Nanoparticles syntheses.
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The first section evaluates the thermal and mechanical properties of thermoplastic and thermoset polymers reinforced with particles and fibers. The second section discusses new 2D composites such as thin films for their conductivity and shielding properties. In discussing the different materials, Composite Materials include information on the design of the materials, their structure, and their preparation methods.",isbn:"978-1-83962-740-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-787-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-741-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87676",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"composite-materials",numberOfPages:186,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"30cffe429a772008121d9ec81db6224a",bookSignature:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury, José Luis Rivera Armenta, Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Asiri and Inamuddin",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9867.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3992,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 16th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 10th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 9th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 28th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 26th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"185329",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman",middleName:null,surname:"Chowdhury",slug:"mohammad-asaduzzaman-chowdhury",fullName:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185329/images/system/185329.jpg",biography:"Mohammad Asaduzzaman Chowdhury is a professor of Mechanical Engineering at Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET), Gazipur, Bangladesh. His research interests are Engineering Tribology, Surface Engineering, Automation and Robotics, Coating Technology, Polymer and Composite Materials, Characterization of Materials. He is working as an Editorial Board Member of large number of International Reputed Journals. Currently, he is working as an editor, reviewer of many ISI and Scopus Indexed International Journals and books. He has also published many research and review papers in refereed International Journals and Conference Proceedings. He is working as a consultant, advisor and expert member of many government and autonomous organizations. His teaching & research experience about 21 years. He is involved himself with different cultural and social activities. He has engaged himself to write the articles, stories, lyrics and poems in different newspapers and relevant media.",institutionString:"Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/107855/images/system/107855.png",biography:"José Luis Rivera-Armenta has a BSc in Chemical Engineering, an MSc in Petroleum Technology and Petrochemicals, and a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from the Technological Institute of Madero City (ITCM), Mexico. Since 2003, he has been a full-time professor in postgraduate programs at ITCM and head of the thermal analysis, injection, and extrusion laboratory. He has been responsible for several research projects sponsored by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT) and the National Technological Institute of Mexico (TecNM). He has advised ten Ph.D., seventeen master’s degrees, and five bachelor’s degree theses. He has published fifty-five scientific articles, five book chapters, and has edited three books and one special issue journal.",institutionString:"National Technological Institute of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"National Technological Institute of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24438/images/system/24438.jpg",biography:"Prof. Mohammed Muzibur Rahman received his BSc and MSc from Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh, in 1999 and 2001, respectively. He received his Ph.D. from Chonbuk National University, South Korea, in 2007. He worked as a postdoctoral fellow and assistant professor in pioneering research centers and universities located in South Korea, Japan, and Saudi Arabia. Presently, he is an associate professor at the Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR) and Chemistry Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He has published more than 245 international and domestic conferences and several book chapters. He has also edited ten books. His research interests include photocatalysis, semiconductors, nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, nanotechnology, electrocatalysis, sensors, ionic liquids, surface chemistry, electrochemistry, and nanomaterials.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"11",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"198266",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah Mohammed",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Asiri",slug:"abdullah-mohammed-asiri",fullName:"Abdullah Mohammed Asiri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198266/images/system/198266.png",biography:"Prof. Abdullah Mohammed Ahmed Asiri is a professor and chairman of the Chemistry Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He is also the director of the university’s Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR). He obtained a Ph.D. in tribochromic compounds and their applications from the University of Wales College, Cardiff, UK, in 1995. He is the director of the Education Affair Unit–Deanship of Community Services. Dr. Asiri is a member of the advisory committee for advancing materials, National Technology Plan, King Abdul Aziz City of Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. He is an editorial board member of the Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, Journal of King Abdul Aziz University, Pigment and Resin Technology Journal, Organic Chemistry Insights, Libertas Academica, and Recent Patents on Materials Science. Dr. Asiri holds membership in several national and international societies and professional bodies.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},coeditorFour:{id:"289905",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Inamuddin",slug:"inamuddin",fullName:"Inamuddin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289905/images/system/289905.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Inamuddin is currently an assistant professor in the Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, and electrochemistry, and, more specifically, renewable energy and the environment. He has published 127 research articles in international journals of repute and eighteen chapters in books published by renowned international publishers. He has also edited thirty-nine books. Dr. Inamuddin is a member of various journal editorial boards and is an associate editor for journals such as Environmental Chemistry Letter, Applied Water Science, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, and Springer-Nature. He is also an editor for the Eurasian Journal of Analytical Chemistry.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"156",title:"Composite Materials",slug:"materials-science-composite-materials"}],chapters:[{id:"72738",title:"The Role of Novel Composite of 2D Materials and Their Characterization, Properties, and Potential Applications in Different Fields",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92707",slug:"the-role-of-novel-composite-of-2d-materials-and-their-characterization-properties-and-potential-appl",totalDownloads:516,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Thin layers or coating of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) is a new class of two-dimensional (2D) inorganic materials with unique physical and chemical properties. This book chapter covers the recent research of thin film of 2D materials using various novel technologies to synthesize and grow monolayer 2D materials on different substrates in different fields based on the knowledge available in the literature. Thin film on substrate can be enhanced with the favorable properties. Therefore, selection of methods can play a key role in characterizing the coating. The novel coating processes on composite materials and their characterization, properties, and process and potential applications also have been discussed. The 2D materials that have been investigated created a thin film through different methods and were used to serve different biomedical purposes such as modifying drug release, improving energy efficiency and storing energy, catalysts, and so an.",signatures:"Zahra Sayyar and Zahra Jamshidi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72738",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72738",authors:[{id:"314656",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahra",surname:"Sayyar",slug:"zahra-sayyar",fullName:"Zahra Sayyar"},{id:"317659",title:"Mrs.",name:"Zahra",surname:"Jamshidi",slug:"zahra-jamshidi",fullName:"Zahra Jamshidi"}],corrections:null},{id:"73084",title:"Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene Polymer Nanocomposites Infused with Sonochemically Coated SiC/SiO2 Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93498",slug:"thermal-and-mechanical-properties-of-polypropylene-polymer-nanocomposites-infused-with-sonochemicall",totalDownloads:458,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes the coating of silicon carbide nanoparticles on different types of silicon dioxide that varied in size and shape using sonochemical method. These composite particles were further infused into polypropylene polymer to increase its thermal and mechanical properties for various applications. A two-step process was used to fabricate SiC/SiO2/polypropylene nanocomposites. In the first step, SiC nanoparticles were coated onto four different types of SiO2 nanoparticles. The coated nanoparticles were then characterized using a high resolution transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) determined the morphology and crystalline structure, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). These results showed that the nanoparticles were crystalline, spherical in shape, and were uniformly coated. In the second step, nanocomposite samples were extruded using a Wayne Yellow Label Top single screw extruder. The as prepared nanocomposite samples were then characterized for their thermal and mechanical properties. These properties show increase in their flexural strength and thermal degradation. These results show increase in mechanical properties. The importance of this work lies in the simple sonochemical synthesis of SiC/SiO2 hybrid nanomaterials and their filler applications in polypropylene polymer nanocomposites which are widely used for various application including automotive and electronic industries.",signatures:"Vijaya Rangari and James Davis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73084",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73084",authors:[{id:"318463",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",surname:"Rangari",slug:"vijay-rangari",fullName:"Vijay Rangari"},{id:"324127",title:"MSc.",name:"James",surname:"Davis",slug:"james-davis",fullName:"James Davis"}],corrections:null},{id:"71600",title:"Advanced Polypropylene and Composites with Polypropylene with Applications in Modern Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91783",slug:"advanced-polypropylene-and-composites-with-polypropylene-with-applications-in-modern-medicine",totalDownloads:623,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Synthetic polypropylene (PP) is used extensively in many fields of medicine. On the one hand, it is utilized in the manufacture of medical equipment: syringes, storage, transport, electric cables, etc. On the other hand, synthetic, nonabsorbable isotactic PP (iPP) is often used to perform meshes for hernia and pelvic organ repair operations, as well as in urinary incontinence. Products that release in time from meshes are depending on the conditions in which they are utilized, can produce undesirable reactions for the human body. For this reason, nonabsorbable synthetic PP was replaced in surgical sutures and meshes with bio polypropylene (bio PP). The chapter analyzes the specific characteristics of these polymers as well as their degradation due to the influence of different factors: humidity, perspiration, temperature, and presence of bacteria. Obtaining new composite materials with PP as matrix and metal powders as fillers is considered as a possibility of their use in vital problems such as cancer detection and treatment. These allow the emergence of new strategies in the design of biosensors that use nanocomposite materials with different fillers and polymeric films. The chapter analyzes the characteristics of new composite materials with PP matrix and metallic powders of iron (Fe).",signatures:"Doina Elena Gavrila, Victor Stoian, Alina Caramitu and Sorina Mitrea",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71600",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71600",authors:[{id:"313022",title:"Dr.",name:"Doina Elena",surname:"Gavrila",slug:"doina-elena-gavrila",fullName:"Doina Elena Gavrila"},{id:"313027",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Stoian",slug:"victor-stoian",fullName:"Victor Stoian"},{id:"316823",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",surname:"Caramitu",slug:"alina-caramitu",fullName:"Alina Caramitu"},{id:"316825",title:"Dr.",name:"Sorina",surname:"Mitrea",slug:"sorina-mitrea",fullName:"Sorina Mitrea"}],corrections:null},{id:"73268",title:"Synthesis and Characterization of PANI and Block Copolymer PANI-b-PEO Catalyzed by Maghnite (AlgerianMMT): Electrical and Electronic Domain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93342",slug:"synthesis-and-characterization-of-pani-and-block-copolymer-pani-b-peo-catalyzed-by-maghnite-algerian",totalDownloads:383,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polyaniline (PANI) and its block copolymer (PANI-PEO2000) has been prepared under effect of Maghnite-H+ (Algerian MMT) in different weight percentage (wt %) by cationic polymerization method. The structure of PANI and PANI-PEO2000 is predicted by the FT-IR and 1HNMR spectra. The thermal stability of homopolymer and block copolymer is confirmed by difference scanning calorimetry and analysis thermogravimetry. So after this results we can suggest that our heterogeneous catalyst called maghnite (Algerian MMT) can modified the morphology and the physical chemical properties of polyaniline (PANI) and its homolog block polyaniline-b-poly ethylene oxide (PANI-b-PEO2000) in the mild conditions under microwave irradiation.",signatures:"Abdelkader Rahmouni, Fatima Zohra Zeggai, Mohammed Belbachir, Bachari Khaldoun and Redouane Chebout",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73268",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73268",authors:[{id:"254801",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahmouni",surname:"Abdelkader",slug:"rahmouni-abdelkader",fullName:"Rahmouni Abdelkader"},{id:"260927",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Belbachir",slug:"mohammed-belbachir",fullName:"Mohammed Belbachir"},{id:"321194",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatima Zohra",surname:"Zeggai",slug:"fatima-zohra-zeggai",fullName:"Fatima Zohra Zeggai"},{id:"321195",title:"Dr.",name:"Bachari",surname:"Khaldoun",slug:"bachari-khaldoun",fullName:"Bachari Khaldoun"},{id:"321196",title:"Dr.",name:"Redouane",surname:"Chebout",slug:"redouane-chebout",fullName:"Redouane Chebout"}],corrections:null},{id:"70301",title:"The Effect of Temperature on the Mechanical Performance of Steel and Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Tensegrity System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90010",slug:"the-effect-of-temperature-on-the-mechanical-performance-of-steel-and-carbon-fiber-reinforced-polymer",totalDownloads:470,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This paper compares the behavioral pattern of steel and carbon fiber reinforced polymer tensegrity system in a suspen-dome that has a span of 4-m span and a 0.4-m, using the finite element method software – namely ANSYS – to undertake the analysis at various temperature regimes. These comparisons were undertaken in order to validate the performance of carbon fiber reinforced polymer cables. Under cold and hot temperatures, the elastic modulus usually reduces as a result of changes in molecular structure. Previous analysis has shown that carbon fiber reinforced polymer cables are able to resist cold and hot temperatures more than steel cables do as the integrity of steel system begins to deform at high temperatures. However, with their low thermal expansion and esthetic properties, carbon fiber reinforced polymer cables can provide structural stability for a tensegrity system in a suspen dome in regions with high temperature conditions.",signatures:"IfeOlorun Olofin and Ronggui Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70301",authors:[{id:"310693",title:"Dr.",name:"IfeOlorun",surname:"Olofin",slug:"ifeolorun-olofin",fullName:"IfeOlorun Olofin"},{id:"310695",title:"Prof.",name:"Ronggui",surname:"Liu",slug:"ronggui-liu",fullName:"Ronggui Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"70798",title:"Thick-Section Epoxy Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90834",slug:"thick-section-epoxy-composites",totalDownloads:306,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Thick-section composites (TSC) are extensively demanded in many fields, such as aerospace, wind energy, and oil and gas industries. However, the manufacturing process of thick-section thermoset composites (TSSC) encounters significant complexities, such as variations of nonuniform resin flow, exothermal reaction and curing, and dimensional stability through the thickness direction. These process-related nonuniformities are expected to result in through-thickness gradients of mechanical properties and curing-induced deformations, leading to undesirable residual stresses and damage. This chapter introduces the application of TSC and issues related to its manufacturing processes. Methods of TSC are examined and analyzed. Fundamental characteristics of curing kinetics, thermal transfer, and residual stress in TSC will be explained. Research of detailed experiments will be referred for readers for further studies.",signatures:"Yanan Hou, Liguo Li and Joseph H. Koo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70798",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70798",authors:[{id:"228959",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Koo",slug:"joseph-koo",fullName:"Joseph Koo"},{id:"230298",title:"Ms.",name:"Yanan",surname:"Hou",slug:"yanan-hou",fullName:"Yanan Hou"},{id:"310289",title:"Mr.",name:"Liguo",surname:"Li",slug:"liguo-li",fullName:"Liguo Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"72569",title:"Study of Composite Structures Based on a Porous Silicon Matrix and Nanoparticles Ag/Zno Used as Non-Invasive Highly Sensitive Biosensor Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92850",slug:"study-of-composite-structures-based-on-a-porous-silicon-matrix-and-nanoparticles-ag-zno-used-as-non-",totalDownloads:321,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this work composite structures based on a porous silicon were obtained and studied. Porous matrices were formed by electrochemical etching in aqueous solutions of hydrofluoric acid. Based on the obtained substrates, por-silicon (Si)/silver (Ag) and por-Si/zinc oxide (ZnO) composite structures were formed. These composites were functionalized by various methods (electro (E)-, thermo (T)-, electrothermal exposure) as a result of which the structures were modified. When studying the samples by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), it was concluded that silver nanoparticles actively diffused into the pores under these technological modes of functionalization. The por-Si/Ag and por-Si/ZnO composite structures were also studied using the following methods: infrared (IR) spectroscopy and Raman ultrasoft X-ray emission spectroscopy. Also, the photoluminescent characteristics of the samples were studied. Based on the obtained results, it was concluded that functionalization methods actively change the phase composition of structures and the optical properties of composites.",signatures:"Veniamin Koshevoi, Anton Belorus, Ilya Pleshanov, Anton Timchenko, Roman Denisenko, Daniyar Sherimov and Ekaterina Vodkailo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72569",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72569",authors:[{id:"318404",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Veniamin",surname:"Koshevoi",slug:"veniamin-koshevoi",fullName:"Veniamin Koshevoi"},{id:"320281",title:"Mr.",name:"Anton",surname:"Belorus",slug:"anton-belorus",fullName:"Anton Belorus"},{id:"321164",title:"Mr.",name:"Ilya",surname:"Pleshanov",slug:"ilya-pleshanov",fullName:"Ilya Pleshanov"},{id:"321165",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Anton",surname:"Timchenko",slug:"anton-timchenko",fullName:"Anton Timchenko"},{id:"321166",title:"Mr.",name:"Roman",surname:"Denisenko",slug:"roman-denisenko",fullName:"Roman Denisenko"},{id:"321169",title:"Ms.",name:"Ekaterina",surname:"Vodkailo",slug:"ekaterina-vodkailo",fullName:"Ekaterina Vodkailo"},{id:"321170",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniyar",surname:"Sherimov",slug:"daniyar-sherimov",fullName:"Daniyar Sherimov"}],corrections:null},{id:"72860",title:"Investigation of Shielding Effectiveness of M-Type Ba-Co-Ti Hexagonal Ferrite and Composite Materials in Microwave X-Band Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91204",slug:"investigation-of-shielding-effectiveness-of-m-type-ba-co-ti-hexagonal-ferrite-and-composite-material",totalDownloads:590,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ferrites are a wide class of materials that are still a very rich field of scientific interest and under the scope of recent research. The polycrystalline Co2+-Ti4+ substituted Ba hexagonal ferrite has been synthesized by the standard ceramic method. The vector network analyzer has been incorporated to measure different microwave parameters at X-band (8.2–12.4 GHz) frequencies. The microwave shielding effectiveness is evaluated by S-parameters for near field and AC conductivity as well as skin depth for far field. The doping of Co2+ and Ti4+ ions causes absorption in composite x = 0.5 to exhibit good shielding effectiveness and it exhibits large 20-dB bandwidth of 4.70 GHz in the near field and 3.60 GHz for far field respectively. The AC conductivity increases with frequency in composites x = 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 and skin depth decreases with frequency in all composites. The shielding effectiveness, AC conductivity, and skin depth are correlated to each other.",signatures:"Charanjeet Singh, S. Bindra Narang and Ihab A. Abdel-Latif",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72860",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72860",authors:[{id:"188441",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukhleen Bindra",surname:"Narang",slug:"sukhleen-bindra-narang",fullName:"Sukhleen Bindra Narang"},{id:"248894",title:"Dr.",name:"Ihab",surname:"Abdel-Latif",slug:"ihab-abdel-latif",fullName:"Ihab Abdel-Latif"},{id:"312065",title:"Dr.",name:"Charanjeet",surname:"Singh",slug:"charanjeet-singh",fullName:"Charanjeet Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"73205",title:"A New Boundary Element Formulation for Modeling and Optimization of Three-Temperature Nonlinear Generalized Magneto-Thermoelastic Problems of FGA Composite Microstructures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93515",slug:"a-new-boundary-element-formulation-for-modeling-and-optimization-of-three-temperature-nonlinear-gene",totalDownloads:326,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main purpose of this chapter is to propose a new boundary element formulation for the modeling and optimization of three-temperature nonlinear generalized magneto-thermoelastic functionally graded anisotropic (FGA) composite microstructures’ problems, which is the gap of this study. Numerical results show that anisotropy and the functionally graded material have great influences on the nonlinear displacement sensitivities and nonlinear thermal stress sensitivities of composite microstructure optimization problem. Since, there are no available data for comparison, except for the problems with one-temperature heat conduction model, we considered the special case of our general study based on replacing three-temperature radiative heat conductions with one-temperature heat conduction. In the considered special case, numerical results demonstrate the validity and accuracy of the proposed technique. In order to solve the optimization problem, the method of moving asymptotes (MMA) based on the bi-evolutionary structural optimization method (BESO) has been implemented. A new class of composite microstructures problems with holes or inclusions was studied. The two-phase magneto-thermoelastic composite microstructure which is studied in this chapter consists of two different FGA materials. 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Nanosized powders of elements and their inorganic compounds are the basis for development of various nanostructured materials. These materials include nanostructured functional ceramics, hard alloys with increased wear resistance and toughness, dispersion hardened and modified structural alloys with enhanced performance characteristics, nanostructured protective thermo-, corrosion and wear-resistant coatings, polymer composites with fillers and inorganic nanoparticle modifiers for alloys [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
\nVarious techniques are used for nanopowders synthesis, including processing in gas, liquid and solid phases. Such methods employ physical and chemical deposition from gas phase, precipitation from solutions, mechanical grinding, etc. The formation of nanoparticles by homogeneous nucleation in supersaturated vapors followed by nanoparticles growth via condensation and coagulation is the basis of any gas phase nanoparticles manufacturing process. Fast cooling of saturated vapors or gas phase chemical reactions produce supersaturated vapors. Depending on the method used, processes for nanopowders manufacturing in gas phase include flame synthesis, evaporation in high-energy beams (laser radiation, accelerated electrons, focused microwave radiation), and plasmachemical synthesis in DC arc plasma.
\nPlasmachemical synthesis is the most versatile method for manufacturing of metal and inorganic compounds nanopowders, or nanopowders mixtures using inert, reducing and oxidizing atmospheres with controlled composition. Main advantages of nanopowders plasmachemical synthesis are:
Various types of nanopowders (individual elements, compounds and mixtures) can be produced;
Physical and chemical characteristics of the nanopowders can be controlled and nanopowders with required parameters (purity, chemical and phase compositions, specific surface) can be produced;
Plasma reactors have small dimensions and high production rate;
Traditional commonly applied raw materials can be used;
Process can be easily scaled-up from laboratory setup to the level of industrial equipment with high productivity.
High efficiency and other technological characteristics of nanopowder production in plasma testify to the competitiveness of the plasma method and wide possibilities for its application. As estimates show, the cost of nanopowders produced using plasma technologies at mass production level should slightly differ from the cost of “traditional” powders of this nomenclature. Plasma technologies can be considered as an effective way of obtaining a wide range of nanopowders. Thermal plasma can be generated using various types of electric discharges [10]. They include DC arc discharge, high-frequency (radio frequency) induction plasma discharge (RF), microwave plasma (UHF), as well as combined discharges.
\nAt present, RF plasma reactors developed and manufactured by TEKNA [11] are widely used for nanopowders production. When operating electrodeless RF and microwave plasmatrons, the impurities (such as electrode’s erosion products) in the nanopowders are absent, but it might appear when using DC arc plasma generators. However, it should be borne in mind that the present value of 1 kW of power generated by RF and microwave plasma torches is up to 3 times higher than the cost of plasma generation in DC arc plasma torches [12]. Besides, the power of modern DC arc plasma torches reaches 3–5 MW with a service life of up to 103 h [13, 14], while the power of existing RF plasmatrons does not exceed 1 MW. The usage of V-shaped DC arc plasmatrons where tungsten electrodes operate in an argon inert gas medium [15] allows to minimize the presence of impurities of the electrode material in the thermal plasma flow and to ensure the production of high-purity target products. Westinghouse Plasma Corporation developed plasmatrons with a power of 300–2400 kW and thermal efficiency of 70–85%. Such devices are used in waste materials processing and metallurgical furnaces operations [14]. DC plasma torches have high energy efficiency and can be used in the realization of high-temperature processes on an industrial scale. This paper provides a review of the research in the field of nanopowders synthesis and processing (spheroidization) of micron sized powders in thermal plasma flows generated by DC arc plasma torches. The research was carried out at the Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science (IMET RAS) in collaboration with partners over recent years.
\nIMET RAS developed DC arc plasma torches with a nominal power of 30–150 kW with self-setting arc length and gas discharge stabilization, as well as plasmatrons with an inter-electrode insert. The torches were used for the generation of thermal plasma in IMET laboratories and pilot plants. The plasma torches operated with reducing, oxidizing and inert gases and their mixtures and provided stable generation of plasma jets with an equilibrium temperature of up to 4000–8000 K (for molecular gases) and up to 12,000 K (for monatomic gases). The torches were used for both nanopowder production processes and for spheroidization processes. Plasma synthesis of nanopowders includes a complex set of physicochemical processes occurring in turbulent gas-dispersed non-isothermal flows. At present, plasma reactors with confined jet are widely used for nanopowders production. In confined jet reactor, the plasma jet flows into the volume of the reactor, which is confined by the cooled cylindrical surface. The ratio of the torch nozzle diameter to the reactor’s diameter is of the order of 10. The plasma jet can be generated by any type of plasma generator (DC arc discharge, high frequency discharge, microwave discharge). When a plasma jet outflows from plasma torch into reactor’s volume, a rapid temperature drop occurs, resulting in supersaturated vapors formation. Vapors condensation leads to the nanoscale particles formation. Evolution of nanoparticles granulometric composition occurs in the reactor’s volume because of their condensation and coagulation growth. Phase and chemical compositions of nanoparticles can also change. Control of nanoparticles formation is achieved by variation of such operational parameters as plasma jet chemical composition, enthalpy and flow rate; concentrations of reagents in the reactor; and parameters of the reagents injection into the plasma jet. If solid powder is used as raw material, the initial size of the solid particles has significant effect of nanoparticles formation.
\nDuring nanoparticles formation in the volume of plasma reactor, they move toward internal cooled surfaces of the reactor. The layer of nanoparticles is formed at these surfaces. The deposited layer evolution is affected by heat flux from the high temperature gas flow inside the reactor. The evolution of nanoparticles in the layer is determined by the temperature distribution and lifetime of the layer, and the temperature distribution depends in turn on the temperature of the cooled surface, the density of the mass flux of the deposited nanoparticles, and the density of the heat flux passing through the layer. Under plasmachemical synthesis conditions the layer thickness, as well as its thermal resistance, are increased in time. The unsteady temperature field in the layer can lead to the time changes of the layer’s structure, phase and chemical composition. These changes are due to chemical reactions, phase transformations, and particles sintering. All these changes occur when the temperature in the growing layer increases. To obtain the nanopowder with required specifications, where nanoparticles retain the properties determined by the conditions of their formation in the gas stream, it is necessary to exclude or minimize the possibility of physicochemical transformations in the layer of precipitated particles. It is necessary to prevent the layer’s temperature rise above certain threshold values. These values are the temperatures of nanoparticles characteristic chemical and phase transformations, and temperatures related to nanoparticles growth due to their contacts in the layer. Nanoparticles are formed in the plasma process inside the reaction zone, but possible nanoparticles transformations in the growing layer on the reactor’s surfaces might change the properties of nanoparticles and become a problem. This problem is important for the realization of controlled plasma synthesis of nanopowders with given properties.
\nAn unlimited growth of the nanoparticles layer thickness will inevitably lead to an increase in the layer’s temperature resulting in the particles sintering and coarsening, as well as possible change in their phase and chemical composition. These effects will be most pronounced for nanoparticles with a low temperature of possible physicochemical transformations, especially for particles with low melting point. Thus, to obtain the nanopowder with required specifications, the nanoparticles physical and chemical transformations in the deposited layer have to be blocked. To achieve this, the thickness of this layer, formed on the stationary cooled reactor’s surface, must be limited to a certain value. For particular target nanoproducts, the size of the precipitating nanoparticles, the initial temperature of the deposition surface and the heat flux density from the high temperature stream to the deposition surface will determine this limiting layer’s thickness.
\nThe investigations of metal and inorganic compounds nanopowders synthesis included experimental studies of heat and mass transfer in a confined plasma jet reactor [16].
\nFollowing topics were studied:
heat flux density distribution along the reactor‘s length to the nanoparticle deposition surface
mass flux density distribution of deposited nanoparticles along the reactor‘s length
physical and chemical properties of nanopowders deposited on the surface in various zones under various process parameters
A cylindrical sectioned plasma reactor with confined jet stream was used. Reactor had diameter and length of 200 and 600 mm correspondently (\nFigure 1\n) [17]. The length of the sections varied in the range 70–130 mm. DC arc plasma torch with a rated power of 25 kW was used for thermal plasma generation. Nitrogen, hydrogen-nitrogen mixture (22 vol. % H2), and air were used as plasma-forming gases. The synthesized nanoparticles were deposited on the reactor’s walls and partially removed with the exhaust gases into the filtration apparatus.
\nGeneral view of 30 kW plasma setup.
Following processes were carried out in the reactor:
Copper nanopowders production via evaporation-condensation of dispersed copper (raw particles less than 40 μm) in a nitrogen plasma;
Production of tungsten nanopowders by reduction of dispersed tungsten trioxide WO3 (raw particles less than 40 μm) in hydrogen-nitrogen plasma
Production of aluminum oxide nanopowders by oxidation of disperse aluminum (ASD-4, raw particles less than 10 μm) in air plasma;
Production of multicomponent composition in tungsten-carbon system (W-C) via interaction of dispersed tungsten trioxide WO3 (raw particles less than 40 μm) with methane in hydrogen-nitrogen plasma.
The reactions underlying these processes differ in thermal effects calculated under standard conditions. Copper evaporation-condensation reaction has a zero thermal effect, the reaction of tungsten trioxide reduction by hydrogen is weakly endogenous (0.5 MJ/kg WO3), and the oxidation of aluminum by oxygen has a strong exogenous character (31 MJ/kg Al).
\nThe experiments were carried out in the following parameters variation range:
\nPlasma forming gas flow rate | \n0.85–2 st. m3/hour, | \n
Plasma torch nozzle diameter | \n6–12 mm, | \n
Plasma flow enthalpy at the reactor inlet | \n13–29 MJ/st. m3, | \n
Plasma flow power | \n6.6–12.3 kW, | \n
Flow rate of dispersive raw material | \n1.0–7.0 g/min, | \n
Duration of experiments | \n5–80 min | \n
It was experimentally observed that when clean (no nanoparticles are present) nitrogen plasma jet enters the reactor, the heat flux density distribution along the reactor’s length shows maximum in the attachment region of the high-temperature flow to the reactor wall, which is typical for the separated flows in the channels with sudden expansion. The value of the heat flux density is determined mainly by the plasma flow power at the reactor’s inlet and in our experiments it varied in the range 25–45 kW/m2. The maximum value of the heat flux density exceeds by 2.5–3 times the values at initial and final sections of the reactor. Distribution of normalized heat flux density, i.e. flux related to the magnitude of the maximum, remains practically unchanged in the whole experimental range of input parameters variation (thermal power, flow rate and enthalpy) (\nFigure 2A\n). The presence of hydrogen in nitrogen practically did not change the heat fluxes values in the reactor. A decrease of the torch nozzle diameter from 10 mm to 6 mm led to the relocation of flow attachment region further downstream from the reactor inlet, and location of maximum wall heat flux changed accordingly.
\nNormalized heat flux and mass flux distributions at plasma reactor wall.
In experiments when nanopowders of copper, tungsten, and W-C composition were synthesized, it was found that heat flux density distribution along the reactor length also had extremum (\nFigure 2B\n), as in the case of the flow containing no dispersed particles. But for a two-phase flow (gas + particles) some increase in the heat flux density at the reactor initial sections was observed. This may be due to the radiation from condensed particles to the wall in the highest temperature zone of the reactor. This zone is located at the initial section of the plasma jet.
\nWhen aluminum oxide nanopowder was synthesized by oxidation of aluminum powder in air plasma jet, the significant differences in heat fluxes distribution in comparison with other realized processes were observed (\nFigure 3\n). With an increase in raw aluminum powder feed rate, the maximum heat flux density shifts toward the beginning of the reactor, while its magnitude increases due to additional heat release as a result of the highly exogenous reaction of aluminum oxidation by air oxygen. Depending on the raw material feed rate, the additional power released as a result of this reaction was equal to 10–40% of the plasma jet power. The local heat flux density on the reactor wall in the studied nanopowder syntheses varied in the range 10–40 kW/m2. It follows from experiments that non-uniform wall heat flux density distribution exists in plasma reactor with a confined jet flow, and the exogenous reactions with a pronounced thermal effect can exert a significant influence on the wall heat flux distribution. Some nanoparticles degradation might occur inside the deposited nanoparticles layer in the area of maximal heat flux.
\nHeat flux density distribution in Al2O3 nanopowder synthesis for various Al feed rates.
In the near-wall region of the plasma reactor, the nanoparticles transfer occurs under conditions when the average size of the nanoparticles is smaller or commensurable with the mean free path of the gas molecules, so the deposition of nanoparticles onto reactor wall from turbulent non-isothermal flow will be determined by the resulting effect of thermophoresis and Brownian diffusion [18]. The performed experiments have demonstrated that the deposited particles distribution along the reactor length has single extremum (\nFigure 2C\n), while the location of the maximum particle mass flux density coincides with the location of the maximum heat flux density. A similar particle flux density distribution is observed for all the studied processes, including aluminum oxide synthesis, where heat flux density distribution could have a bimodal character. The mass flow density is determined by the condensed phase mass concentration in the solid–gas flow, with the maximum value of the mass flow density exceeding by up to 2–3 times the mass flow density at the initial and final sections of the reactor.
\nFor all the processes in the studied parameter variation ranges a high degree of nanoparticles deposition on the reactor surface is observed. The deposited mass is equal to 40–80% of the total mass of synthesized nanopowder. Consequently, the final properties of the produced nanopowders are largely determined by the properties of the product that is precipitated exactly in the reactor. The degree of nanoparticles deposition decreases with increasing of the process duration (thickness of the deposited layer of nanoparticles) and with an increase in the raw materials feed rate (processing rate). It follows from analysis of experimentally found heat flux density distributions and mass fluxes density distributions along the reactor wall that the maximum heat flux position coincides with location of maximum mass flux, where growth of the nanoparticle layer occurs at the maximum rate. The effect of heat flux makes possible nanoparticles transformations such as sintering, chemical interaction with the active gaseous medium, and phase transformations most probable exactly in this region of the reactor internal surface.
\nThe layers of deposited nanoparticles had an extremely low bulk density, equal to 3–8% of the theoretical density. The deposited layers thickness varied from 0.05 to 2.7 mm in the experiments. Sintering of deposited nanoparticles near the maximum heat flux density location was noted only for copper nanopowder, where the melting point of the metal is 1360 K. A slight change in the average nanoparticle size inside the deposited layer along the reactor length is noted for other nanopowders (W, Al2O3, (W-C)), whose materials have much higher melting point. General list of nanopowder syntheses, performed in confined jet reactor, is given in \nTable 1\n. Some syntheses (AlN, AlON) were carried out in a combined reactor with disperse raw materials pre-evaporation in a heat-insulated channel followed by gas chemical quenching.
\nNo | \nNanopowder | \nInitial reagents | \nPlasma forming gas | \nProperties of nanopowders | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phase composition | \nSpecific surface area, m2/g | \nImpurities | \n||||
Metals | \n||||||
1 | \nW, Mo, Ni, Co, Re | \nMexOy, H2, C3H8 + air | \nH2 + N2, C3H8 + air | \nMe | \n2–30 | \n[O] | \n
2 | \nCu | \nCuCl | \nH2 + N2\n | \nCu, Cu2O, CuO, CuCl | \n2–5 | \n[Cl], [O] | \n
Cu(HCOO)2\n | \nN2\n | \nCu, Cu2O, CuO | \n2–7 | \n[C] | \n||
Cu(CH3COO)2 ∙ H2O | \nN2\n | \nCu, Cu2O, CuO | \n5–35 | \n[C] | \n||
Cu(re-condensation) | \nN2\n | \nCu, Cu2O, CuO | \n20–36 | \n[O] | \n||
Metal composites | \n||||||
3 | \nW-Ni-Fe (W – 95 mass %) | \nWO3, NiO, Fe2O3, H2\n | \nH2 + N2\n | \nW, Ni-Fe | \n5–12 | \n[O] | \n
4 | \nW-Cu (W - 80 mass %) | \nWO3, CuO | \nH2 + N2\n | \nW, Cu | \n4–8 | \n[O] | \n
5 | \nAg-SnO2\n | \nAg, SnO2\n | \nair | \nAg, SnO2\n | \n4–25 | \n\n |
Nitride, carbides, carbonitrides | \n||||||
6 | \nTiN | \nTi, (TiH2), N2\n | \nN2\n | \nTiN | \n10–20 | \n[Ti]metal\n | \n
TiCl4, H2, N2\n | \nH2 + N2\n | \nTiN | \n11–39 | \n[Cl] | \n||
7 | \nAlN | \nAl, NH3, N2\n | \nN2\n | \nAlN | \n75–100 | \n[Al]metal\n | \n
8 | \nTiC | \nTiCl4, H2, CH4\n | \nH2 + Ar | \nTiC | \n15–45 | \n[Cl] | \n
9 | \nTiCN | \nTiCl4, H2, N2, CH4\n | \nH2 + N2\n | \nTiN | \n13–23 | \n[Cl] | \n
10 | \nSiC | \nSiCl4, H2, CH4\n | \nH2 + Ar | \nΒ - SiC | \n20–75 | \n[Cl] | \n
11 | \nW – C (Ctotal = 6.2 mass %) | \nWO3, CH4, H2\n | \nH2 + N2\n | \nWC1-x, W2C, W, C | \n15–25 | \n\n |
Oxides | \n||||||
12 | \nAl2O3\n | \nAl, O2\n | \nAir | \nδ – Al2O3\n | \n15–50 | \n\n |
13 | \nAl2O3 – MeO (Me = Mg, Co) | \nAl, Me, O2\n | \nAir | \nMeAl2O4 (spinel) | \n12–16 | \n\n |
14 | \nAlON | \nAl, NH3, N2, O2\n | \nN2\n | \nAlON | \n20–70 | \n[Al] metal\n | \n
15 | \nTiO2\n | \nTiCl4, O2\n | \nO2 + Ar | \nTiO2 (rutile + anatase) | \n10–120 | \n[Cl] | \n
16 | \nSiO2\n | \nSiCl4, O2\n | \nO2 + Ar | \namorphous | \n200–300 | \n[Cl] | \n
17 | \nZrO2\n | \nZrCl4, O2\n | \nO2 + Ar | \nZrO2 (monoclinic + tetragonal) | \n18–32 | \n[Cl] | \n
18 | \nZrO2 – Al2O3\n | \nZrCl4, Al, O2\n | \nO2 + Ar | \nZrO2 (tetragonal) | \n17 | \n[Cl] | \n
19 | \nY2O3\n | \nY(COOH)3, O2\n | \nO2 + Ar | \nY2O3 (cubic) | \n15–25 | \n\n |
Nanoparticles syntheses.
Granulometric composition is one of the most important nanopowders characteristics, which determines the possibility of their use in solving scientific problems and in practical applications. According to the results of electron microscopy, all nanopowders synthesized in plasma reactor are polydisperse and consist of particles of equiaxial shape (\nFigure 4\n). The presence of nanoobjects with oriented growth forms is not detected. Formation of nanoparticles under the conditions of plasmachemical synthesis occurs through the macro-mechanisms “vapor–liquid-crystal” (VLC), “vapor-crystal” (VC) and mixed mechanism, including a combination of these mechanisms (VLC-VC). Thermodynamic calculations of the nanopowder equilibrium yield as a function of temperature elucidate the mechanism of nanoparticle formation in a particular process.
\nTEM and SEM micrographs. 1—Al2O3, 2—TiO2, 3—SiC, 4—W-C, 5—Cu, 6—W, 7—W-cu, 8—W-Ni-Fe, 9—TiC, 10—TiCN.
Suppose that the substance in question exists in the liquid and solid state, and its yield depends on the temperature. Let us determine T* as the temperature corresponding to the maximum yield of the nanoparticle substance, Tc as the maximum temperature at which the nanoparticle exists in the condensed state, and Tm as the melting temperature of nanoparticle matter. Taking into account the fact that the plasma process occurs at a decreasing temperature initially exceeding Tc, the temperature conditions for the nanoparticles formation by the above-mentioned macro-mechanisms can be written as:
\nmechanism VLC, Тm < Т * < Тc, all particles have a spherical habit (\nFigure 5a; 4–1; 4–5);
\nPossible characteristic relations between temperatures, when nanoparticles are formed via different mechanisms.
mechanism VC, T* < Tc < Tm, all particles have a faceted habit (\nFigure 5b, 4–2);
\nmechanism of VLC-VC, T* < Tm < Tc, particles have both spherical and faceted habit (\nFigure 6c; 4–9; 4–10).
\nParticles size distributions for Al2O3, TiO2, W, cu, TiCN and TiN nanopowders.
The VLC mechanism is realized if, under conditions of a decreasing process temperature, the maximum yield of nanoparticle matter occurs at temperatures above the melting point temperature (\nFigure 5a\n). The VC mechanism will determine formation of nanoparticles if the formation occurs at the temperatures below the melting temperature of the nanoparticle matter (\nFigure 5b\n), or the substance does not exist at all in the liquid state.
\nIf during nanoparticles formation temperature is reduced and the substance undergoes crystallization (solidification) before the maximum yield is reached, then nanoparticles formation mechanism changes from VLC to VC, and product will contain both spherical and faceted particles (\nFigure 5c\n). As follows from the microphotographs of the obtained nanopowders (\nFigure 4\n), nanoparticles formation in the realized plasma syntheses can occur through all three of these mechanisms (VLC, VC, and VLC-VC). Under plasma synthesis conditions, all of the above mechanisms took place in the formation of Al2O3, TiO2, Cu, W, TiN, TiCN and W-C composition nanoparticles. The micrographs of the nanopowders were used to construct the histograms of the particle size distribution, and statistical analysis was carried out (\nFigure 6\n) [19].
\nIt was established that the lognormal particle size distribution function (PSDF) reliably (with a correlation coefficient of more than 0.95) describes all the objects under investigation over wide range of changes in the granulometric composition of the investigated nanopowders.
\nIn the PSDF formula
The effect of the plasma process parameters, as well as effect of the characteristic dimensions of the reactor, was studied in Ref. [24] in case of tungsten and nickel nanopowders synthesis by reduction of WO3 and NiO oxides in hydrogen-nitrogen and propane-air plasmas. It is shown that the average metal nanoparticle size can be affected by the characteristic dimensions of the plasma apparatus, such as reactor diameter and plasma torch nozzle diameter. These parameters determine the dimensions of the high-temperature zone where the nanoparticles formation takes place. The chemical processes, occurring at nanoparticle surface, also could influence the regularities of nanoparticle growth. The results of studies of various nanopowders production in the plasma reactor indicate that the influence of the process parameters on the average particle size is a multifactor problem, where the physicochemical features of the process play significant role.
\nIt was found that the average nanoparticle size depends on the synthesis parameters such as the initial precursor concentration, plasma jet enthalpy and velocity. The individual features of the specific process determine the degree of influence of these parameters. Production of nanoparticles of extremely small size in the confined jet reactor can be achieved only if the initial vapor concentration is significantly reduced or the jet velocity is increased. Reducing the initial concentration results in a decrease in the synthesis productivity, and the velocity increase has certain physical and technical limitations. Controlled change of nanoparticles coagulation growth time in the thermal plasma flow manipulates the size of nanoparticles, formed by the VLC mechanism. Additional channel to control the nanoparticle growth time is fast quenching by cold gas injection. Cold gas injection forces cessation of the coagulation growth after completion of vapor–liquid phase transition.
\nDistributed radial injection of quenching gas was organized at the periphery of the high-temperature flow in the synthesis of alumina nanopowder by oxidation of a metal powder in air plasma flow [25]. Quenching was carried out at the different distances from the reactor inlet, thus varying the particles residence time in the coagulation growth zone. The change of the injection gas flow rate and the injection position allowed the variation of the average particle size in the range of 35 to 75 nm. The obtained results indicate that confined DC plasma jet reactor is capable to produce wide range of individual elements nanopowders as well as nanopowders of inorganic compounds and composites.
\nSpherical powders with a particle size of the order of 10 μm are used as starting materials for the manufacture of products from metals and alloys by the additive technologies methods. Processing of powders with irregular particle shape in thermal plasma flows ensures their fusion, leading to the formation of spherical particles [31].
\nTitanium powders (fractions of 40–70 μm and less than 40 μm) were processed in the flow of thermal argon plasma, generated by an electric arc plasma torch. The hydrogenation-dehydrogenation process produced raw titanium powders. After plasma processing, the degree of spheroidization has reached 96%. Average sphericity coefficient was equal to 1.01 (\nFigure 7\n).
\nMicrographs of spheroidized titan powder.
Experimental studies of the production of nonporous spherical powders of multicomponent metal alloys have been performed. Ultrafine powder compositions of alloy components, having a particle size of less than 1 μm, have been used as raw material. Model high-alloy Fe-Ni-Cr alloy particles were used as example, and spherical alloy powders with particle sizes in the range from 25 to 50 μm were produced.
\nThe process consisted of the following stages: microgranulation of ultrafine powder, heat treatment of microgranules (drying at 100°C, removal of organic binder at 300°C, thermochemical treatment in H2 at 1000°C, vacuum treatment at 1200°C), classification of heat-treated microgranules with separation of microgranules fraction in the range 25 to 50 μm, spheroidization of the isolated fraction of microgranules in the thermal plasma flow, separation of the micron and submicron fraction. Micrographs of the alloy components microgranules and particles, spheroidized in the plasma flow, are shown in \nFigure 8\n. The presented experimental results indicate the possibility of metallic and alloys powders spheroidization in a confined DC plasma jet apparatus using various initial powder materials.
\nMicrographs of granules. (А) – Initial alloy components, (В) – Spheroidized in plasma.
The presented results of research and development testify to the wide possibilities of plasma processes and devices for obtaining nanopowders of metals and their various inorganic compounds with specified properties. The nanopowders, produced in the plasma reactors, were used in various R&D projects aimed at creation of new materials with special and improved properties. Along with the production of nanopowders, the same plasma reactor with confined jet provides the possibility of metal and alloys powders spheroidizing for their application in additive technologies. The accumulated experience is the basis for the creation of efficient industrial production of powders using plasma reactors based on DC arc plasma torch.
\nThis work was supported by the Fund of Applied Researches, Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (unique identifier of the project RFMEFI57816X0216).
\nBy its very nature, one cubic meter of wood stores almost a ton of CO2, so wood reduces the carbon footprint of the construction industry while evaluating the entire life cycle from raw material to production, use, and recycling, and timber buildings play an important role in supporting to the sustainable bioeconomy [1, 2].
Studies indicate that increasing the use of EWPs in the construction sector has environmental benefits, as wood is a renewable and lightweight material [3, 4], where utilization of EWPs instead of conventional building materials e.g. concrete or steel, the total fossil fuel footprint of building construction can be diminished to a considerable extent through environmental-friendly-material replacement [5, 6]. Also, based on some estimates, substituting concrete with wood could lessen the energy used by construction processes by 40%, while greenhouse gas emissions could be reduced by 35% [7, 8]. Extensive use of EWPs may have helped make the transition towards more carbon-free production of building materials [9, 10].
A construction project involves a large number of participants with various roles, goals, and concerns [11] as in the case of high-rise timber buildings e.g. Mjøstårnet (Norway, 2019) (Figure 1), HoHo (Austria, 2020) (Figure 2). Besides, the building material selection process includes many parameters, e.g. cost, structural performance, environmental friendliness, fire performance, availability, and speed of construction [12, 13]. Moreover, the material selection procedure is a complex non-linear process involving various actors such as contractors, structural designers, developers, and architects [14, 15, 16].
Mjøstårnet (Norway, 2019) (Source: Wikipedia).
HoHo (Austria, 2020) (Source: Wikipedia).
Among these parties involved, architects play a critical role in material selection [17, 18], their perceptions influence their choice of material in the structural frame [13, 15, 19, 20]. Perhaps more importantly, architects’ perceptions could lead to an increase in the use of EWP for construction [19, 21].
In the literature, many studies have been carried out on the ecological, technological, economic, and social aspects of engineered wood products and various technical solutions in buildings [22]; while there is a relatively limited number of studies concentrating on the EWPs for construction from the stakeholders’ perspective (e.g. [11, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]).
This chapter presented a comprehensive overview of the perceptions, attitudes, and interests of architects in the use of EWPs together with their perceived benefits and barriers for construction. This study gathered, mapped out, and systematized scattered and multifaceted knowledge on architects’ attitudes towards EWPs employment in buildings, and chronologically presented them in an accessible and manageable discourse. Notably, the chapter also revealed how this perception has changed over time.
An increasing emphasis on the climate impact of building materials in the construction sector should therefore increase the likelihood that future EWPs will be favored to a greater extent. In this sense, attempts to increase the awareness of architects about EWPs will have a positive effect, e.g. regarding the economic aspects. In this study, wood or timber refers to engineered timber products such as cross-laminated timber, laminated veneer lumber, glue-laminated timber/glulam.
In the literature, several studies from different countries such as Australia, America, Sweden are concentrating on wood as a structural material in the buildings from architects’ perspective through questionnaires and/or interviews (e.g. [13, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27]).
Among the studies, Truskett undertook surveys and interviews with architects in Victoria (Australia) to explore factors influencing the specification of wood products [28]. The findings showed that while the vast majority (90%) of those surveyed ‘always or mostly’ used structural timber for residential purposes, only 20% frequently used structural timber for non-residential applications. According to the architects, timber as a structural and finishing material has strong aesthetic appeal, but the factors such as maintenance and durability, professional networks, industry practice, information, and environmental issues hamper its general use.
Kozak and Cohen focused on the construction material selection of architects (n = 594 out of 3,986) and structural engineers (n = 384 out of 1,822) for non-residential buildings through an online survey in the United States and Canada [26]. The results showed that steel and concrete continue to be the most common material in non-residential applications, whereas wood governs the construction market for elderly housing and is also frequently employed in religious buildings, restaurants, and commercial/residential combinations. It was also pointed out that as the building height increases, the use of wood decreases. However, the attitudes of architects were encouraging towards the use of timber-frame if they had previously specified it.
In 2004, Wagner and Hansen scrutinized material preferences among architects and engineers in America and Chile by a cross-cultural comparison to establish a procedure for choosing a customer group of a company and then classifying its demands and needs [27]. They stated that American architects did not give much weight to issues concerning cost and ecological properties of the building material when deciding on wood construction, whereas other considerations e.g. dimensional stability were thought to have more potential for development when compared with competing materials like steel. Similarly, surveyed architects from Chile were not interested in the environmental features of the wood. Besides this, both sample groups of architects had a positive attitude towards the aesthetical properties of wood, and they perceived uniform quality as an essential asset. It was also noticed that fire-related issues received less concern among the architects than the relevant literature suggests [26].
O’Connor et al. studied architects’ and engineers’ perceptions regarding the use of wood in the North American non-residential construction sector through an extensive mail survey applied to a series of specifier’s focus groups [15]. This research identified several perceived challenges for wood utilization in construction: building code concerning fire safety; cost-competitiveness with steel especially in terms of complicated structures or structures with a longer span; design performance related to strength, durability, stiffness, and lack of established practices. They also proposed short- and long-term recommendations for addressing these obstacles.
The research of Bayne and Taylor also examined the barriers to the use of wood in Australian non-residential buildings to understand the reasons behind the common use of non-wood products e.g., concrete and steel [29]. They aimed to identify the reasons for the lack of confidence in specifying wood as a structural material in these buildings. As a result of interviews with 34 architects, engineers, building designers, and project managers, a range of strengths and weaknesses regarding the structural application of wood to non-residential use were underlined. Findings suggested that aesthetics, easy construction, and adaptability of design and fire performance were evaluated as advantages, while cost and speed of erection were taken as the most common obstacles by the specifiers. It was also concluded that the use of wood was found more suitable and promising by the architects for smaller building types such as housing for the elderly, schools, public buildings, and churches.
In 2008, Roos et al. presented perceptions of 23 Swedish architects and structural engineers about the material selection process, which also included a comparison of wood with other materials, the effects of main stakeholders, and the relation of wood construction with professional roles and knowledge [30]. Both architects and engineers were interested in using wood but perceived it as complicated. This study as a prospect highlighted the issues such as clear demonstration of business-sound wood compared with concrete and steel; functional information flows from the construction industry to wood sector; expression of smart solutions enabling flexibility and appropriate span lengths from an architectural standpoint; putting emphasis on aesthetic and visual aspects of timber-frame, and importance of providing more information about environmental benefits of wood by suppliers.
Bysheim and Nyrud investigated Norwegian architects’ perceptions regarding the use of wood as a structural material in urban construction via a questionnaire to measure attitudes towards the physical, mechanical, and fire-related properties of wood [31]. They found that many architects show a tendency to use structural timber, but few are planning to do so. They were also positive; fire and aesthetically related properties, costs of using structural timber compared to substitutes, and the energy-related properties of the material, the physical and mechanical properties of timber-frame. They felt qualified to specify timber-frame in buildings but did not perceive the choice of using structural timber as being entirely up to them. The architects had positive attitudes towards timber-frame in residential buildings but were negative towards use in other building types. Additionally, they were positive to utilize in buildings up to 3-story. The architects had little experience with timber-frame in other building types other than residential ones. Most of the respondents strongly agreed that other architects would have a positive tendency to them employing timber-frame, whereas contractors and real estate developers were perceived as negative towards the use of timber-frame.
Robichaud et al. explored the challenges to the use of wood in the North American non-residential construction sector [32]. This study aimed to examine the possible role of communication in this emerging market among architects through a survey (n = 165 out of 5,000). The results showed that generally, the architects assessed wood to be a ‘sincere’ but ‘unexciting’ structural material. When compared to concrete and steel, wood was perceived as the most environmentally friendly material. However, wood was rated with the lowest score in terms of durability, fire-resistant, structural performance, and contribution to the high building value. In the recommendation part of the study, the issue of better communication on the part of wood producers and product information was highlighted.
The research of Roos et al. analyzed architects’ and structural engineers’ attitudes and perceived factors that hinder or facilitate the specification of wood construction in Sweden [20]. The main finding of this research was that the material preference of architects and structural engineers is affected by attitudes concerning the properties of wood and beliefs about the control and ease of building in wood. Wood was generally perceived as a suitable building material. Issues about decay, instability, and sound transmission were assessed as negative aspects, while the features of strength, environmental friendliness, simple handling, and suitability for use along with industrial methods were taken as advantages of wood. Besides this, developers and contractors were perceived as the most influential parties by both Swedish architects and structural engineers in the material selection process.
The result suggests that if the following measures are taken into consideration, perceived obstacles could be lessened: (i) developing clearer business concepts for timber-based transparent and affordable construction approaches that decrease the uncertainty, (ii) creating prefabrication methods for wood to reduce the risk factor in the construction, (iii) developing education and training in building design and construction in wood, (iv) providing information about the environmental performance of wood as a building material, (v) improving the ‘professional status’ of wood via interesting design, (vi) supporting architects and engineers in pursuing wood construction and developing a dialogue among all the related professions.
Hemström et al. assessed Swedish architects’ perceptions, attitudes, and interest towards steel-, concrete-, and timber-frames in multi-story buildings through a web-based questionnaire (n = 412 out of 3,600) [11]. The results indicated that concrete was found the most favorable frame material for multi-story construction mainly because of its performance of engineering-based issues e.g., stability and fire safety that was considered critical for the selection of frame material. The general attitude towards, and interest in, timber-frame utilization was positive and related to its perceived environmental features. Differing from findings in North America [15], this study showed that costs and time to construct a building are not perceived as major barriers to the use of wood among architects in Sweden. Contradictory to the perception of wood being a less suitable multi-story frame material than concrete and steel, the interest in the use of wood frames was large. Contrary to Norwegian findings [16], the overall attitude towards the use of wood frames in residential buildings presented here was not different from the attitude towards the wood in non-residential buildings. Besides this, the results showed that contractors, structural engineers, and building commissioners have a great influence on the choice of frame material.
In 2014, Xia investigated the reasons as perceived obstacles for comparatively limited use of the timber-frame in multi-story non-residential buildings (compared to low-rise housing) among industry professionals - also including architects - in Australia by a questionnaire survey (n = 74 out of 176) [13]. The results indicated five main groups of identified obstacles: (1) lack of support in official regulations, (2) lack of interest in the industry, (3) lack of experience in professionals, (4) perception of drawbacks, and inadequate knowledge about merits of timber-frame utilization. This study also made several recommendations concerning more supportive legislation by the governmental side to stimulate the use of wood in multi-story building construction, industry training to raise the awareness and knowledge of the technological improvements regarding EWPs, the attitudes of developers and investors as the most influential decision-makers towards increasing the awareness of timber-frame advantages.
Viluma and Bratuškins conducted research among architects and other stakeholders in Latvia to find out the main barriers to using wood for buildings through 38 interviews and questionnaires [33]. There were 73 answers from 85 registered persons of which 36 were architects, 25 were students and lecturers, as well as representatives from timber production and media. In this study, the main motivating factors and seven main barriers to the selection of wood constructions were identified. Research results showed that architects’ attitude towards timber-frame, in general, is positive, but they thought that due to the Latvian Fire Safety Regulation, it is not easy to find solutions for wood construction. Additionally, the architects emphasized the
Conroy et al. investigated familiarity, use, and perceptions of EWPs among the AIA-certified architects across Washington, Oregon, and California through an online questionnaire (n = 533 out of 3,469) [18]. The results indicated that durability, fire resistance, and strength were assessed as weaknesses of engineered wood products, unlike other studies such as [16, 29] that found architects saw wood fire performance as a strength. The architects from Washington and Oregon projected the use of wood in the construction industry to develop more in the next five years compared to steel and concrete. To boost the use of wood as a construction material for the structure and building enclosure in non-residential buildings, it was recommended that the forest products industry enhances its internet presence, developing interdisciplinary communication strategies.
As one of the most recent studies, Kuzman et al. attempted to better understand the specification process of EWPs and to provide an updated overview of the perceived identity of these materials among architects in Slovenia, Austria, France, Sweden, Croatia, and Bosnia, and Herzegovina [34]. The results indicated that generally, participating architects have a positive attitude towards wood utilization in all countries. Thermally modified wood was perceived as positive, whereas the architects were unfamiliar with more recently introduced wood modification methods e.g., acetylation, furfurylation (which are not well known). Their findings suggested that the opportunities for wood to gain a greater market share will grow.
Markström et al. probed Swedish architects’ perception of the use of EWPs in buildings and the parameters which positively influence the preference of these products via a survey questionnaire [24]. Findings highlighted that in general, and as per the more recent study by [34], the perception of EWPs is positive among Swedish architects, and most of them think that their use will increase in the future. They also added that other decision-makers with greater influence over the material selection, such as contractors, developers choose other materials. A lack of knowledge, as well as uncertainties about the quality over time, were other common reasons for not preferring EWPs. The results also indicated that environmental concerns and aesthetic appearance are the main reasons to select these materials for the architects involved in building projects. It was stated that knowledge, familiarity, and architects’ attitude play a role in increasing the use of EWPs.
Therefore, it can be said that perceived positive aspects of EWPs have markedly changed from earlier studies in 1997. By that year, in one of the studies by [28] entitled
[24] | architects in Sweden |
|
|
[18] | architects in the US West Coast |
|
|
[33] | stakeholders (including architects) in Latvia |
| |
[13] | industry professionals (including architects) in Australia |
| |
[11] | architects in Sweden |
| |
[20] | architects and structural engineers in Sweden |
|
|
[32] | architects in North America |
|
|
[31] | architects in Norway |
| |
[30] | architects and building engineers in Sweden |
|
|
[29] | architects, engineers, building designers, and project managers in Australia |
|
|
[27] | architects and engineers in the US and Chile |
| |
[26] | architects and structural engineers in the US and Canada |
|
|
Studies on architects’ attitudes towards the use of EWPs for construction.
In terms of the major benefits and barriers to using EWPS for construction, similar findings were identified in different studies such as [11, 24, 32]. Architects mostly had a positive attitude towards aesthetic quality (e.g. [24, 31]) and environmental performance (e.g. [18, 26]) of EWPs.
Also, in Bayne and Taylor’s study on the barriers to the use of EWPs, it was found that the use of timber is more suitable for smaller buildings such as housing development [29]. Similarly, Bysheim and Nyrud found that architects took a positive attitude towards the use of timber as frame material in three-story houses [31].
Some other studies among architects such as [11, 18, 24, 32] highlighted
In studies conducted among architects in the USA [18, 32] and those in Sweden [30],
As many studies (e.g. [13, 33]) reported,
Besides, according to the participants in the study by Xia et al.,
Overall, architects’ perceptions of EWPs’ engineering performance can deter them from employing EWPs for construction. Such a change can be driven by an increase in examples of promising timber building applications. e.g. high-rise buildings (over 8-story), and so the general attitude of architects towards EWPs will be more positive in terms of engineering-based features such as sound insulation, fire safety, durability, and structural performance.
Future scenarios for wooden buildings could improve if there is a new trend towards greater importance of environmental factors in the choice of structural material facilitated by policies, which can make a difference in the demands of customers and the tendencies of contractors.
Moreover, architects can play an important role as prime marketers in increasing EWPs for construction, but it seems that more initiatives are required to enhance their familiarity since the lack of experience and level of knowledge may prevent architects from proposing timber in their projects.
The aim of this chapter was to understand the architects’ perceptions, attitudes, and interests in the use of EWPs for construction. In doing so, this research attempted to identify perceived major benefits and barriers to EWPs utilization.
Overall, architects mostly had a positive attitude towards the use of EWPs. Among EWPs’ positive aspects, aesthetic quality, environmental performance, energy efficiency, and speed of erection were the highlights. Durability, fire resistance, and strength were assessed as the most critical barriers to the common use of EWPs. These were followed by a lack of cost competitiveness, knowledge gaps or lack of expertise, and lack of developer interest.
In this sense, the following recommendations may help to overcome identified barriers by improving overall attitudes towards EWPs for construction:
(1) providing architecture students with more education and inspiration at university, more information about wood-based products, better design aids, and more design examples (2) supporting architects in timber construction by creating a sharing environment with members of these professions (3) developing more active participation in EWP-based problem solving and better interdisciplinary communication strategies among timber suppliers, the timber construction industry and the architectural community (4) developing business-oriented approaches for timber compared to traditional materials e.g. concrete in construction (5) developing effective timber prefabrication methods to reduce the risk factor in construction (6) Enhance the collaboration of different stakeholders such as government, client, designer, contractor, and supplier by issuing more supportive regulations and guidelines to increase the use of EWPs for construction.
It is believed that this chapter will help to deepen the understanding of various considerations shaping the decision-making process in the use of EWPs for construction.
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\\n\\nAuthors are required to declare all potentially relevant non-financial, financial and material Conflicts of Interest that may have had an influence on their scientific work.
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\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
\n\nA Conflict of Interest can be identified at different phases of the publishing process.
\n\nIntechOpen requires:
\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST - AUTHOR
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\n\nCONFLICT OF INTEREST – ACADEMIC EDITOR
\n\nEditors can also have Conflicts of Interest. Editors are expected to maintain the highest standards of conduct, which are outlined in our Best Practice Guidelines (templates for Best Practice Guidelines). Among other obligations, it is essential that Editors make transparent declarations of any possible Conflicts of Interest that they might have.
\n\nAvoidance Measures for Academic Editors of Conflicts of Interest:
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\n\nEXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:
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\n\nAcademic Editors should declare if the Author of a submitted manuscript is affiliated with the same department, faculty, institute, or company as they are.
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Considering this, this chapter presents the types of Brazilian propolis as the types available nowadays, their chemical compositions, as well as, some of their important biological properties enabling employing them as important health food, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunomodulation action. Various “in vivo” and clinical trial studies, conducted in different regions, on the safety and dosage of propolis, technologies used to obtain propolis extract, and several innovative presentations of this promising bee product are also presented in this chapter. Finally, this chapter aims to present the regulatory affairs, potential market for propolis around the world, and perspectives for a near future.",book:{id:"5505",slug:"superfood-and-functional-food-an-overview-of-their-processing-and-utilization",title:"Superfood and Functional Food",fullTitle:"Superfood and Functional Food - An Overview of Their Processing and Utilization"},signatures:"Andresa A. Berretta, Caroline Arruda, Felipe Galeti Miguel, Nathalia\nBaptista, Andresa Piacezzi Nascimento, Franciane Marquele-\nOliveira, Juliana Issa Hori, Hernane da Silva Barud, Bianca Damaso,\nCésar Ramos, Raul Ferreira and Jairo Kenupp Bastos",authors:[{id:"74602",title:"Dr.",name:"Jairo Kenupp",middleName:null,surname:"Bastos",slug:"jairo-kenupp-bastos",fullName:"Jairo Kenupp Bastos"},{id:"191621",title:"Dr.",name:"Andresa",middleName:"Aparecida",surname:"Aparecida Berretta",slug:"andresa-aparecida-berretta",fullName:"Andresa Aparecida Berretta"},{id:"192234",title:"Dr.",name:"Franciane",middleName:null,surname:"Marquele-Oliveira",slug:"franciane-marquele-oliveira",fullName:"Franciane Marquele-Oliveira"},{id:"192235",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nathalia",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"nathalia-baptista",fullName:"Nathalia Baptista"},{id:"192236",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Hori",slug:"juliana-hori",fullName:"Juliana Hori"},{id:"192237",title:"Ms.",name:"Caroline",middleName:null,surname:"Arruda",slug:"caroline-arruda",fullName:"Caroline Arruda"},{id:"192238",title:"Mr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Redher",slug:"carlos-redher",fullName:"Carlos Redher"},{id:"192327",title:"Dr.",name:"Andresa",middleName:"Piacezzi",surname:"Nascimento",slug:"andresa-nascimento",fullName:"Andresa Nascimento"},{id:"192328",title:"Mr.",name:"Raul",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"raul-ferreira",fullName:"Raul Ferreira"},{id:"196526",title:"Dr.",name:"Bianca",middleName:null,surname:"Damaso",slug:"bianca-damaso",fullName:"Bianca Damaso"}]},{id:"41625",doi:"10.5772/53169",title:"Oxidation and Antioxidants in Fish and Meat from Farm to Fork",slug:"oxidation-and-antioxidants-in-fish-and-meat-from-farm-to-fork",totalDownloads:6750,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:null,book:{id:"3424",slug:"food-industry",title:"Food Industry",fullTitle:"Food Industry"},signatures:"Sabine Sampels",authors:[{id:"161434",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabine",middleName:null,surname:"Sampels",slug:"sabine-sampels",fullName:"Sabine Sampels"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"41652",title:"Quality Management: Important Aspects for the Food Industry",slug:"quality-management-important-aspects-for-the-food-industry",totalDownloads:9482,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"3424",slug:"food-industry",title:"Food Industry",fullTitle:"Food Industry"},signatures:"Caroline Liboreiro Paiva",authors:[{id:"95816",title:"Ms.",name:"Caroline",middleName:"Liboreiro",surname:"Paiva",slug:"caroline-paiva",fullName:"Caroline Paiva"}]},{id:"65652",title:"Current Standing and Future Challenges of Dairying in Pakistan: A Status Update",slug:"current-standing-and-future-challenges-of-dairying-in-pakistan-a-status-update",totalDownloads:2301,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Pakistan is considered among the leading raw milk producing countries. Unlike the production systems in the developed countries, milk production systems in Pakistan represent smallholding with subsistence- or market-oriented-level farming followed by peri-urban or commercial-level farming. Historically, dairy sector has been owned and managed by the private sector. During the past two decades, new initiatives have been taken because of the active involvement of corporate private sector. These efforts have resulted in improvements like enlargement of herds and import of high-quality milk germ plasm, the productivity per animal, milk collection, processing and marketing, the supply of dairy inputs (machinery, equipment, feeds, semen, and elite dairy animals), and farmers knowledge, and skills on modern management practices. Conclusively, the dairy sector is performing at some sustainable level to meet the food requirements of the growing population and helping save a handful of foreign exchange. Yet, challenges like local replacements of high genetic potential dairy animals, health hazards of β-casein proteins, antibiotics and aflatoxins, and uneconomical operational costs facing the dairy industry in the near future need to be addressed. The main objective of this chapter is to identify the current trends in dairy industry of Pakistan and describe those factors, which can influence the sustainability and profitability of dairying in the near future.",book:{id:"6911",slug:"milk-production-processing-and-marketing",title:"Milk Production, Processing and Marketing",fullTitle:"Milk Production, Processing and Marketing"},signatures:"Muhammad Naeem Tahir, Roshan Riaz, Muhammad Bilal and Hafiz Muhammad Nouman",authors:[{id:"270832",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Naeem",middleName:null,surname:"Tahir",slug:"muhammad-naeem-tahir",fullName:"Muhammad Naeem Tahir"},{id:"281816",title:"Dr.",name:"Roshan",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",slug:"roshan-riaz",fullName:"Roshan Riaz"},{id:"298338",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Bilal",slug:"muhammad-bilal",fullName:"Muhammad Bilal"},{id:"298339",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Nouman",slug:"hafiz-muhammad-nouman",fullName:"Hafiz Muhammad Nouman"}]},{id:"41694",title:"Seaweeds for Food and Industrial Applications",slug:"seaweeds-for-food-and-industrial-applications",totalDownloads:8232,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:96,abstract:null,book:{id:"3424",slug:"food-industry",title:"Food Industry",fullTitle:"Food Industry"},signatures:"Berna Kılınç, Semra Cirik, Gamze Turan, Hatice Tekogul and Edis Koru",authors:[{id:"88972",title:"Dr.",name:"Edis",middleName:null,surname:"Koru",slug:"edis-koru",fullName:"Edis Koru"},{id:"161688",title:"Dr.",name:"Berna",middleName:null,surname:"Kılınç",slug:"berna-kilinc",fullName:"Berna Kılınç"}]},{id:"67669",title:"Probiotic Characteristics and Health Benefits of the Yogurt Bacterium Lactobacillus delbrueckii sp. bulgaricus",slug:"probiotic-characteristics-and-health-benefits-of-the-yogurt-bacterium-em-lactobacillus-delbrueckii-e",totalDownloads:805,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Yogurt is a good source of several micronutrients and has played an important role in human nutrition. Consumption of yogurt has been shown to promote health benefits due to the presence of live bacteria. A number of human studies have demonstrated that yogurt contains viable bacteria, and especially L. bulgaricus, improve the health of the host and thus qualifies as a bona fide probiotic in its own right. In this chapter, we review the literature covering attributes of the yogurt bacterium L. bulgaricus that confirm its probiotic bacterial characteristics.",book:{id:"8174",slug:"current-issues-and-challenges-in-the-dairy-industry",title:"Current Issues and Challenges in the Dairy Industry",fullTitle:"Current Issues and Challenges in the Dairy Industry"},signatures:"Ayowole Oyeniran, Rabin Gyawali, Sulaiman O. Aljaloud, Albert Krastanov and Salam A. 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