middleName:null,surname:"Khunathai",slug:"kanjana-khunathai",fullName:"Kanjana Khunathai"},{id:"298636",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga",middleName:null,surname:"Parajuli",slug:"durga-parajuli",fullName:"Durga Parajuli"}]},{id:"59430",title:"Taxation and Economic Growth in a Resource-Rich Country: The Case of Nigeria",slug:"taxation-and-economic-growth-in-a-resource-rich-country-the-case-of-nigeria",totalDownloads:3860,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In this chapter, we examine the relationship between taxation and economic growth in a resource rich country, using Nigeria as a case study. We explore the linkages between availability of higher resource revenue and lower taxation effort of other revenue categories and the effects of these on growth. Ordinary least square (OLS) estimation technique is employed in estimating the specified model. Also, descriptive analysis is carried out regarding tax trends and tax efforts in Nigeria to determine the effectiveness of existing tax structures, as well to as examine relevant national and cross-country data. Empirical results reveal that taxation has a significant impact on Real GDP growth rates. However, the proportion of tax contribution to the growth rate falls short of the optimal level in terms of the volume of economic activities and value of total output. Nigeria also lags other African countries with respect to tax effort and as such has a huge untapped potential for enhanced revenue mobilisation. We recommend therefore, that the Government should institute an appropriate tax system with an emphasis on broadening the tax base and in some cases, reviewing upwards the tax rates in order to increase the tax effort as well as ensure optimal contribution of taxation towards economic growth and development.",book:{id:"6008",slug:"taxes-and-taxation-trends",title:"Taxes and Taxation Trends",fullTitle:"Taxes and Taxation Trends"},signatures:"Ojijo Odhiambo and Oluwatosin Olushola",authors:[{id:"203736",title:"Mr.",name:"Ojijo",middleName:null,surname:"Odhiambo",slug:"ojijo-odhiambo",fullName:"Ojijo Odhiambo"},{id:"206483",title:"Mr.",name:"Oluwatosin",middleName:null,surname:"Olushola",slug:"oluwatosin-olushola",fullName:"Oluwatosin Olushola"}]},{id:"71401",title:"Budget Deficit and the Federal Government Debt in Malaysia",slug:"budget-deficit-and-the-federal-government-debt-in-malaysia",totalDownloads:1182,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In general, most countries in the world, particularly developing countries, are facing significant budget constraints, in which the collection of tax and nontax revenues is less than the government’s total expenditure. Therefore, borrowing either from the local capital or international capital markets is made. Borrowing increases government debts. The budget deficits and the growth of the government debt are the major factors that determine the health of macroeconomics. There is a solid consensus among economists mainly on the effect of budget deficits on macroeconomics in terms of crowding out private investment, increasing interest rates, expanding money supply and escalating consumer price and in certain extent affect exchange rate. Government bonds issued to finance budget deficits are also in question as part of the net wealth of private sectors. On the other side, there is an agreement that the budget deficits financed by the issuance of bonds will crowd out private investment through increasing interest rate. This paper plans to investigate the impact of budget deficits on Malaysia’s economy. Cointegration test and vector error correction models are used to examine the impact of budget deficits on certain macroeconomic variables.",book:{id:"9030",slug:"perspectives-on-economic-development-public-policy-culture-and-economic-development",title:"Perspectives on Economic Development",fullTitle:"Perspectives on Economic Development - Public Policy, Culture, and Economic Development"},signatures:"Mohamed Aslam and Raihan Jaafar",authors:null},{id:"56708",title:"Human Development and Research-Development-Extension Relationships",slug:"human-development-and-research-development-extension-relationships",totalDownloads:1733,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Human capital is the most important strategic factor for development; as new technologies emerge, the market demand for better and healthier products and consumer demand in terms of quality and delivery time are changing. In today’s world, it becomes increasingly important to know how information can be accessed, how it is adopted, and how it can be assimilated. In this respect, each country allocates budget for training, education, and extension according to its own conditions. This budget may be intended for rural community-based social assistance, but the economic and welfare effect is essential. In this way, it is aimed to increase the living standards of the families living in the rural areas. This will naturally contribute to national income and to the prosperity of society. The subject has been discussed generally in the world, especially in the case of Turkey. According to this, all over the world, particularly in developing countries, research and extension (R&E) is very important and should be considered at least as much as research and development (R&D). However, it will be ensured that societies meet with the technology produced. For this, the development of human resources should be emphasized and a suitable atmosphere should be prepared for this widespread prosperity.",book:{id:"5819",slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",fullTitle:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices - Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth"},signatures:"Orhan Özçatalbaş",authors:[{id:"170206",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Özçatalbaş",slug:"dr.-orhan-ozcatalbas",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş"}]},{id:"68851",title:"Introductory Chapter: Objectives and Scope of Bioeconomy",slug:"introductory-chapter-objectives-and-scope-of-bioeconomy",totalDownloads:970,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Krzysztof Biernat",authors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"66",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:18,paginationItems:[{id:"81778",title:"Influence of Mechanical Properties of Biomaterials on the Reconstruction of Biomedical Parts via Additive Manufacturing Techniques: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104465",signatures:"Babatunde Olamide Omiyale, Akeem Abiodun Rasheed, Robinson Omoboyode Akinnusi and Temitope Olumide Olugbade",slug:"influence-of-mechanical-properties-of-biomaterials-on-the-reconstruction-of-biomedical-parts-via-add",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}},{id:"81751",title:"NanoBioSensors: From Electrochemical Sensors Improvement to Theranostic Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102552",signatures:"Anielle C.A. Silva, Eliete A. Alvin, Lais S. de Jesus, Caio C.L. de França, Marílya P.G. da Silva, Samaysa L. Lins, Diógenes Meneses, Marcela R. Lemes, Rhanoica O. Guerra, Marcos V. da Silva, Carlo J.F. de Oliveira, Virmondes Rodrigues Junior, Renata M. Etchebehere, Fabiane C. de Abreu, Bruno G. Lucca, Sanívia A.L. Pereira, Rodrigo C. Rosa and Noelio O. Dantas",slug:"nanobiosensors-from-electrochemical-sensors-improvement-to-theranostic-applications",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"81766",title:"Evolution of Organoids in Oncology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104251",signatures:"Allen Thayakumar Basanthakumar, Janitha Chandrasekhar Darlybai and Jyothsna Ganesh",slug:"evolution-of-organoids-in-oncology",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Organoids",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11430.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"81678",title:"Developmental Studies on Practical Enzymatic Phosphate Ion Biosensors and Microbial BOD Biosensors, and New Insights into the Future Perspectives of These Biosensor Fields",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104377",signatures:"Hideaki Nakamura",slug:"developmental-studies-on-practical-enzymatic-phosphate-ion-biosensors-and-microbial-bod-biosensors-a",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hideaki",surname:"Nakamura"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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