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1. Introduction
1.1 Superconducting materials
Superconductivity is a quantum phenomenon, which is characterized by zero-resistivity states in electrical resistivity and exclusion of magnetic flux from a superconductor [1, 2]. Superconductivity has provided many exotic research topics not only in the field of science but also in application of superconductors. The zero-resistivity states can achieve large-scale electricity transport with ultra-low energy loss, very high magnetic fields, which has been used in various devices like a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and a superconducting Maglev train. Although superconductor devises look perfect, the use of superconductors are regulated by temperature in reality because superconducting states are observed only at temperatures below a superconducting transition temperature (Tc), which is a parameter unique to the superconductor. To use superconducting devices, the system must be cooled down to low temperatures lower than the Tc of its superconducting components. Therefore, discovery of high-Tc superconductors has been desired.
In 1986, superconductivity with a high Tc in a Cu oxide (La,Ba)2CuO4 was discovered [3, 4]. Soon after the discovery, Tc of the Cu-oxide superconductor (cuprate) family reached 90 K for REBa2Cu3O7-d (RE: rare earth) [5], which is higher than liquid nitrogen temperature, and finally reached 135 K in a Hg-Ba-Ca-Gu-O system [6]. After the discovery of the cuprate family, many layered compounds have been searched for high-Tc superconductivity. In 2001, superconductivity in MgB2 with a Tc of 39 K was reported [7]. Furthermore, in 2008, FeAs-based layered superconductors REFeAsO1-xFx with a Tc exceeding 50 K were discovered [8, 9]. Particularly, in the cuprates and FeAs-based families, unconventional (non-phonon-mediated) mechanisms of superconductivity has been proposed to explain their high Tc [10].
A surprising discovery of superconductivity at very high Tc of 203 K in H3S was reported in 2015 [11]. The phenomenon could be achieved at extremely high pressures above 150 GPa, the high Tc and possible conventional (phonon-mediated) mechanisms have recently been attracting many researchers in the field of condensed matter physics. Furthermore, higher Tcs have been reported in related hydrides, LaH10 (Tc > 250 K at ~200 GPa) [12, 13] and a carbonaceous sulfur hydride system (Tc = 287.7 K at 267 GPa) [14]. To use high-Tc superconducting states in hydrides, discovery of new superconducting hydrides which become superconductive at ambient pressure. The possible strategy to realize that is the utilization of chemical pressure effects, which are applied via chemical substitutions and sometimes work like external pressure effects. Therefore, further investigations on chemical pressure effects in novel superconductors are needed, and high-entropy alloying of compounds would be one of the routs to chemically modify the crystal structure of superconductors.
1.2 Superconductivity in high-entropy alloys
Although layered compounds had been the central topic in searching high-Tc and/or unconventional superconductors over the last three decades, recent works on new superconductors have focused on various kinds of materials, which includes complicated compounds and pure metals as well. Among them, high-entropy-alloy (HEA) superconductors have been a developing field of study [15].
HEA is an alloy possessing high configurational mixing entropy (ΔSmix), which is achieved by making the alloy with more than five constituent elements with an occupancy ranging 5 to 35 at% for each element [16, 17]. Typically, ΔSmix of HEA is calculated by ΔSmix = −R Σi ci ln ci, where ci and R are the compositional ratio and the gas constant [17], and reaches 1.5R. Due to high ΔSmix, HEAs exhibit stability or high performance in high temperature and/or extreme conditions [17]. Therefore, HEAs have been extensively studied in the fields of materials science and engineering.
In 2014, Koželj et al. reported superconductivity with Tc = 7.3 K in a HEA Ta0.34Nb0.33Hf0.08Zr0.14Ti0.11 [18]. The HEA superconductor has a bcc structure with a space group of Im-3 m. In Figure 1, we compare the crystal structures of (a) a pure Nb metal (Tc = 9.2 K), (b) a NbTi alloy (Tc ~ 10 K), which is the mostly-used practical superconductor, and (c) HEA Ta0.34Nb0.33Hf0.08Zr0.14Ti0.11. All those materials show superconductivity and the crystal structure type is the same. The difference between them is the mixing entropy ΔSmix and Tc. Although the Tc of HEA is lower than that of the other two, it was surprising for researchers that such a disordered alloy exhibits superconductivity with bulk nature. After the discovery of Ref. [18], various HEA superconductors have been developed; material information [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26] is listed in Table 1.
Figure 1.
Schematic image of crystal structure of (a) Nb (pure metal), (b) NbTi (alloy), and (c) Ta0.34Nb0.33Hf0.08Zr0.14Ti0.11 (HEA).
List of HEA superconductors and HEA-type superconducting compounds; composition, mixing entropy, Tc, and structural type are summarized.
As shown in Figure 2, a superconducting transition was observed in Ta0.34Nb0.33Hf0.08Zr0.14Ti0.11 [18]. The temperature dependence of electrical resistivity (Figure 2(a)) shows metallic behavior but exhibits a relatively small residual resistivity ratio (RRR) at low temperatures. This would be due to the presence of disorder, and a similar trend has been observed in various HEA-type superconductors. Bulk superconductivity could be confirmed through specific heat measurement as shown in Figure 2(b). From specific heat data, it has been found that most HEA superconductors exhibit conventional (phonon-mediated) pairing states.
Figure 2.
(a) Temperature dependence of electrical resistivity (ρ) of Ta0.34Nb0.33Hf0.08Zr0.14Ti0.11. (b) T2 dependence of C/T, where C is specific heat of Ta0.34Nb0.33Hf0.08Zr0.14Ti0.11. The figures were reproduced under permission by the authors of Ref. [18] (DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.107001) and APS. Copyright 2014 by American Physical Society.
Tc of HEA superconductors show correlation with valence electron count (VEC) [15, 21, 27]. The type-A HEAs with lower VEC exhibit a dependence of Tc on VEC similar to that for crystalline metals, alloys, and amorphous materials, and the Tc of HEAs are intermediate between crystalline materials and amorphous. In contrast, the Tc of the type-C HEAs with middle VEC shows opposite behavior to that for other forms. For the type-B HEAs, the trend of Tc on VEC seems resembling that for other forms, but their Tcs are clearly lower than that for crystalline and amorphous materials. As mentioned in Ref. [15], there would be a clear effect of crystallinity on Tc at the same VEC range, but the origin of the different trends between type-A, type-B, and type-C regimes have not been clarified from physical viewpoint (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Valence electron count (VEC) dependence of Tc for classic crystalline alloys, amorphous alloys, and HEAs. The figure was reproduced under permission by the authors of Ref. [15] (10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.3.090301) and APS. Copyright 2019 by American Physical Society.
Another notable character of HEA is a robustness of superconductivity to extremely high pressure. As reported in Ref. [20], the Tc of Ta-Nb-Hf-Zr-Ti slightly increases by external pressure effect and the 10 K-class Tc maintains under extreme pressures like 200 GPa. However, the robustness of superconductivity to extremely high pressure was reported for simpler NbTi with a clear increase in Tc to 19.1 K at 261 GPa [28]. Therefore, the issue if HEA can improve the stability of superconductor under extremely high pressures has not been clarified.
1.3 Concept of HEA-type compounds
As described in subsection 1–2, superconductivity in HEAs has been discovered and been regarded as a new research field of superconductivity. However, the merit of HEA states for superconductors has not been fully understood. Therefore, development of new types of HEA superconductors is needed. The hint to expand the material variation of HEA superconductors was proposed in Ref. [29], in which a HEA superconductor with a CsCl-type structure was reported. Since the CsCl structure contains two independent crystallographic sites, we have flexibility of elemental solution at the two sites. When calculating total ΔSmix of (ScZrNbTa)0.65(RhPd)0.35 by taking the sum of ΔSmixs for site-1 and site-2, it appears to reach very high ΔSmix of 1.79R. A similar site separation has been observed in (Nb0.11Re0.56)(HfZrTi)0.33 [30]. Motivated by those studies on HEAs with site separation, we have tried to synthesize various “HEA-type compounds”, which contain NaCl-type metal chalcogenides [31, 32, 33], CuAl2-type tetragonal TrZr2 (Tr: Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Rh, Ir) [34, 35], high-Tc RE123 cuprates [36], and BiS2-based layered superconductors [37, 38]. The concept of HEA-type compounds it that we achieve a high ΔSmix by site-selective alloying. As shown in Figure 4, HEA-type compounds have a HEA-type site, in which five or more elements are solving and a normal site, which is not in the HEA state. The list of superconducting HEA-type compounds is shown in Table 2. By studying HEA effects to crystal structure and physical properties in various crystal structures, we could identify the merit of HEA states in those compounds. In section 2, we review the material synthesis, crystal structure, and physical properties of newly synthesized HEA-type compounds.
Figure 4.
Crystal structure images of conventional HEA (a) and HEA-type compounds (b–e).
List of HEA-type superconducting compounds; composition, mixing entropy (site-1, site-2, total), Tc, and structural type are summarized.
2. NaCl-type metal chalcogenides MCh
2.1 Metal tellurides MTe
The NaCl-type metal telluride family is one of the hot systems because it includes thermoelectric PbTe [40] and a topological crystalline insulator SnTe [41]. For superconducting tellurides, high-pressure synthesis was used to stabilize the NaCl-type structure [42, 43, 44]. For example, the low-pressure phase of InTe has a TlSe-type structure, but the high-pressure phase of InTe has a NaCl-type structure. The high-pressure phase can be obtained by high-pressure synthesis [43, 44]. Motivated by these facts, we tried to synthesize HEA-type tellurides MTe where the M site is in the HEA state (see Figure 4(b) for crystal structure) by high-pressure synthesis.
Figure 5(a) shows the temperature dependence of electrical resistivity for AgInSnPbBiTe5, in which the M site is evenly occupied by Ag, In, Sn, Pb, and Bi (five metals) [31]. Very small RRR was observed, which is a similar trend to that in HEA superconductors [18]. In addition, four different MTe (M: Ag, In, Cd, Sn, Sb, Pb, Bi) superconductors with a HEA-type site has been obtained [32]. Interestingly, there is a correlation between the lattice constant and Tc in HEA-type MTe. In Figure 5(b), the data for typical MTe superconductors are plotted. It is found that the trend that Tc increases with increasing lattice constant is common among the plotted MTe. The Tcs of HEA-type are, however, lower than those of low-entropy tellurides, such as InTe and (In,Sn)Te. Therefore, the introduction of the HEA-type M site is found to negatively work for Tc in MTe. This negative effect would be due to the direct effect of strong disorder to the M-Te bonding states and hence electronic states.
Figure 5.
(a) Temperature dependence of the electrical resistivity of AgInSnPbBiTe5. Original data has been published in Ref. [31]. Copyright 2019 by the Physical Society of Japan. (b) Relationship between lattice constant and Tc for metal tellurides including HEA-type tellurides. The elements written in the figure indicate compositions of the M site. Original data has been published in Ref. [32]. Copyright 2020 by IOP.
2.2 Hybrid high-entropy alloying in MCh
The Te site of MTe can be substituted by S and Se. The flexibility of both M and Te sites to element substitution enables us to design “hybrid HEA”, in which both sites are alloyed [33]. Figure 6(a) shows the X-ray diffraction patterns for (Ag0.25In0.25Pb0.25Bi0.25)Te1-xSex. Notably, mixing many elements at two sites does not result in phase separation, and a single-phase sample was obtained for x = 0.25, while small impurity phases were detected for x = 0.5. For x = 0.25, as displayed in Figure 6(b), the ΔSmix for the M and Ch sites are 1.38R and 0.51R, and the total ΔSmix reaches 1.89R. Furthermore, the total ΔSmix for x = 0.5 reaches 2.00R. These ΔSmix values are clearly higher than that for HEAs (Table 1). Therefore, alloying at two or more sites (hybrid high-entropy alloying) results in very high total ΔSmix.
Figure 6.
(a) X-ray diffraction patterns for hybrid-HEA-type (Ag0.25In0.25Pb0.25Bi0.25)Te1-xSex. (b) Schematic image of the crystal structure and mixing entropy for x = 0.25 (c) temperature dependences of electrical resistivity (Ag0.25In0.25Pb0.25Bi0.25)Te1-xSex under magnetic fields. (d) Temperature dependence of magnetic susceptibility. The inset shows the magnetization-field curves. Original data has been published in Ref. [33]. Copyright 2020 by the Royal Society of Chemistry.
The superconducting properties for (Ag0.25In0.25Pb0.25Bi0.25)Te1-xSex are shown in Figure 6(c). A superconducting transition with Tc > 2 K was observed for x = 0 and 0.25. By focusing on these two phases, interesting trend was found. Although the Tc for x = 0.25 is lower than that for x = 0, the suppression of Tc for x = 0.25 under magnetic fields is clearly smaller than that for x = 0. From the estimation of upper critical field (Hc2), it was found that the Hc2 (0 K) for x = 0.25 is higher than that for x = 0. In addition, from the measurements of the magnetization-field loop, it was confirmed that the critical current density (Jc) at 1.8 K for x = 0.25 is larger than that for x = 0. These results suggest that an increase in ΔSmix may be useful to improve Hc2 and/or Jc characteristics of superconductors if the problem on the suppression of Tc could be solved.
3. CuAl2-type TrZr2
As shown in the last section, high-entropy alloying of a compound, which possesses two or more crystallographic sites, is a route to develop new superconductors with a high mixing entropy. In addition, in HEA-type compounds, not only the site entropy but also the entropy of chemical bonding states should be higher than normal alloys or compounds. To discover new HEA-type superconductors, the use of material database is quite useful. SuperCon (NIMS database) [45] is a database of superconductors and contain information of composition, structural type, Tc, and reference of the material. To achieve the material design of HEA-type superconductors, we have to find a system in which compositional variation is rich within the same structural type, and superconducting transition has been observed. Herein, we introduce an example of material design for new HEA-type superconductors.
TrZr2 (Tr: transition metal) with a tetragonal CuAl2-type structure (Figure 4(c)) is a superconducting system. For Tr = Fe, Co, Ni, Rh, Ir, superconductivity was reported. Among them, CoZr2, RhZr2, and IrZr2 exhibits a higher Tc of 5.5, 11.3, and 7.5 K, respectively [46]. Furthermore, the Tr site can be partially substituted by Sc, Cu, Ga, Pd, and Ta [34, 45]. These facts suggest that the Tr site of TrZr2 can be modified into a HEA-type site. We synthesized Co0.2Ni0.1Cu0.1Rh0.3Ir0.3Zr2 by arc melting and observed superconductivity with a Tc of 8 K [34]. The Tr site of Co0.2Ni0.1Cu0.1Rh0.3Ir0.3Zr2 contains five transition metals, and the ΔSmix for the Tr site is about 1.5R. In addition, (Fe,Co,Ni,Rh,Ir)Zr2 superconductors were also synthesized and exhibited superconductivity [35]. Interestingly, the resulting Tc in HEA-type phases was very close to the weighted-average Tc of pure TrZr2 systems. Although the origin of the unexpected behavior is still unclear, the effects of disordering by the HEA-type site to superconducting properties seem very limited. The difference in the HEA effects between MCh and TrZr2 may be caused by the different structural complexity.
As shown in Figure 7(a), the temperature dependence of resistivity exhibits a relatively large RRR as compared to other HEA-type superconductors. However, a large RRR of ~30 was reported for CoZr2 single crystals [47], which is clearly larger than that for HEA-type TrZr2. Therefore, the HEA effects (disordering effects) to transport properties would be a common trend. Figure 7(b) shows the temperature dependences of the specific heat for Co0.2Ni0.1Cu0.1Rh0.3Ir0.3Zr2 in the form of C/T. Although a clear jump of C/T at the Tc is seen, the transition is broader as compared to the case of CoZr2. The trend of broad transition in specific heat at Tc was not observed in a HEA superconductor but observed in HEA-type compounds. Because the superconducting transitions observed in resistivity and magnetization were sharp, the broad transition in the specific heat would suggest microscopic local phase separation in HEA-type superconducting compounds.
Figure 7.
(a) Temperature dependence of resistivity for Co0.2Ni0.1Cu0.1Rh0.3Ir0.3Zr2. (b) Temperature dependence of specific heat (C/T) for Co0.2Ni0.1Cu0.1Rh0.3Ir0.3Zr2 at 0 and 9 T. Original data has been published in Refs. [34] and [35]. Copyright 2020 by Taylor & Francis.
4. Cuprate (high-Tc) superconductors REBa2Cu3O7-d
As mentioned in introduction, cuprates (Cu oxides) have been extensively studied in the fields of science and engineering because of its high Tc. Among them, REBa2Cu3O7-d (RE123) system [5] is one of practical materials for superconductivity application. In addition, a high Jc was reported in RE123 samples with three elements at the RE site [48]. Motivated by the fact, we synthesized polycrystalline samples of REBa2Cu3O7-d with different ΔSmix for the RE site [36] by standard solid-state reaction in air. In the study, two-step annealing was performed to optimize oxygen content (d) because oxygen content affect crystal structure (orthorhombicity) and superconducting properties of REBa2Cu3O7-d. A high superconducting property is generally achieved in an orthorhombic phase in the system, we estimated the orthorhombicity parameter (OP), which is given by 2|a-b|/(a + b), and plotted the estimated Tc and magnetic Jc (T = 2 K, B = 1 T) for REBa2Cu3O7-d as a function of OP as shown in Figure 8. Note that the data points are colored according to the number of elements contained at the RE site. From the plot, it is found that Tc does not show a remarkable correlation with ΔSmix (RE site) and exhibits a clear correlation with OP. Jc also exhibits a trend of improvement with increasing OP. These facts suggest that disorder introduced by high-entropy alloying at the RE site (see Figure 4(d)) does not largely affect superconducting properties of REBa2Cu3O7-d, which is a two-dimensional layered compound. Because the trend is clearly different to that observed for cubic (NaCl-type) tellurides with a HEA-type site, crystal-structure dimensionality is a key factor to how the introduction of HEA-type site affects superconducting properties in compounds.
Figure 8.
Orthorhombicity parameter (2|a-b|/(a + b)) dependences of (a) Tc and (b) magnetic Jc (T = 2 K, B = 1 T) for REBa2Cu3O7-d. Original data has been published in Ref. [36]. Copyright 2020 by Elsevier.
In Figure 8(b), we found three data points for HEA-type samples show a Jc larger than that for the other low-entropy samples at OP = 0.01–0.015. Although it has not been fully clarified whether the slightly large Jcs in the HEA-type samples are caused by high-entropy alloying or not, the effect of high-entropy alloying for cuprates should be further studied to find the way to improve practical performance of cuprate superconductors.
5. BiS2-based layered superconductors RE(O,F)BiS2
BiS2-based superconductor family is one of the layered superconductor families and was discover in 2012 [49, 50, 51]. The crystal structure is composed of alternate stacks of a conducting BiS2 bilayer and a blocking layer (for example, a REO layer), which is similar to that of high-Tc systems. Furthermore, unconventional superconductivity has been proposed from theoretical and experimental studies on the BiS2-based compounds [51].
A typical BiS2-based system is REOBiS2 (see Figure 4(e)). Because non-doped REOBiS2 is a semiconductor, electron carrier doping is required to induce metallicity [50]. For RE = La, a superconducting transition was observed at 2.5 K after electron doping through partial substitution of O by F in LaO0.5F0.5BiS2. However, the superconductivity states in La(O,F)BiS2 is not bulk in nature. This is due to the presence of the local disorder due to Bi lone pairs, and the local disorder could be suppressed by in-plane chemical pressure effects [52, 53, 54]. In-plane chemical pressure can be generated by RE-site substitution by smaller RE ions or Se substitution for the S site. By increasing in-plane chemical pressure, local disorder is suppressed, and bulk superconductivity is induced [52, 53]. Therefore, one can say that RE(O,F)BiS2 is a useful system to investigate the effect of structural modification on local crystal structure and superconducting properties. This suggests that the investigation of the effects of introduction of a HEA site in RE(O,F)BiS2 would provide us with key information about interlayer interaction through the HEA states.
The HEA-type samples of REO0.5F0.5BiS2 with RE = La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm were synthesized by solid-state reaction in an evacuated quartz tube [37]. Figure 9(a) and (b) show superconducting properties of four different HEA-type REO0.5F0.5BiS2 samples. The Tc varies depending on the RE-site composition. As shown in Figure 9(c), these four samples have different lattice constants a, which is corresponding to different in-plane chemical pressures. Therefore, the variation of Tc can be understood with the in-plane chemical pressure scenario. When focusing on the samples with the same lattice constant a and different mixing entropy, we find that the superconducting properties (Tc and Δ4πχ) of the HEA-type sample are higher than those of low-entropy samples (Figures 9(c) and (d)). The facts indicate that an increase in ΔSmix for the RE site may positively work in improving superconducting properties. Therefore, we systematically prepared REO0.5F0.5BiS2 samples with the same lattice constant a and different ΔSmix to investigate the interlayer interaction [38].
Figure 9.
(a, b) Temperature dependences of (a) electrical resistivity and (b) magnetic susceptibility for HEA-type REO0.5F0.5BiS2. (c) Lattice constant a dependences of Tc and Δ4πχ (T = 2 K). Original data has been published in Ref. [37]. Copyright 2020 by IOP.
As summarized in Figure 10(a), we succeeded in preparation of a set of five REO0.5F0.5BiS2 samples with almost the same a and systematically varied ΔSmix. Because the lattice constant a nearly corresponds to the degree of the in-plane chemical pressure, the set of samples have almost similar in-plane chemical pressure. Therefore, we could detect the effects of the increase in ΔSmix to superconducting properties and local structural disorder [38]. Through magnetic susceptibility measurements, we confirmed that shielding volume fraction increases with increasing ΔSmix while the Tc does not change (Figure 10(c) and (d)). To understand the origin of the improvement of superconducting properties, local structure was analyzed using synchrotron X-ray diffraction. As summarized in Figure 10(b), suppression of in-plane structural disorder, which was detected by anisotropic displacement parameter for the in-plane direction (U11), was achieved by the HEA effect at the RE site. Similar trend was observed in another set of REO0.5F0.5BiS2 samples with larger lattice constant (comparable to that of CeO0.5F0.5BiS2). The results propose that high-entropy alloying at the blocking layer would modify the local structure at the conducting layer in BiS2-based layered compounds. This effect should be a new strategy to develop novel functional materials with a layered structure.
Figure 10.
(a) Mixing entropy (ΔSmix) and lattice constant a are plotted as a function of the number of RE elements contained in the sample. (b) Schematic images of local structural disorder for low-entropy and HEA-type REO0.5F0.5BiS2. (c) Temperature dependences of 4πχ. (d) ΔSmix dependence of Δ4πχ (T = 2 K). Original data has been published in Ref. [38]. Copyright 2020 by Elsevier.
6. Conclusion
In this chapter, we reviewed the works on HEA superconductors and HEA-type superconducting compounds, which have been developed applying the HEA concept in simple alloys to more complicated compounds. By introducing a HEA-type site (or alloying multi sites) in a compound, a high mixing entropy can be achieved. HEA-type compounds would have a high mixing entropy at the alloyed site and a highly (randomly) disordered bonding states. For a three-dimensional system, such as NaCl-type chalcogenides, introduction of the HEA-type M site in MCh resulted in suppression of Tc, but, at the same time, slight enhancements of Hc2 and Jc were observed. For tetragonal (CuAl2-type) TrZr2, the introduction of the HEA-type site does not suppress Tc. Furthermore, for layered systems, such as REBa2Cu3O7-d cuprates and BiS2-based RE0.5F0.5BiS2, high-entropy alloying rather improves their superconducting properties. Through investigations of the HEA effects to superconducting and structural properties for HEA-type compounds with different structural types, we conclude that the HEA effects are highly depending on the structural dimensionality. Hence, to effectively use the HEA effect to improve superconducting properties of compounds, target structure should be lower-symmetric, a layered structure or a one-dimensional structure. To obtain further knowledge about the presence/absence of local phase separations, pinning characteristics, and the HEA effect to superconducting pairing states, further investigations on HEA-type superconducting compounds using various probes are required.
Acknowledgments
The author thanks R. Sogabe, Md. R. Kasem, Y. Shukunami, M. Katsuno, K. Hoshi, R. Jha, Y. Goto, T. D. Matsuda, and O. Miura who have contributed on the works reviewed here. The author would like to thank all the coauthors of the works. The works reviewed here were supported by JSPS-KAKENHI (Nos.: 16H04493, 15H05886, 18KK0076), JST-CREST (Nos.: JPMJCR16Q6, JPMJCR20Q4), and Tokyo Metropolitan Government Advanced Research (No.: H31-1).
\n',keywords:"superconductor, layered compounds, material design, high entropy alloy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75238.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75238.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75238",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75238",totalDownloads:174,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:6,dateSubmitted:"November 19th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 22nd 2021",datePrePublished:"February 15th 2021",datePublished:"September 22nd 2021",dateFinished:"February 12th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Since the discovery of superconductivity in a high-entropy alloy (HEA) Ti-Zr-Nb-Hf-Ta in 2014, the community of superconductor science has explored new HEA superconductors to find the merit of the HEA states on superconducting properties. Since 2018, we have developed “HEA-type” compounds as superconductors or thermoelectric materials. As well known, compounds like intermetallic compounds or layered compounds are composed of multi crystallographic sites. In a HEA-type compounds, one or more sites are alloyed and total mixing entropy satisfies with the criterion of HEA. Herein, we summarize the synthesis methods, the crystal structural variation and superconducting properties of the HEA-type compounds, which include NaCl-type metal tellurides, CuAl2-type transition metal zirconides, high-Tc cuprates, and BiS2-based layered superconductors. The effects of the introduction of a HEA site in various kinds of complicated compounds are discussed from the structural-dimensionality viewpoint.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75238",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75238",signatures:"Yoshikazu Mizuguchi and Aichi Yamashita",book:{id:"10629",type:"book",title:"Advances in High-Entropy Alloys",subtitle:"Materials Research, Exotic Properties and Applications",fullTitle:"Advances in High-Entropy Alloys - Materials Research, Exotic Properties and Applications",slug:"advances-in-high-entropy-alloys-materials-research-exotic-properties-and-applications",publishedDate:"September 22nd 2021",bookSignature:"Jiro Kitagawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10629.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-079-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-078-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-080-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"210570",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiro",middleName:null,surname:"Kitagawa",slug:"jiro-kitagawa",fullName:"Jiro Kitagawa"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"340423",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yoshikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Mizuguchi",fullName:"Yoshikazu Mizuguchi",slug:"yoshikazu-mizuguchi",email:"mizugu@tmu.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"346198",title:"Dr.",name:"Aichi",middleName:null,surname:"Yamashita",fullName:"Aichi Yamashita",slug:"aichi-yamashita",email:"aichi@tmu.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Tokyo Metropolitan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Superconducting materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Superconductivity in high-entropy alloys",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Concept of HEA-type compounds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. NaCl-type metal chalcogenides MCh",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1 Metal tellurides MTe",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2 Hybrid high-entropy alloying in MCh",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. CuAl2-type TrZr2",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Cuprate (high-Tc) superconductors REBa2Cu3O7-d",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. BiS2-based layered superconductors RE(O,F)BiS2",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Onnes H. K. The Superconductivity of Mercury. Comm. Phys. Lab. Univ., Leiden, 1911; 122-124.'},{id:"B2",body:'Adir Moyses Luiz (2011). 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Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3479e76c6ac538aac76409c9efb7e41",slug:"neuroimaging-neurobiology-multimodal-and-network-applications",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8938",title:"Inhibitory Control Training",subtitle:"A Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd82354f3bba4af5421337cd42052f86",slug:"inhibitory-control-training-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo and Massimo Bartoli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8938.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6998",title:"Synucleins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Role in Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b4b802fec508928ce8ab9deebd1375f",slug:"synucleins-biochemistry-and-role-in-diseases",bookSignature:"Andrei Surguchov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6998.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"266540",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Surguchov",slug:"andrei-surguchov",fullName:"Andrei Surguchov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:65,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5886,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. 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While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. 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\r\n\tThe Business and Management series topic focuses on the most pressing issues confronting organizations today and in the future. Businesses are trying to figure out how to lead in a time of global uncertainty. In emerging markets, issues such as ill-defined or unstable policies, as well as corrupt practices, can be hugely problematic. Changes in governments can result in new policy, regulations, and interest rates, all of which can be detrimental to foreign businesses and investments. A growing trend towards economic nationalism also makes the current global political landscape potentially hostile towards international businesses.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe demographic shifts are creating interesting challenges. People are living longer, resulting to an aging demographic. We have a large population of older workers and retirees who are living longer lives, combined with a declining birthrate in most parts of the world. Businesses of all types are looking at how technology is affecting their operations. Several questions arise, such as: How is technology changing what we do? How is it transforming us internally, how is it influencing our clients and our business strategy? It is about leveraging technology to improve efficiency, connect with customers more effectively, and drive innovation. The majority of innovative companies are technology-driven businesses. Realizing digital transformation is today’s top issue and will remain so for the next five years. Improving organizational agility, expanding portfolios of products and services, creating, and maintaining a culture of innovation, and developing next -generation leaders were also identified as top challenges in terms of both current and future issues.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe most sustained profitable growth occurs when a company expands its core business into an adjacent space. This has significant implications for management because innovation in business ecosystems differs from traditional, vertically integrated firms. Every organization in the ecosystem must be aware of the bigger picture. Innovation in ecosystems necessitates collaborative action to invent and appraise, efficient, cross-organizational knowledge flows, modular architectures, and good stewardship of legacy systems. It is built on multiple, interconnected platforms. Environmental factors have already had a significant impact in the West and will continue to have an impact globally. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their daily operations. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy. Another significant challenge is preparing the next generation of leaders to elevate this to the number one priority within the next five years. There can be no culture of innovation unless there is diverse leadership or development of the next generation of leaders; and these diverse, next-generation leaders are the ones who will truly understand the digital strategies that will drive digital transformation.
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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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