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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2982",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Tribology in Engineering",title:"Tribology in Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The main goal in preparing this book was to publish contemporary concepts, new discoveries and innovative ideas in the field of surface engineering, predominantly for the technical applications, as well as in the field of production engineering and to stress some problems connected with the use of various surface processes in modern manufacturing of different purpose machine parts. This book is an attempt to introduce science into the study of surface treatment processes. Tribology offers a good approach for describing abrasive machining and coating processes and offers the ability to predict some of the outputs of the processes. The study of friction, forces, and energy explores the importance of the various factors which govern the stresses and deformations of abrasion. The effects of grain shape, depth of penetration, and lubrication on the process forces are explored. The tribology of nanostructured surfaces involves many fundamental and scientific issues. More importantly, it has tremendous applications in industries. 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Worldwide, the mining sector is classified as the most dangerous work and customarily ranks within the top 3 occupations for related diseases and fatal accidents [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The complete health of the miners includes physical, social, and psychological, including protection from injury or any occupational disease [8]. Whereas safety is associated with the physical mining environment and interventions done to reduce exposure to risk [8]. Within the context of this review, the authors are concerned that if mining remains unsafe as occupational health practitioners how can we improve and make sure a healthy and safe workplace? Smith et al. highlighted the necessity for mining corporations to accommodate international and national safety and health laws and laws, but there’s a requirement to implement preventative strategies to accommodates those standards and laws [1]. In Africa, though several African states have comprehensive laws regarding activity health and safety standards and hours of labor, systems to make sure compliance, their observance is usually weak and under-resourced in several organizations [9, 10]. According to the African Union’s Mining Vision and Bocoum, a lot stays to be done to carry mining practices. Policies, regulatory capacity, and services associated with mine health need to be massively progressed, and standardized carrier shipping models want to be set up each nationally and domestically [10, 11].
The SA mine health and safety council have introduced pointers for compliance with the Mine Health and Safety Act (29 of 1996) [12]. However, the high rate of sub-standard performance has shown that accessible rules and policies have not led to the anticipated result [13]. Governmental and trade executives, policymakers, and material scientists voiced issues and conducted various reports stating matters and the risks of an offer crisis. Positively safety rules are necessary to form a healthy and safe work atmosphere, but it’s of significant importance to explore the social relations within the employment context (organization), the individual factors (beliefs, attitudes, and behavior), and also the cultural processes that contribute to non-compliance with health and safety standards within the mining trade [14]. Given these gaps, there is an obligation to identify the ways that may enhance compliance with health and safety standards. Muchiri emphasized the necessity and the duty for the occupational health and safety professionals, employers, workers, agencies, and alternative stakeholders to incessantly develop and implement multi-faceted OSH ways [9]. Within the context of this review, compliance shall refer to the proper practice of the staff and also the organization following the health and safety standards within the mining industry [14].
This review aims to analyze the present state of compliance with the health and safety regulations/standards, among the South African Mining industry and to highlight the importance of the implementation of preventative strategies through the occupational health clinic. The review additionally provides insights upon that a part of health and safety legislation standards would like an improvement. in addition, this review intends to create clear links between the studies and also the activity health and safety legislation and also the conclusions, confirm any controversies, weaknesses, and gaps with the compliance in the mining industry and generate information and data on the world strategies that may be used for compliance and making property health and safety atmosphere within the mining industry. This review adds worth to existing electronic databases through the integration of analysis results.
The review adopted the systematic review technique that enabled the reviewers to discover and investigate the systematic evidence of both qualitative and quantitative research, government and private documentation, and also the laws bearing on occupational health and safety compliance. The subsequent systematic steps as outlined by Cronin, et al.; Ramdhani et al. were applied to cut back literature-review errors and bias and to supply a clear, structured, and comprehensive summary of the obtainable literature (Figure 1) [15, 16].
Systematic review steps adopted from: (Ramdhani et al., Hempel, Xenakis & Danz).
Step 1: Defining the research question.
As per Hempel, Xenakis, and Danz it’s important to layout the requests to be addressed in occupational safety and health systematic review to recognize the point and extent of the survey [17]. Additionally forming the inquiries can coordinate the reader on the sort of information looked still up in the review. The examination question was illustrated through the conversation with the supervisor and co-supervisor, meeting with the master’s word related wellbeing specialists to affirm that the audit has significance to genuine difficulties. The examination question was: What is the current situation with compliance with the health and safety guidelines /principles among the SA mining exchange and what are the procedures, which will be created to affirm the compliance with the health and safety enactment/norms among the SA mining industry?
Step 2: Setting for inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Shamseer, Moher Clarke, et al. laid out that setting for incorporation and prohibition measures guarantees that the survey is led in a coordinated manner [18]. Also, it accommodates the straightforwardness of how the qualities and restrictions were surveyed. Furthermore, the conceptual model in the current study guided the researcher through the review to explore the defined study question. The PICO (population, intervention, comparison, and outcome) format was followed [19]. The conceptual model defined the population which was the mine occupational health practitioners, satety representatives, occupational health clinics, miners, the mining organizational and the mine management, interventions, in this case, was the legislation, standards, and the preventative strategies that guide the employees to comply with the health and safety.
Step 3: Conducting a literature search.
The online database literature search enclosed a mixture of South African and international government OHS legislation, policies, standards, reports from the labor departments and international labor workplace, the qualitative, quantitative, and mixed- methods scientific journal articles, conference proceedings. Seven databases are enclosed PUBMED, EBSCOHOST, SEMATIC SCHOLAR, GOOGLE SCHOLAR, domain EDU, SAFE WORK AUSTRALIA. gray literature including conference proceedings, dissertations, theses, government information, and committee reports was retrieved from searches in web OF SCIENCE, ILO, WHO. HSELINE, NIOSHTIC, and from OSH UPDATE.
The search strategy adopted Boolean operators combined sets of keywords, using AND/OR terms for the selection of articles and reports [20]. The terms from the subsequent 7 categories were accustomed to search the articles and gray literature (Prevention, Compliance, health and safety, Occupational health practitioner, standards, legislation, and mining) (Table 1).
Occupational health and safety- related search terms | Mining health, medical surveillance, mining safety, occupational health, safety behavior, safety culture |
---|---|
Health and safety compliance search terms | Adherence, legislations, guidelines, standards, policy, preventative strategies |
Occupational health search terms | Occupational health practitioners, health and safety representatives, occupational diseases, occupational injury, and accidents, safety culture |
Mining health strategies related search terms | Prevention levels, occupational health interventions, |
Search terms.
Step 3: Assessing the quality of literature included in the review.
This review enclosed all the articles, reports obtained when databases were integrated, duplicate articles were removed, and extra articles provided by content specialists had been identified. Secondary sources, including textbooks and review articles or descriptions or outlines by someone aside from the first investigator, were removed [20].
Only studies that were revealed between 1994 to July 2021 within the English peer- reviewed journal, report, or websites were reviewed to identify gaps within the compliance with the health and safety within the mining industry. Moreover, abstracts solely were not enclosed. The studies enclosed were those that explored the compliance and the preventative strategies for health and safety within the mining industry. in addition, the studies, that reported on the present state of compliance with the health and safety legislation and standards, the role of occupational health clinics and practitioners in promoting health and safety within the mining industry, and also the occupational interventions/strategies to reinforce the compliance.
Step 4: Analyze, synthesize and disseminate the findings.
The studies which have been protected were clustered and prepared by using ideas, which emerged as themes. To offer enough substance to a topic, standards from at the least 3 articles had been required. Five thematic domains emerged from the literature. Six thematic domains emerged from the literature: Global laws, legislation, and standards on health and safety compliance within the mining industry; African countries mining health and safety compliance literature; health and safety compliance literature within the South African mining industry; Legislations; preventative strategies to improve the health and safety compliance within the mining industry and occupational health practitioners role in improving health and safety standards compliance.
Step 4: Analyze, synthesize and disseminate the findings.
The analysis and synthesis process is shown below Figure 2.
A flow diagram (literature).
Health and Safety compliance is the volume to which personnel adheres to health and safety standards, techniques, jail responsibilities, and wishes. It’s furthermore accomplice diploma absence of injuries and incidents within the geographic component [21]. The majority of mine fitness and safety government international agree that the fundamental causes of mine accidents and fatalities are dangerous conditions, terrible control, and mainly non-compliance with the health and protection standards [22]. Furthermore, Vassem, Fortunato, Bastos, and Balassiano documented that the excessive incidence charge of accidents inside the mining enterprise calls for the information of interpersonal family members within the employment context (corporation), the individual factors (beliefs, attitudes, and behavior) that contribute to non-compliance with health and safety standards within the mining industry [23]. On the opposite hand the venture with the implementation of occupational legislation and requirements is that miners understanding of occupational regulation is confined and adherence is as a result impaired [24]. Therefore, to make certain compliance with fitness and safety requirements occupational fitness occupational health practioners have a duty to increase cognizance of health risks that impact the people’ health and safety, as well as the measures which can mitigate the dangers [25].
The SA mining industry is under the spotlight with an increase in accidents and fatalities. In 2019 SA reported a total of 2406 injuries and 51 deaths in the mining industry [26]. This are a serious concern considering that In 2016, the chamber of mines signed a declaration of actions pledge as a change to improve the mining industry occupational health and safety to zero harm by 2024, aiming to generate a culture change in an industry that will transform the behavior of people at all levels [27].
Occupational health and safety standards plays important role in guiding all the miners on health and safety-related issues focusing more on prevention. However though there are available standards, the occurrence of injuries and occupational diseases remains to be a challenge worldwide. The literature revealed that globally in every 15 seconds a miner dies [28, 29]. World Health Organization (WHO)outlined occupational health and safety as ‘the advancement and maintenance of the most significant level of physical, mental and social health of miners in all occupations by preventing health risks and controlling danger and the adaption of work to miners and their positions [30]. Furthermore, it is of utmost importance to note that a safe and healthy working environment influences the quality of life at the individual level to substantial impacts on public health at the societal level [30].
Globally, the health and safety of the miners have raised serious concerns. In the United States (US) the former chief executive director of the upper big branch coal mine was sentenced to a year in prison for the death of 38 miners who were killed after a coal explosion [31]. He was convicted for a workplace safety violation by putting profits of the company ahead of the safety of miners and creating a culture of non-compliance within the organization [31]. Dragan, Georges, and Mustafa’s study in Canada indicated that cultural factors within the organization especially from the management focusing on performance and efficiency and neglecting safety plays a key role in creating conditions for triggering major accidents [32]. More particularly from the administration with more emphasis on the execution and productivity and dismissing the safety and wellbeing of miners.
Different countries have laws and regulations in place at the workplace aiming to protect the health and safety of individuals in their occupations. Occupational health and safety laws across nations share many similarities highlighting that the health and safety of employees must be secured through the assessment, analysis, adjustment and reducing the risks and hazards for illness and injury at the workplace [33, 34]. Occupational health and safety compliance shapes the required or desirable behavior in the workplace. Furthermore, compliance is linked to the safety culture or climate in the organization, which is believed to shape employee behavior through expectations [35].
Statute law may uphold extra obligations, start explicit obligations, and structure government bodies with the power to direct work environment wellbeing and medical problems. As set by Spada and Burgherr; Mabika, reinforcing the wellbeing controller is required, upheld by the authoritative approaches [36, 37]. Such drives can save the existence of mine accidents and occupational diseases in both developed and undeveloped countries [37]. United Kingdom (UK) is one of the created nations with a fruitful record of wellbeing and safety practices in the mine. As indicated by Uyanusta Kucuk and Ilgaz, wellbeing and safety laws in the UK have been in existence for more than 200 years [38]. Moreover, the laws came because of political reactions to social issues emerging from the unsettling influences of the industrial revolution [38]. Among other enactments, the mines and safety act 1954 was the broadest safety enactment in the UK. The demonstration set down legal obligations on mine chiefs and offered.
A triangulation study led by Kheni and Braimah; Mustapha, Aigbavboa, and Thwala conducted in Ghana looking at the institutional and lawful conditions identifying with health and safety management referred to helpless coordination of activities related to health and safety standards, absence and unwanted degree of consistency with significant H&S enactment as the serious issues [39, 40].
The greater part of the African nations is known for deprived safety and health practices [41, 42]. Takala and Saarela featured that low-pay nations in Africa and Asia have recorded raised paces of injuries and fatalities contrasted with created nations, for example, Europe and America [43]. Besides, it has been assessed that 54000 fatality related to occupational accidents happen in Sub-saharan Africa yearly contrasted with 16000 fatalities in Europe and America. Boniface, Maseru, Munthali and Lett study results on Occupational injuries and fatalities in Tanzania highlighted the requirement for improving health and safety principles systems in the mines [44].
The South African mining industry does not have a good reputation for health and safety due to recurrent accidents and fatalities. One of the largest mining companies in SA with a major interest in both platinum and gold mining (Sibanye) outlined that one of the causes of fatalities was non-compliance by miners and management as people try to take shortcuts [45]. On the contrary, the union representatives within the mining industry blame the high pressure to reach production targets means that miners remain in unsafe working conditions and environment [39].
The South African mining Act, 1996 (Act 29 of 1996) was endorsed to improve health and safety performance and great emphasis was placed on adherence to mine standards [46]. Furthermore, different types of legislation were passed to assist in the transformation6and “improvement of the safety standards in the mining sector, among others, the Skills Development Act of 1998 (SDA), Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Act, 2013 (BBEEA), (Minerals Petroleum Resources and Development Amendment Bill 2013 (MPRDAB), Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act, 1997 (COIDA), Occupational Diseases in Mines and Works Amendment Act, 2002 (ODMWAA), Labour Relations Act, 1996 (LRA), Basic Conditions of Employment Act of 1997, Mining Charter 2010, and the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996”.
The Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration (SME) Mining Engineering Handbook, expresses that all mining tasks are needed to adhere to local, provincial, and governmental guidelines that indicate mine health and safety guidelines and norms, environmental protection, and work relations. The nature, degree, and toughness of these guidelines, at last, administer the mining activity [45].
Lack of emphasis on the promotion of health of mine-workers made the Commission to endorsed to improve the state of the safety standards in the mining sector, among others, the enactment of a new Mine Health and Safety Act 29 of 1996 (hereinafter referred to as MHSA), which started operating from January 1997.140 The Act (MHSA) has established a council known as Mine Health and Safety Council (MHSC), that contemplates the status of health and safety in the mining sector, recommends policy and legislation, commissions’ research, and offers suitable advice to the Minister of Mineral Resources.
The Department of mineral resources and energy South Africa is responsible to promote and regulate the minerals and mining sector in SA. Furthermore, the Department also has the responsibility to ensure that all the mining companies in SA follow and comply with the health and safety legislation. They also have an obligatory role to take action when the mining companies do not implement and comply with the regulations. Laws and standards. The mineral resource department can close/terminate the mining activities or take the mining companies to the Court of Justice if they fail to comply. The following regulations guide all the mines in SA on health and safety.
The MHSA regulates the mining sector focusing on the health requirements in the mining industry.
The goals of this act are to accommodate the wellbeing of the workers and different people at mines: support consistent with the standards of health and safety; take into account the execution of health and safety measures; accommodate suitable frameworks of the employee, employer, and state participation in health and safety matters; build up delegate three-sided organizations to audit enactment, advance wellbeing and upgrade appropriately designated research; accommodate compelling observing frameworks and assessments, to guarantee that there are examinations and requests to further develop health and safety; advance preparing and HR improvement; manage businesses’ and workers’ obligations to recognize hazards and prevent, control and limit the danger to health and safety; settle in the option to decline to work in hazardous conditions, and to offer impact to the public worldwide law commitments of the Republic identifying with mining health and safety [12].
Section 13 of MHSA outlines the legal requirement for all the mining organizations in SA to have an OMP either on a full-time or part-time basis. The OMP has legal duties and ethical duties when ensuring the overall health of the miners [12, 28, 46]. They play a major role in preventative medicine, determining the fitness and ensuring that every person in the mine (both the employer and the miners undergo medical surveillance. Medical surveillance is a scheduled program that includes medical examinations, conducting different tests depending on the job that the miner applied for such tests includes audiometry, spirometry, and vision screening. The purpose of medical surveillance is to ensure that all the miners are fit to perform their duties without endangering their health and safety. Medical problems that may arise due to workplace exposure are also identified [12, 28]. The occupational medical practitioner must ensure that the medical surveillance must be suitable and be planned in such a way that it affords the miners to gain knowledge that can be used to the information that employees can use to eradicate, govern and reduce risks and hazards related to health and safety [28, 46]. This is achieved through continuous health education providing information to the miners relaxed to their medical results e.g. education related to audiometric test results on hearing loss. Medical surveillance includes the following types of medical examinations:
Pre-placement/baseline medical examination
It is a legal requirement for all mining organizations to conduct a pre-placement examination to be done before the miner can be appointed and placed in a job. The examination assists in the assessment of the miner’s suitability for the position applied and also the work environment that will be exposed to. More importantly pre-employment is also done to ensure the safety of the miners and others ensuring that the new employee does not pose risk [28].
Periodic medical examination
This examination is done every year or six months depending on the risk that the miner is exposed to. The examination I also done if the exposure risk increase or there is deterioration noted in the test results, when the miner is transferred from one department to another, after being involved in a serious injury or sickness [28].
Exit medical examination
This examination is performed before the miners leave their current employment. It s a legal requirement for the miners to produce their exit fitness certificate to their new employer. The exit medical examination safeguards the organization against future medical claims. The records are kept for 40 years [28].
The target of the demonstration is to accommodate the wellbeing and safety of miners at work, particularly regarding the utilization of apparatus (South Africa, 1993). Moreover, the Act accommodates the safety of miners against dangers to wellbeing and safety emerging from or regarding the exercises of people at work. This act recognized settled an advisory council on occupational and safety [47]. The overall obligations of the business and the miners in the work environment are likewise specified [47].
All the mines must appoint a health and safety team including health and safety representatives where there are 20 or more employees. Whereas if the mine has 100 or more miners the health and safety committee should be established. The health and safety representatives have the following major roles to play in ensuring the safety of the miners:
Review health and safety measures whether they are effective or not
Identifying possible hazards and the occurrence of incidents
They represent all the miners concerning health and safety and investigates all the complaints related to the safety of miners.
They do workplace inspections to identify potential health and safety risks
They participate in the inspection of the mine by the inspectors and provide safety- related information when needed.
They form part of the health and safety committee and participate in the internal health and safety audit.
According to the Mine Health and Act (29 of 1996), all organizations must employ a practitioner who is in the position of qualification in occupational medicine recognized by the Interim National Medical and Dental Council of South Africa or the South African Interim Nursing Council [12]. The occupational health practitioners are the largest single group of the multidisciplinary health care team at the workplace. Therefore, OHN is the frontline in protecting and promoting the health of the working population.
The occupational health practitioner is gifted in injury or diseases preventative skills and interventions. The OHP might recognize the requirement for, survey, and plan mediations to, alter working conditions, frameworks of work, or change working practices to decrease the danger of exposure to hazards [48]. Moreover, OHP experts are skilled in thinking about factors, like human conduct and habits about real working practices. They additionally team up in the origination, and rectification of work factors, decision, and quality of protective equipment, protection of miners from injury and illnesses, just as giving guidance in issues concerning the assurance of the climate [28, 48]. The OHP close relationship with the workers, and involvement with the management, they are in a decent situation to distinguish early changes in unsafe working practices, recognize miners challenges over health and safety, and present these to management in an independent objective manner can be the catalyst for changes in the workplace that lead to primary prevention by present these to the executives in a free target way can be the motivation for changes in the work environment that lead to essential counteraction [48].
The occupational health professionals inform on a wide reach concerning medical problems, and especially on their relationship to working capacity, wellbeing, and safety at work or where alterations to the work or workspace can be made to assess the changing wellbeing status of representatives [28]. In many regards, organizations are not exclusively worried about just those conditions that are straightforwardly brought about by work however, they need occupational health professionals to assist with attending to any wellbeing related issues that might emerge that may impact the miner’s participation or execution at work, and numerous representatives like this degree of help being given to them at the work environment since it is so advantageous for them [43]. Specifically, the improvement of medical care administrations for miners at the workplace. With regards to this survey, the OHP plays a significant part in guaranteeing the health and safety of the miners through primary, secondary, and tertiary avoidance [49].
Different scholars have acknowledged that there is a gap in the literature on the management of compliance with the health and safety strategy. Moreover, scholars have also raised a concern that the impact of legal non-compliance is even more scarce in the literature [49, 50]. Previous research done by Tibane and Niemand on challenges experienced by employees relating to safety compliance emphasized the importance of the development of strategies to reduce safety threats caused by poor compliance as a result of unsafe acts [51]. The question is that if they are safety regulations available and miners are aware of the dangers, what is the rationale behind poor compliance with the health and safety standards [52, 53].
The strategies are aimed at can be named preventive and treatment mediations. Precaution mediations are typically presented to every one of the excavators helping them to take on well- being conduct and sound way of life unconstrained and without incidental effects fuming them to search for help. On the other hand, Bagherpour et al. argue that preventive strategies need to be applied before the incidents, but preparative adjustments must be implemented both before and after the occurrence [6]. Preventive interventions, accordingly, are named as a primary, secondary, or tertiary counteraction.
Preventative strategies are normally offered to all the miners assisting them to adopt a safe behavior and healthy lifestyle spontaneous and without side effects seething them to look for help. More importantly, the literature revealed that compliance with health and safety law involves the development and implementation of an effective health and safety preventative system and building a positive health and safety culture at work [54]. Preventive mediations, thusly, are named as primary, secondary, or tertiary prevention [55].
In occupational health primary, preventative strategies are aimed at eradicating risks and exposures at the workplace before they occur. This level of prevention is important because the effect has not yet occurred yet the extent of the risk is visible [56]. In the occupational health clinic, primary prevention focuses on health promotion and protection within the context of a safe and healthy work environment [21]. This is achieved through continuous health education, conducting medical surveillance, and monitoring of chronic diseases thereby enhancing employees’ morale and maintaining optimal health. However, in the mining sector, the following health promotion programs are essential to promote good health and to prevent occurrences of accidents and diseases, this may include such elements as continuous health education on health and safety-related topics such as noise-induced hearing loss, chronic disease monitoring, and management, accident prevention, the importance of personal protective equipment’s, medical surveillance to identify and prevent the occurrences of health- related illnesses that might be caused by the work environment. Part of primary prevention is the assessment of health risks, this is achieved through continuous inspection by the occupational health practitioners and the safety team to identify and observe the work environment and working practices that might put the miner’s health at risk [21, 47]. More importantly, the health promotion activities have the potential to change the miner’s health practices such as choice of a healthy diet, exercising more frequently to prevent occurrences of chronic diseases. Additionally, the primary prevention activities have the potential to reduce the incidence of injuries and accidents because miners will be having more knowledge on health-related risks that might endanger their lives.
The implementation of an educational and training programme in the mine with a specific focus on creating a culture of safety among miners and more focus on safe working conditions can therefore help overcome the challenges of non-compliance [55, 56]. Moreover, since the mining environment is considered hazardous, all the mining organization needs to conduct medical surveillance as a primary preventative strategy as stipulated by Mine Health and Safety Act (29 of 1996) [12]. The medical surveillance is done before employment, annually or bi- annually and when the miner leaves the company, this is done according to the exposure levels in a different occupation and remedial actions are initiated based on the fitness status [28].
In secondary prevention, the main aim of occupational health is to diminish the impact of sickness or injury that has effectively occurred [47]. Additionally, this level of prevention put more emphasis on reinforcement and decreasing the reaction to the occupational disease or illness caused by the mining environment, thereby intensifying resistance through the provision of treatment [55]. This is achieved by distinguishing and regarding illness or injury at the earliest opportunity to end or slow its progression, encouraging safety strategies to prevent re- injury or recurrence, and implementing programs to return people to their original health and function to prevent long-term problems [56]. The secondary interventions include a regular medical examination and screening tests such as audiometry, spirometry, and vision screening. During the screening process, once the deterioration is identified further interventions such as referral to the specialist and recommendations for the removal of a miner to the occupation which will not have a further effect on the identified problem are done. The chronic disease management programme also forms part of the primary prevention strategy by constantly monitoring compliance through blood pressure and blood glucose monitoring to ensure compliance. Moreover, secondary prevention also included the advocacy to place a miner in a suitably modified work so injured or ill workers can return safely to their jobs [56].
In occupational health, tertiary anticipation intends to diminish the effect of a continuous sickness or injury that has enduring impacts. This is finished by assisting individuals with overseeing long-haul, frequently complex medical issues and injury (for example ongoing sicknesses, long-lasting impedances) to work on however much as could reasonably be expected their capacity to work, their satisfaction, and their future [56]. Secondary prevention activities in the mining environment include a Hearing conservation program to support and rehabilitate those who have already lost their hearing due to noise exposure. These activities include modification of personal protective equipment, job placement to a less noisy area zone. The miners are also referred to a different specialists such as the audiologist, occupational speech therapy for rehabilitation purposes. This assists the miners to adapt to new jobs and also in their changed health status so that they can cope.
The results of this review revealed that there are limited studies addressing the interventions to improve safety compliance. Furthermore in South Africa though there are several legislations to guide in safety and health compliance is still documented as poor with more focus on production. This review also demonstrated that combination of primary, secondary, and tertiary mediations is fundamental to accomplish a significant level of prevention and adherence in mining safety. The role of the OSH professional within the mining organization focusing more on addressing the challenges of none adherence requires further attention. None of the studies identified in the present review focused on the role of the OSH professional in ensuring compliance with the health and safety standards. Occupational health and safety is a human right issue that has got to be given legal, social, and ethical concerns. In SA there’s a requirement for the SA mining business to make an OHS culture that’s strong enough to manage most of OHS problems at each the national and sector levels.
Our mobiles, laptops, houses, and cars, rely on identification and authentication procedures to protect ourselves, data, and assets. Different methods are existing for this purpose which differ in their way and security level. These methods were ranging from traditional techniques where the user must “know” or “have” such as passwords, keys, or cards, to biometric techniques that define the user himself. Scientists tried in the last two decades to focus on biometric techniques to avoid problems associated with traditional ones, such as loss, theft, forgery, or coping. Biometric techniques defined the individual’s characteristics and required his/her physical presence to access the system without the need to carry or memorize anything. Unlike the traditional techniques, biometrics cannot be shared with anyone.
To identify any feature as a biometric, the following requirements should exist;
Many human features achieved these requirements and are labeled as biometric techniques where it can be categorized into; behavioral, physiological, and cognitive. Behavioral biometrics deal with functional features, such as voice, gait, signature, and keystroke. Physiological biometrics deal with anatomical features, such as fingerprint, face, iris, and ear shape. Cognitive biometrics use a biological signal generated from the heart, brain, or automatic nervous system which is an indicator of the individual’s mental and emotional states, such as electrocardiogram (ECG) and electroencephalogram (EEG).
Cognitive biometrics outweigh behavioral and physiological biometrics as it cannot be acquired, falsified, manipulated, or copied by external attackers [2] another advantage it can be utilized as a liveness detector.
This chapter reviews the state-of-the-art of human vital signs (cognitive biometrics) as biometric authentication. It will involve the recently discovered techniques, their description, limitation, and applications. This chapter is organized as follows: Section two investigates the electrocardiogram (ECG), while section three investigates electroencephalogram (EEG). Section four describes electrooculography as an authentication technique. Section five cites the blood flow as a patent to be used as a biometric. While section six discusses the ability of the vital signs to be used as unimodal authentication. Finally, section seven concludes this chapter.
Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a recording of the electrical activity produced by the heart by placing electrodes on the body’s skin to obtain the signals originating from the heart muscle. Any ECG consists of three components; P waves represent atria contractions (left and right), QRS reflect ventricular contractions (left and right) and appeared as a series of three waves, and T wave represents the electrical activity produced by the ventricular when it charging for the next contraction (repolarization), each ECG signal has six peaks and valleys [3, 4, 5, 6]. Individual’s ECG varies from one person to another based on the physiological, anatomical, and geometrical conditions, in addition to the position and size of the heart, also age and sex play a role in its uniqueness. Therefore, it can be used as an authentication technique [4].
Every living person can produce ECG therefore, the universality requirement is satisfied. Moreover, it is a proof of life which means that the ECG is more universal than any other physiological and behavioral biometrics. The extracted features vary for each person where the distinctiveness requirement has been achieved. These features can be measured quantitively using a standard available system which proves its collectability requirement. Although these systems are already in use for the patient within the medical field but not widely accepted in daily use. Finally, circumvention is achieved as we can measure how much easy the intruder will bypass the ECG authentication system. This is more difficult than the other biometric features as the ECG cannot be falsified or manipulated and require a living individual to authenticate his identity. As a result, the ECG can be considered a biometric authentication.
Any ECG-based authentication system comprises the following steps: (1) Acquisition: Electrodes placed on the body’s skin to capture the signals. (2) Quality Assessment: The system preprocesses the captured data to eliminate the noise and appropriately represent the signal. (3) Feature Extraction: The system extracted and normalized the features in two approaches; Fiducial Approach: The system detects, process, and classify the three waves P, QRS, and T based on their peaks, boundaries, and intervals between them. Non-Fiducial Approach: The system applies time or frequency analysis to obtain statistical features [7]. (4) Finally, Decision: The system classifies the extracted features to make the authentication decision [5, 8].
Numerous studies deliberate how the ECG is effective as a biometric, the following studies illustrate different approaches and algorithms.
In ref. [9], the authors proposed an identification technique based on ECG and musical features. After pre-processing ECG recordings, they transform them into audio wave files, split them into segments, and extract five musical dimensions to be faded into the classifier. They used MIT-BIH Normal Sinus Rhythm dataset. The proposed technique achieved 96.6% accuracy.
In ref. [10], the authors proposed EDITH, a deep learning-based framework for ECG Biometric Authentication systems. They demonstrate that Siamese architecture can be used over typical distance metrics to improve performance. They evaluated EDITH in four datasets using a single heartbeat. Their accuracy reached (96–99.75%) which can be enhanced using multiple heartbeats. The proposed framework reduced the Equal Error Rate to 1.29%.
In ref. [11], authors proposed two Model CNN and RestNet-Attention using ECG Signals where the signals are authenticated using an end-to-end structure without any handcrafting preprocessing, feature extraction, and classification which reduced the computational complexity. The proposed algorithm achieved 98.59 and 99.72% accuracy using PTB and CYBHi datasets.
To address the individuality issue of ECG over a larger population, authors in ref. [12] the present non-fiducial approach of ECG authentication and identification. They used autocorrelation and a combination of three transformation techniques DCT, DFT, and WHT to extract the features. Then the performance of these techniques has been evaluated on two-dimensionality reduction techniques—PCA and LDA. The best accuracy results achieved using DFT and LDA in QT Database (100%).
In ref. [13], the authors proposed a Dynamic Time Wrapping (DTW) algorithm to provide identification and authentication to the authorized people using ECG signals in Wireless Medical Devices (WMD). They used DTW to measure the correlation between different ECG records. They used Physionet dataset that contains 20 subjects of all ages with 310 records including abnormal ECGs, and a long period interval between ECG recordings to increase the reliability. They achieved a 99.9% accuracy rate.
In ref. [14], the authors proposed an algorithm to authenticate users with their doctors remotely using ECG signals. The algorithm consists of two parts; a registration process where the Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) extracts the features to be stored. The second part is the authentication process where the features will be matched with existing templates using the Sum of Squared Differences (SSD). They utilized the ECG IDDB Physionet dataset, and one lead has been used to fit in IoT devices, the algorithm uses non-Fiducial features, and achieved 91% accuracy.
In ref. [15], the authors develop an authentication algorithm using Linear Discrimination Analysis (LDA) to classify 16 subjects taken from the Physionet dataset based on their ECG signals (each one has 75–150 heartbeats); they extracted eight fiducial features from the ECG where they achieved 92.69% accuracy rate. The algorithm is scalable to large databases.
In ref. [16], the authors introduced authentication technology to record ECG signals of 55 voluntary subjects before and after insensitive exercise for five minutes using two positions; rest and sitting. LDA was used for feature extraction and classification. The best accuracy achieved within five minutes of recording is 96.11%.
In ref. [17], the authors proposed a framework for authentication using ECG where they used a Neural Network (NN) as a classifier. The test was not successful considering the small size of the dataset.
In ref. [18], the authors apply four nonlinear methods to extract fiducial features for the ECG authentication system; Generalized Hurst Exponent (GHE), Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA), Higuchi\'s Fractal Dimension (HFD), and Rescaled Range Analysis (RSA). A record of 18 subjects from the MIT-BIH Normal Sinus Rhythm Database fed into SVM as a classifier that achieved a 99.06% accuracy rate. The results showed that GHE has the optimal index to authenticate the subjects.
In ref. [19], the authors propose the use of long short-term memory (LSTM)-based Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) to use ECG as an authentication solution where there is no feature extraction. The method has been applied to ECG-ID and MIT-BIH Arrhythmia (MITDB) datasets. They achieved a 100% accuracy rate. As the number of subjects increases, the equal error rate drops.
In ref. [20], the authors proposed a method using phase-space reconstruction (PSR) of a single lead of ECG. They used a time delay technique to reconstruct the ECG\'s signal into phase space to find the best identifiable time-delay value. Twenty-one geometric features have been extracted in different situations: rest, during exercises, listening to music, and watching a movie. The procedure was conducted on 31 subjects and the accuracy rate was 97.7% when the delay is 8 ms.
In ref. [21], the authors proposed an identification method by extracting five fiducial points using Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD). Hidden Markov Model (HMM) has been used as a classifier with the Bakis model on 44 subjects from the MIT-BIH Arrhythmia database. The method achieved a 98.52% accuracy rate.
In ref. [22], the authors proposed a mobile authentication algorithm based on ECG where the user will need to touch only two electrodes (lead I) of the mobile device to be authenticated. The experiments were conducted on ten subjects in addition to 37 records from the Physionet dataset. The algorithm uses a hierarchal scheme that reduces the acquisition time to 4s.
The following table summarizes the previous studies to use ECG as biometric authentication (Table 1).
[9] | 2022 | Identification | Deep Learning (Transform ECG records into sound wave files characterized with musical features for human identification) | MIT-BIH | 18 | — | non-fiducial | 96.6 % |
[10] | 2021 | Authentication | EDITH, a deep learning-based framework | ECG-ID, MIT-BIH Arrhythmia – PTB Diagnostic ECG Database – MIT-BIH NSRDB | 90-47-290-18 | — | — | 96.247%-98.170%-99.702%-99.500% (closed environment) |
[11] | 2020 | Authentication | two end-to-end deep neural networks (CNN and ResNet) | PTB and CYBHi | 290 - 65 | — | — | 98.85 and 99.27% |
[12] | 2019 | Identification & Authentication | Autocorrelation (AC) with DCT -DFT-WHT Then Then PCA & LDA | MIT-BIH arrhythmia & QT database | 48-39 | non-fiducial | DFT & LDA (99.98% (99.83%) for QT DB | |
[13] | 2018 | Authentication | DTW | Physionet ECG-ID | 20 | 310 ECG | — | 99.9% |
[14] | 2017 | Authentication for Remote patient in IoT | Template Matching SSD | Physionet - IDDB dataset | 90 | N/A | Non-Fiducial | 91% |
[15] | 2017 | Authentication | LDA | Physionet | 16 | 5 or more for each subject | Fiducial | 92.69% |
[16] | 2017 | Authentication with the ECG data recorded after the harsh exercise | LDA | University of Toronto Database (UofTDB) | 55 | N/A | Fiducial | The subject recognition accuracy was 59.64%, which is too low to utilize, after one minute the accuracy was higher than 90% and it increased up to 96.22% within 5 minutes, which is plausible to use in authentication circumstances |
[17] | 2017 | Authentication | RF | Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) Diagnostic ECG Database | 290 | 549 | - | 88.45% |
[18] | 2017 | Authentication | SVM | MIT-BIH Normal Sinus Rhythm Database | 18 | N/A | Fiducial | 99.06 |
[19] | 2017 | Authentication | LSTM-based RNN | ECG-ID & MIT-BIH Arrhythmia (MITDB) | 90 47 | 310 | No extraction | 100% |
[20] | 2017 | Authentication | SVM | Voluntarily subjects | 13 | — | Fiducial | 97.7% |
[21] | 2016 | Authentication | Hidden Markov model (HMM) classifier with Bakis model | MIT-BIH Arrhythmia (MITDB) | 44 | — | Fiducial | 98.52% |
[22] | 2016 | Mobile Authentication | — | Voluntary Subjects | 10 | Fiducial | — |
A comparison of the latest studies in ECG.
Moreover, different scientists propose various utilization of the ECG besides authentication. In ref. [23], researchers at Binghamton University developed a robust and reusable authentication and data encryption means to protect the patients’ health records using their heartbeat (ECG) where the cost, time, storage, and complexity will be much more effective than using traditional encryption solutions. In ref. [24], the authors use ECG steganography to secure patient\'s confidential information. Another use is generating a secret key for data encryption and enhanced security in personal wearable devices using a patient’s ECG [25]. In ref. [26], the authors proposed software for remote interaction between the cardiovascular disease patients and the health provider to monitor their ECG, blood pressure, and heart rate.
As a summary of the previous studies, we can observe that there is some limitation that may lessen the ECG’s effectiveness as a biometric which needs further studies to be addressed. (1) The performance of ECG depends on how (P, T, QRS) are detected accurately. (2) Heart Rate Variability: Many factors can affect the ECG morphology which can be classified into short-term and long-term factors. In the short term where physical activity, mental status, drinking caffeine … etc. can affect the ECG, while the long-term factors are the change in the lifestyle such as using the medication, or heart diseases [4]. (3) The size of tested subjects does not exceed 300 which indicates ECG has not proven its ability within a large population to be deployed to the market as an authentication technique; more studies need to be done to confirm its scalability. (4) Also, there is no one study has studied the issue in the case of the heart transplant and whether it will affect the ECG authentication process or not. (5) Similarly, in the case of the twins, whether there is any matching that can breach the confidentiality of the authentication process?
Electroencephalogram (EEG) signals are the representation of the brain activity in the neurons either in the baseline task (relaxed) situation or in response to a functional status such as sleeping, solving a mathematical problem, reading some text, or having some diseases. These activities generated signals captured by placing electrodes on the scalp. There are five different waves in each EEG; Alpha wave appears during relaxation. Theta waves appear in the quite focus, short-memory tasks, and memory retrieval. Beta waves appear in a normal working rhythm; such as increased alertness, and anxious thinking. Delta wave happened during deep sleep. Gamma waves represent active information processing [27, 28]. Unlike other biometric techniques, the user can change the password by changing the mental task itself. EEG cannot be copied since it represents the real status of the brain.
As the ECG, every living person can produce EEC therefore, the universality requirement is satisfied also, it is aliveness detection. Each EEG has a different pattern in terms of its wave shape where the distinctiveness requirement has been achieved. These features can be measured quantitively using portable devices which proves its collectability requirement. The Acceptance of EEG may it will be a quite little difficult among the users, to raise the level of acceptance of EEG among the users the following may be done—(1) the typical EEG device consists of a number of electrodes that may be needed to be minimized into three or four [29]. (2) The use of dry electrodes instead of wet ones. Finally, the circumvention of EEG cannot be occurring as the spoofing in EEG is not possible. In addition to that, any intruder will not be able to generate a real EEG and impersonate the real user.
For each EEG-based authentication system, the following steps must occur; (1) Acquisition: EEG is captured using electrodes placed over the scalp where the subject is exposed to a specific task. Each electrode collects a wave for a specific region within the brain where all the waves will be combined into one. (2) Quality Assessment: The system preprocesses the captured signals to eliminate the noise and represent the signal in an appropriate way. (3) Feature Extraction: The system extracts and normalized the features. (4) Finally, Decision: The system classifies the extracted features to make the authentication decision [5, 8].
Numerous studies deliberate how the EEG is effective as a biometric, the following studies illustrate different approaches and algorithms.
In ref. [30], the authors proposed MusicID, a behavioral biometric framework for smart headset-enabled IoT environments. MusicID is induced by the user’s brain’s response to two forms of music: Common English songs and an individual’s favorite song. Their analysis showed that Alpha and Beta waves have more predictive capabilities. The framework achieved 98% for user identification and 97% for user verification.
In ref. [31], the authors designed electroencephalogram authentication access control for the smart car. The accuracy results achieved 87.3%
In ref. [32], the authors proposed an ECG authentication system using neurological responses to music. They used Alpha and Beta waves collected from seven electrodes. KNN is used to classify the data. They achieved 76.4%–92.3% accuracy results.
In ref. [33], the authors proposed a method to denoise the ECG signals based on the multi-objective Flower Pollination Algorithm and Wavelet Transform to extract the features. The test was conducted using an EEG motor movement/imagery dataset.
In ref. [34], the authors used power spectral density analysis to analyze EEG signals which fed into KNN to classify the EEG. The achieved accuracy was 89.21%.
In ref. [35], the authors proposed a pragmatic authentication system using EEG. They collected EEG of 29 subjects using a single dry electrode via a cheap Neurosky Mindwave headset and ten subjects using 14 electrodes via Emotive. The achieved accuracy for the first group was 80% while the second group achieved 92.88%.
In ref. [36], the authors studied how the differences in the emotional states affect the classification performance. The results showed that there is better performance when the subjects have the same emotional status.
In ref. [37], the authors proposed a biometric system using an in-ear EEG sensor where there is no need for skilled assistance or preparation. The results showed equivalent results to the on-scalp recording.
In ref. [38], the authors proposed an authentication framework using self or non-self-face images which were applied using Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP).
In ref. [39], the authors proposed an identification framework to identify users while they are listening to four genres of music.
In terms of the band type\'s performance, authors in ref. [40] present a superior performance of power spectral density features of gamma band during the rest state over the delta, theta, alpha, and beta of EEG signals.
In ref. [41] investigate the most effective frequency bands for authentication purposes using EEG signals at the rest status via Neural Networks (NN) as a classifier. The results show that beta has the best performance while delta gave the worst performance.
Another study [42] found that extracted feature from the gamma band in the left-posterior quarter of the brain has more reliable and stable information regardless of the emotional status. They classify the signals using five features and SVM as a classifier.
The following table summarizes the previous studies to use EEG as biometric authentication (Table 2).
[30] | 2021 | Authentication for IoT | Random Forest classifiers | Real Users | 4 electrodes | Listening to Music | 20 | 98% Accuracy for user identification and 97% accuracy for user verification | Alpha, Beta, Theta, Delta, Gamma, and raw EEG |
[31] | 2020 | Authentication access control to smart car | Fisher distance analysis method | Real Users | 40-channel neuroscan amplifier was used to collect EEG signals | Imagery Tasks | 10 | 87.3% | — |
[32] | 2019 | Authentication | KNN | — | 7 | Listening to Music | — | 76.4% - 92.3% | Alpha, Beta |
[33] | 2018 | Authentication | NN | EEG motor movement/imagery | 64 electrodes | Several motor/imagery tasks | 109 | — | — |
[34] | 2018 | Authentication | KNN | — | — | Visualization | — | 80% - 89.21% | Combined theta, alpha, beta, and gamma |
[35] | 2018 | Authentication | SVM - RLR - LDA | Mindwave | Single dry electrodes | — | 29 | 80% | — |
Emotiv Epoc+ | 14 electrodes | ||||||||
[36] | 2018 | Identification | LSVM - RSVM – KNN - MLP – (AdaBoost with DT) | DEAP, MAHNOB-HCI, SEED | — | 32 (DEAP) 27 (MAHNOB-HCI) 15 (SEED) | 99.51 (KNN) in (DEAP) 95.89 (LSVM) in (MAHNOB-HCI) 94.75% (LSVM) in (SEED) | — | |
[37] | 2018 | Authentication | Cosine Distance, SVM, LDA, | Two in-house datasets | In-ear sensor with two electrodes | Resting State | 15, 5 | 95.7% | Alpha |
[38] | 2018 | Authentication | HDCA | In-house | 16 | Visualization | 45 | 91.46% | - |
[39] | 2017 | Authentication | HMM, SVM | In-house | - | Listening Music (devotional, electronic, classical and rock) | 60 | 97.50 % (HMM) 93.83 % (SVM) | Gamma, Beta, Alpha, Theta, Delta |
[40] | 2017 | Authentication | - | PhysioNet | — | Rest State | 109 | 0.001 (64 channels) 0.002 (19 channels) | (PSD) features of gamma band |
[41] | 2017 | Authentication | NN | In-house | — | Eyes closed and solving some specific mathematical problem mentally | 3 | Beta (98.20% - 100%) Delta (92.82%-95.67%) | All |
[42] | 2017 | Authentication | SVM | DEAP | — | 1) mixture of emotional states; 2) the same specific emotional states; 3) different emotional states | 32 | 88% - 99% | Gamma |
A comparison of the latest studies in EEG.
Moreover, the authors in ref. [43], presented a monitoring and safety platform consisting of automotive sensors to capture real-time information about the driver and the vehicle in addition to a wearable body sensor network to collect the driver\'s EEG and ECG. They investigate the effect of the driver’s behavior on road conditions. The experiment was conducted on five subjects via 16 dry electrodes using theta and beta bands. The results showed that these biometrics could be used detection of driver distortion.
From the previous studies and as well as the ECG, EEG has its limitations that need to address to raise the effectiveness of the EEG as a unimodal authentication system; (1) the acquisition process is quite difficult as the electrode cap needs a significant effort to place it above the head in specific places. Most of the used acquisition equipment was a medical cap, and it needs to be simplified. (2) Different factors may affect the EEG, such as stress and general arousal. Therefore, it may not authenticate the right person. (3) EEG acquisition has a low power signal which needs a controlled environment. (4) the size of tested subjects does not exceed 150 which indicates ECG has not proven its ability within a large population to be deployed to the market as an authentication technique; more studies need to be done to confirm its scalability. (5) similarly, to ECG, in the case of the twins, is there any matching that can breach the confidentiality of the authentication process?
For both ECG and EEG, we cannot guarantee that the user will generate the same signals under different factors such as mental status, age, etc. We may be able to eliminate this issue by registering the user in a periodic way under different situations [28].
Electrooculography (EOG) signals are the representation of generated signals due to eyeball or eyelid movements. These signals are generated once the eyeball rotates from its axis, and it is detectable by the electrodes placed around the eye. A positive deflection is generated in the signal when the eyeball rotates upwards or the eyelid closes and a negative deflection is generated when the eyeball rotated downwards or the eyelid opens [44].
These movements are captured by placing electrodes placed around the eye. There are five different waves in each EEG; the Alpha wave appears during relaxation. Theta waves appear in the quite focus, short-memory tasks, and memory retrieval. Beta waves appear in a normal working rhythm. Such as increased alertness, and anxious thinking. Delta wave happened during deep sleep. Gamma waves represent active information processing [27, 28]. Unlike other biometric techniques, the user can change the password by changing the mental task itself. EEG cannot be copied since it represents the real status of the brain.
In ref. [44], the authors adopt human recognition eye blinking where a preprocessing stage has been conducted to isolate EOG signals from EEG signals. They used time delineation as a discriminative feature. The experiment was done using the Neurosky Mindwave headset, which is used mainly for EEG signals, but the sensor arm can be used for this purpose.
A patent has been published in 2018 by SAMSUNG ELECTRONICS CO titled “Real Time Authentication Based on Blood Flow Parameters," the patent declared that we could use the blood flow as an authentication technique using a wearable sensor. The sensor detects at least the first physiological biomarker of the blood and the first morphological characteristic of the blood to determine the individual’s uniqueness [45]. So far, no studies have explored and dealt with this patent.
Despite the limitation of the vital signs as an authentication technique, there are promising features that can outweigh, and overcome the limitations. Vital signs characterize by their confidentiality and resistance to the spoofing attack as it is corresponding to emotional or mental status moreover, the users cannot authenticate themselves unwillingly as it will generate different signal statuses. Therefore, the Identity cannot be impersonated, copied, or captured from a distance. Also, it is impossible for an intruder to force the user to authenticate as it is subject to his mental status in some situations not under stress [28]. And most importantly, the vital sign is a liveness detector as it needs a live person recording. Unlike the face, finger, and eyes, the brain and heart have a rare chance to be injured.
However, it can be used as a multi-authentication system, a continuous authentication, or unimodal in specific cases until all the issues will be eliminated. Several domains can utilize the EEG and ECG signals in their current status. In the following we have proposed some applications to use ECG and EEG biometrics:
ECG sensors can be placed in the ATM to authenticate users using their ECG, which requires a previous registration of different user\'s emotional status (e.g., rest, horrified). The approach will be effective when the user is under attack from a burglar to withdraw an amount of money. The system will detect if the user is in an abnormal condition (horrified under coercion), and it will block the transaction.
The proposed model will be based on ref. [43] where it can detect whether the driver is in a distraction mode or not in addition to that, it will prevent stealing the car or using it to commit a crime. The model can take advantage of either ECG or EEG as biometric authentication, ECG’s sensors can be placed on the steering wheel, while the EEG can be placed in front of the headrest and behind the driver’s head.
EEG and ECG can be used in sensitive and top secure entities, such as military and nuclear power reactors even in their status as they cannot be spoofed at all. A lair detector will be combined with the system and utilized the EEG and ECG to authenticate and verify the reason behind the access.
EEG and ECG can be used as a way for continuous authentication, such as the remote interaction in the online games to authenticate that the real user is who is claiming during the session game. The implementation of EEG and ECG within the online game environment can be accepted as the player wearing the headset and holding the control in his hands all the time.
This chapter surveyed the work done within the field of cognitive biometric authentication (vital signs) in terms of its limitation, requirement, advantages, and disadvantages specifically the ECG and EEG signals. Moreover, it investigated and raised some issues within the field that have not been studied yet and need to be addressed. Also, a recent patent on blood flow and electrooculography has been cited which can be considered a biometric authentication within the vital signs.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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We elaborate on the concept of neuroplasticity by focussing on three major topics: the ontogenetic scale of musical development, the phenomenon of neuroplasticity as the outcome of interactions with the sounds and a short survey of clinical and therapeutic applications. First, a distinction is made between two scales of description: the larger evolutionary scale (phylogeny) and the scale of individual development (ontogeny). In this sense, listeners are not constrained by a static dispositional machinery, but they can be considered as dynamical systems that are able to adapt themselves in answer to the solicitations of a challenging environment. Second, the neuroplastic changes are considered both from a structural and functional level of adaptation, with a special focus on the recent findings from network science. The neural activity of the medial regions of the brain seems to become more synchronised when listening to music as compared to rest, and these changes become permanent in individuals such as musicians with year-long musical practice. As such, the question is raised as to the clinical and therapeutic applications of music as a trigger for enhancing the functionality of the brain, both in normal and impaired people.",book:{id:"6092",slug:"neuroplasticity-insights-of-neural-reorganization",title:"Neuroplasticity",fullTitle:"Neuroplasticity - Insights of Neural Reorganization"},signatures:"Mark Reybrouck, Peter Vuust and Elvira Brattico",authors:[{id:"196698",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Reybrouck",slug:"mark-reybrouck",fullName:"Mark Reybrouck"},{id:"209976",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvira",middleName:null,surname:"Brattico",slug:"elvira-brattico",fullName:"Elvira Brattico"},{id:"209977",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Vuust",slug:"peter-vuust",fullName:"Peter Vuust"}]},{id:"67730",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86822",title:"Circadian Rhythms of the Autonomic Nervous System: Scientific Implication and Practical Implementation",slug:"circadian-rhythms-of-the-autonomic-nervous-system-scientific-implication-and-practical-implementatio",totalDownloads:1074,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Circadian rhythms are omnipresent in almost any biosignal. In this chapter, we join them with the need for practical tools for screening in preventive settings and point out heart rate variability (HRV), a measure of autonomic nervous system activity, as a chronobiologic, unspecific index of mental and physical health. We discuss methods to calculate the circadian variation of HRV measures, particularly the cosinor procedure. We present reference values for circadian variation parameters of HRV and data concerning reproducibility. Furthermore, we show data giving first evidence of HRV as a comprehensive health index by showing altered circadian variation patterns of HRV depending on mental (trait dysthymia) as well as physical (inflammatory markers) health. Finally, we present examples of disturbed chronobiology of HRV in clinical and preventive settings and its practical application in medical consultation.",book:{id:"6899",slug:"chronobiology-the-science-of-biological-time-structure",title:"Chronobiology",fullTitle:"Chronobiology - The Science of Biological Time Structure"},signatures:"Marc N. Jarczok, Harald Guendel, Jennifer J. McGrath and Elisabeth M. 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Anatomically, the hippocampus extends along a longitudinal axis that shows a combination of graded and specific interconnections with neocortical and subcortical brain areas. Functionally, place cells are found all along the longitudinal axis and exhibit gradients of properties including an increasing dorsal-to-ventral place field size. We propose a view of hippocampal function in which fine-dorsal to coarse-ventral overlapping representations collaborate to form a multi-level representation of spatial and episodic memory that is dominant during navigation in large and complex environments or when encoding complex memories. This view is supported by the fact that the effects of ventral hippocampal damage are generally only found in larger laboratory-scale environments, and by the finding that human virtual navigation studies associate ventral hippocampal involvement with increased environmental complexity. Other mechanisms such as the ability of place cells to exhibit multiple fields and their ability to scale their fields with changes in environment size may be utilized when forming large-scale cognitive maps. Coarse-grained ventral representations may overlap with and provide multi-modal global contexts to finer-grained intermediate and dorsal representations, a mechanism that may support mnemonic hierarchies of autobiographical memory in humans.",book:{id:"6250",slug:"the-hippocampus-plasticity-and-functions",title:"The Hippocampus",fullTitle:"The Hippocampus - Plasticity and Functions"},signatures:"Bruce Harland, Marcos Contreras and Jean-Marc Fellous",authors:[{id:"210681",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruce",middleName:null,surname:"Harland",slug:"bruce-harland",fullName:"Bruce Harland"},{id:"210682",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras",slug:"marco-contreras",fullName:"Marco Contreras"},{id:"210683",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Fellous",slug:"jean-marc-fellous",fullName:"Jean-Marc Fellous"}]},{id:"68423",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88232",title:"Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Metabolism in the Brain and Brain Cells",slug:"polyunsaturated-fatty-acid-metabolism-in-the-brain-and-brain-cells",totalDownloads:1128,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have gained more importance these last decades since they regulate the level of long-chain PUFAs (LC-PUFAs) in all cells and especially in brain cells. Because LC-PUFAs, especially those of the n-3 family, display both anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution properties, they play an essential role in neuroinflammation. Neuroinflammation is a hallmark of neurological disorders and requires to be tightly controlled or at least limited otherwise it can have functional consequences and negatively impact the quality of life and well-being of patients. LC-PUFAs exert these beneficial properties in part through the synthesis of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) that are involved in the resolution of inflammation and to the return of homeostasis. SPMs are promising relevant candidates to resolve brain inflammation and to contribute to neuroprotective functions and lead to novel therapeutics for brain inflammatory diseases. Here we present an overview of the origin and accumulation of PUFAs in the brain and brain cells and their conversion into SPMs that are involved in neuroinflammation and how nutrition induces variations in LC-PUFA and SPM levels in the brain and in brain cells.",book:{id:"6907",slug:"feed-your-mind-how-does-nutrition-modulate-brain-function-throughout-life-",title:"Feed Your Mind",fullTitle:"Feed Your Mind - How Does Nutrition Modulate Brain Function throughout Life?"},signatures:"Corinne Joffre",authors:[{id:"281107",title:"Dr.",name:"Corinne",middleName:null,surname:"Joffre",slug:"corinne-joffre",fullName:"Corinne Joffre"}]},{id:"61465",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76603",title:"The Importance of Distinguishing Allocentric and Egocentric Search Strategies in Rodent Hippocampal-Dependent Spatial Memory Paradigms: Getting More Out of Your Data",slug:"the-importance-of-distinguishing-allocentric-and-egocentric-search-strategies-in-rodent-hippocampal-",totalDownloads:1419,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"While the brain works as a dynamic network, with no brain region solely responsible for any particular function, it is generally accepted that the hippocampus plays a major role in memory. Spatial memory operates through the hippocampus with communication with the prefrontal and parietal cortices. This chapter will focus on two separate reference frames involved in spatial memory, egocentric and allocentric, and outline the differences of these reference frames and associated search strategies with relevance to behavioural neuroscience. The importance of dissociating these search strategies is put forward, and steps researchers can take to do so are suggested. Neurophysiological and clinical differences between these spatial reference frames are outlined to further support the view that distinguishing them would be beneficial.",book:{id:"6250",slug:"the-hippocampus-plasticity-and-functions",title:"The Hippocampus",fullTitle:"The Hippocampus - Plasticity and Functions"},signatures:"Adrienne M. Grech, Jay Patrick Nakamura and Rachel Anne Hill",authors:[{id:"230389",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachel",middleName:null,surname:"Hill",slug:"rachel-hill",fullName:"Rachel Hill"},{id:"230394",title:"Ms.",name:"Adrienne",middleName:null,surname:"Grech",slug:"adrienne-grech",fullName:"Adrienne Grech"},{id:"230395",title:"Mr.",name:"Jay",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",slug:"jay-nakamura",fullName:"Jay Nakamura"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64482",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases and Their Therapeutic Approaches",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-and-their-therapeutic-approaches",totalDownloads:1324,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease are characterized as a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disorder and are manifested by the loss of neurons within the brain and/or spinal cord. In the present chapter, we would like to summarize the molecular mechanism focusing on metabolic modification associated with neurodegenerative diseases or heritable genetic disorders. The identification of the exact molecular mechanisms involved in these diseases would facilitate the discovery of earlier pathophysiological markers along with substantial therapies, which may consist (of) mitochondria-targeted antioxidant therapy, mitochondrial dynamics modulators, epigenetic modulators, and neural stem cell therapy. Therefore, all these therapies may hold particular assurance as influential neuroprotective therapies in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.",book:{id:"6991",slug:"neurons-dendrites-and-axons",title:"Neurons",fullTitle:"Neurons - Dendrites and Axons"},signatures:"Farhin Patel and Palash Mandal",authors:[{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal"}]},{id:"75762",title:"Structural and Biological Basis for Proprioception",slug:"structural-and-biological-basis-for-proprioception",totalDownloads:474,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The proprioception is the sense of positioning and movement. It is mediate by proprioceptors, a small subset of mechanosensory neurons localized in the dorsal root ganglia that convey information about the stretch and tension of muscles, tendons, and joints. These neurons supply of afferent innervation to specialized sensory organs in muscles (muscle spindles) and tendons (Golgi tendon organs). Thereafter, the information originated in the proprioceptors travels throughout two main nerve pathways reaching the central nervous system at the level of the spinal cord and the cerebellum (unconscious) and the cerebral cortex (conscious) for processing. On the other hand, since the stimuli for proprioceptors are mechanical (stretch, tension) proprioception can be regarded as a modality of mechanosensitivity and the putative mechanotransducers proprioceptors begins to be known now. The mechanogated ion channels acid-sensing ion channel 2 (ASIC2), transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) and PIEZO2 are among candidates. Impairment or poor proprioception is proper of aging and some neurological diseases. Future research should focus on treating these defects. This chapter intends provide a comprehensive update an overview of the anatomical, structural and molecular basis of proprioception as well as of the main causes of proprioception impairment, including aging, and possible treatments.",book:{id:"10554",slug:"proprioception",title:"Proprioception",fullTitle:"Proprioception"},signatures:"José A. Vega and Juan Cobo",authors:[{id:"59892",title:"Prof.",name:"José A.",middleName:null,surname:"Vega",slug:"jose-a.-vega",fullName:"José A. Vega"},{id:"100648",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Cobo",slug:"juan-cobo",fullName:"Juan Cobo"}]},{id:"62564",title:"Inflammation and Autonomic Function",slug:"inflammation-and-autonomic-function",totalDownloads:1785,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Inflammation is generally a temporary and limited condition but may lead to a chronic one if immune and physiological homeostasis are disrupted. The autonomic nervous system has an important role in the short- and, also, long-term regulation of homeostasis and, thus, on inflammation. Autonomic modulation in acute and chronic inflammation has been implicated with a sympathetic interference in the earlier stages of the inflammatory process and the activation of the vagal inflammatory reflex to regulate innate immune responses and cytokine functional effects in longer processes. The present review focuses on the autonomic mechanisms controlling proinflammatory responses, and we will discuss novel therapeutic options linked to autonomic modulation for diseases associated with a chronic inflammatory condition such as sepsis.",book:{id:"6808",slug:"autonomic-nervous-system",title:"Autonomic Nervous System",fullTitle:"Autonomic Nervous System"},signatures:"Ângela Leal, Mafalda Carvalho, Isabel Rocha and Helder Mota-Filipe",authors:[{id:"227590",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",slug:"isabel-rocha",fullName:"Isabel Rocha"},{id:"253537",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ângela",middleName:null,surname:"Leal",slug:"angela-leal",fullName:"Ângela Leal"},{id:"253581",title:"MSc.",name:"Mafalda",middleName:null,surname:"Carvalho",slug:"mafalda-carvalho",fullName:"Mafalda Carvalho"},{id:"253701",title:"Prof.",name:"Hélder",middleName:null,surname:"Mota-Filipe",slug:"helder-mota-filipe",fullName:"Hélder Mota-Filipe"}]},{id:"62850",title:"Anatomy of the Human Optic Nerve: Structure and Function",slug:"anatomy-of-the-human-optic-nerve-structure-and-function",totalDownloads:2939,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The optic nerve (ON) is constituted by the axons of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). These axons are distributed in an organized pattern from the soma of the RGC to the lateral geniculated nucleus (where most of the neurons synapse). The key points of the ON are the optic nerve head and chiasm. This chapter will include a detailed and updated review of the ON different parts: RGC axons, glial cells, connective tissue of the lamina cribrosa and the septum and the blood vessels derivate from the central retina artery and from the ciliary system. There will be an up-to-date description about the superficial nerve fibre layer, including their organization, and about prelaminar, laminar and retrolaminar regions, emphasizing the axoplasmic flow, glial barriers, biomechanics of the lamina cribrosa and the role of the macro- and microglia in their working.",book:{id:"6786",slug:"optic-nerve",title:"Optic Nerve",fullTitle:"Optic Nerve"},signatures:"Juan J. Salazar, Ana I. Ramírez, Rosa De Hoz, Elena Salobrar-Garcia,\nPilar Rojas, José A. Fernández-Albarral, Inés López-Cuenca, Blanca\nRojas, Alberto Triviño and José M. Ramírez",authors:null},{id:"68362",title:"Carbohydrates and the Brain: Roles and Impact",slug:"carbohydrates-and-the-brain-roles-and-impact",totalDownloads:1398,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Even if its size is fairly small (about 2% of body weight), the brain consumes around 20% of the total body energy. Whereas organs such as muscles and liver may use several sources of energy, under physiological conditions, the brain mainly depends on glucose for its energy needs. This involves the need for blood glucose level to be tightly regulated. Thus, in addition to its fueling role, glucose plays a role as signaling molecule informing the brain of any slight change in blood level to ensure glucose homeostasis. In this chapter, we will describe the fueling and sensing properties of glucose and other carbohydrates on the brain and present some physiological brain functions impacted by these sugars. We will also highlight the scientific questions that need to be answered in order to better understand the impact of sugars on the brain.",book:{id:"6907",slug:"feed-your-mind-how-does-nutrition-modulate-brain-function-throughout-life-",title:"Feed Your Mind",fullTitle:"Feed Your Mind - How Does Nutrition Modulate Brain Function throughout Life?"},signatures:"Xavier Fioramonti and Luc Pénicaud",authors:[{id:"281112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Fioramonti",slug:"xavier-fioramonti",fullName:"Xavier Fioramonti"},{id:"281113",title:"Dr.",name:"Luc",middleName:null,surname:"Pénicaud",slug:"luc-penicaud",fullName:"Luc Pénicaud"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"213",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. 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Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. 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