Physical and Atmospheric Characteristics of Earth
\r\n\tThe present book intends to provide to the reader a comprehensive overview of the state of art in empathy studies, embracing the different theoretical points of view and illustrating the advanced research such as the application of new technologies to promote perspective-taking. The critical aspects and the future directions of the study on empathy will also be presented.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-612-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-611-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-613-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"4c1042dfe15aa9cea6019524c4cbff38",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sara Ventura",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg",keywords:"Theoretical Model, Skill, Perspective Taking, Training Programs, Practical Implications, Advanced Research, Future Directions, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, New Trends, Assistive Technology",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"15 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Passionate researcher in the application of new technologies to psychological treatments, neuro-rehabilitation, human behavior, and the evolution of the human-computer interaction. In 2017 Dr. Ventura won a competitive grant (Santiago Grisolia) at the University of Valencia at LABPSITEC group, where she was awarded her Ph.D. degree, supervised by Prof. Rosa Baños at the University of Valencia, and co-directed by Prof. Giuseppe Riva of the Catholic University of Milan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227763/images/system/227763.jpg",biography:"Sara Ventura gained a B.Sc in Psychology at the University of Padua (Italy) in 2013 and an M.Sc. in Ergonomic Psychology at the Catholic University of Milan (Italy) in 2015. In 2016, she carried out a postgraduate training at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (Mexico) at the Ciberpsychology lab, working on a rehabilitation protocol for people with acquired brain injury through Virtual Reality. In 2020, Sara gained the Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology at University of Valencia (Spain) working with the LabPsitec group and focusing her research on the study of embodiment and empathy with the support of Virtual Reality. Actually, she is working both with Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna (Italy), and the University of Valencia (Spain) on the fields of embodiment, stroke rehabilitation, empathy and patient care. Her research interests mainly focus on the adoption of new technologies, particularly Virtual/Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence for the psycho-social wellbeing with clinical and non-clinical populations, the study of human-computer interaction, and the user experience. She is the author of several scientific papers and various presentations at national and international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Valencia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"455410",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Jusic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/455410/images/20500_n.jpeg",email:"dajana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"47013",title:"Dire Consequences on Little Shifting of the Earth’s Spinning Angle – An Investigation Whether Polar Ice Shrinkage may be the Cause?",doi:"10.5772/58708",slug:"dire-consequences-on-little-shifting-of-the-earth-s-spinning-angle-an-investigation-whether-polar-ic",body:'Environmentalist and Scientists are now of the opinion that the entire globe may face threats of: fast shrinkage of polar ice due to its melting and may eventually diminish by 2040, fast rise in the sea level, danger for species like: polar bears, penguins etc., northern portion of Canada, USA and UK may be affected by cold waves, heavy snow falls and storms due to shifting and melting of largest ice sheets in the Atlantic sea.
Scientists warn that the warming in the region of Arctic is due to the increment of Permafrost which is also one cause of the Tundra fires. The warming this way cannot be hence reversed and thus the entire Arctic region may turn into a dangerous source of methane from a vast carbon sink in less than a decade.
In view of likely disastrous implications, all the scientists involved, in the research and fieldwork are helping us to understand the growing threat of melting permafrost in the crucial Arctic region. Our Earth planet is on a dangerous course of passing irreversible tipping points with disastrous consequences due to the melting of green land, polar ice and permafrost which in turn releases toxic methane gases, resulting more warming of the atmosphere.
The future of sea level rise cannot be overruled by the ice sheets as they present alarming challenges in predicting their future response. It is calculated by using numerical modeling and as a result alternative approaches have been explored. A generalized approached is required in this matter to estimate their contribution to the sea level in the future.
In view of better identification and prediction of the melting and rising of the sea level a continuous monitoring via satellite is needed, according to the findings published in Nature Geoscience. According to a survey and readings, the ice sheet covering Antarctica and Greenland contain about 99.5 percent of the earth’s glacier ice that has the potential to raise the sea level by 63m (about 200 ft.), if melted completely
This entire action may lead to shift of heavy movement of masses of the Arctic sheets to sea and may likely to have an effect on the spinning angle of the earth due to differential changes in masses apart from the above mentioned threats.
Among the four largest terrestrial planets comes our earth. It is also the third planet from the Sun and also the densest one. We sometimes refer it as the Blue Planet [1] the Blue Marble,
The Earth Planet
Lithosphere, one of the geological features of the earth, is divided into several segments and tectonic plates that are formed over a period of many millions of years. Over 70% of the earth’s surface is covered with water [7] and the remaining comprise of continents and islands having many lakes and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere.
The tilt of 23.4 degrees in the axis of the earth from its perpendicular of its orbital plane produce seasonal variations on the surface with one tropical year (365.24 solar days) [8]. During one orbit around the Sun, the earth rotates about its own axis 366.26 times creating 365.26 solar days or one sidereal year.
Owing to its feasible life generating conditions, it is a home to millions of species including humans [9]. The mineral resources and the biosphere products contribute much resources that are used to support a global human population [10].
An oblate spheroid, that is what the shape of the earth is. Means, it is flattened along the axis and bulged around the equator [11] causing the diameter to be 43 km larger than that of its poles [12].The farthest point from the earth’s centre is the Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador [13].
Since the earth has a tolerance of about one part in about 584, or 0.17%, the local topography deviates from this idealized spheroid only on small scale [15]. The Mount Everest (8848 m above sea level) has been attributed with the largest local deviations in the rocky surface of the Earth and the Mariana Trench (10911 m below local sea level) which together formed the equatorial bulge [16-18].
Some important physical and atmospheric characteristics of the Earth are shown in Table 1. From this data, it is evident that the Earth’s radii through Polar and Equatorial are different such as 6356.8 km and 6378.1 km respectively. The polar radius is less than equatorial by 21.3 km or 43 km in diameter. The Earth’s mass is 5.97219 x 1024 kgs. Circumferences through the equatorial and the meridional are 40075.017 km and 40007.86 km whereas the total surface area is 510072000 sq.km, out of which the land coverage is by 148940000 km2 (29.2%) and the water coverage is 361132000 km2 (70.8 %).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6371.0 km | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6378.1 km | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6356.8 km | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.0033528 | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t40075.017 km ( 40007.86 km ( | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t510072000 km2\n\t\t\t\t 148940000 km2 (29.2%) 361132000 km2 (70.8 %) | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1.08321×1012 km3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5.97219×1024 kg 3.0×10−6 Suns | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5.515 g/cm3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t9.780327 m/s2 0.99732 | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.3307 | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t11.186 km/s | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1,674.4 km/h (465.1 m/s) | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t23°26′21.4119″ (23.43°) | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.367 ( 0.306 ( | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t184 K | \n\t\t\t288 K | \n\t\t\t330 K | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t−89.2 °C | \n\t\t\t15 °C | \n\t\t\t56.7 °C | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t101.325 kPa (at MSL) | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t78.08% nitrogen (N2) ( 20.95% oxygen (O2) 0.93% argon 0.039% carbon dioxide About 1% water vapor (varies with climate) | \n\t\t
Physical and Atmospheric Characteristics of Earth
The surface of the earth, that comprise the action of wind, water, fire, ice and living things, is a combination of the landscapes and geological processes with chemical reactions that form soils and alter material properties and tectonic upliftment. The rate of change of topography under the force of gravity comes under the geological processes. As a matter of fact, the upliftment of the mountain ranges, the growth of volcanoes, isostatic changes in the land surface and formation of deep sedimentary basins are the result of geological processes. Thus, the earth’s surface and its topography are an intersection of climatic, hydrologic and biologic action with geologic processes.
Much of the local climate is modified by topography, for example orographic precipitation which in turn change modifies the topography by changing the hydrologic regime in which it evolves. The intersection of the surface of the earth and the subsurface actions is well illustrated by the broad scale topographies. The geological process is responsible for the upliftment in the mountain belts. The sediments produced after husking of the high uplifted regions are transported and deposited elsewhere off the coast of the landscape [19]. The process of upliftment and deposition and of subsidence and erosion directly affect each other on progressively smaller scales at the involvement of the landforms. The loads of ice sheets, water and sediments can bring topographical changes through flexural isostasy.
Geographical cycle also named as the cycle of erosion is a model of broad scale landscape evolution developed by William Morris Davis between 1884 and 1889 which has been an eludication of the uniformitarianism theory first proposed by James Hutton (1726-1797). Opposing the Davis’ model of single upliftment followed by decay, Walther Penck, in 1920, devised a model of cycle of erosion, since he thought that the landform evolution was better elaborated as an alternation between ongoing processes of upliftment and denudation. Since Penck’s work could not be translated into English; his ideas could not be recognized for many years
The authors of early 19th century had tried their hands to attribute to the formation of the landscapes under local climate and to the specific effects of glaciations and periglacial processes. Significance of the genesis of the landscapes and the process of the earth’s surface across different landscapes under various conditions has been tried and presented in a very well and on a more generalized way by Penck and Davis respectively.
The low temperature thermochronology, optically stimulated luminescence dating and cosmogenic radionuclide dating (geochronology) have enabled us to measure the rates at which geomorphic processes occur on geological timescales [20, 21]. Many advanced measurement techniques such as GPS, remotely sensed digital terrain models and laser scanning techniques have permitted quantification and study of geomorphological processes [22]. Further, with the help of modeling technique and computer simulation we know the working process of it.
The geomorphic processes generally listed into:
the formation of regolith by weathering and erosion,
the transportation of that material, and
its deposition.
Landscape changes happen due to glaciers because the movement of ice down a valley causes abrasion and plucking of the underlying rock and this abrasion further produces fine sediment that is termed as glacial flour. After the abrasion the debris transported by the glacier is called ‘moraine’. The erosion of the glaciers are responsible for the formation of the U-shaped valley as seen in Fig.2, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin [23].
Features of a glacial landscape
Plio-Pleistocene landscape evolution is the one where glacial processes interact with other elements of landscape especially that of the hill slope and fluvial processes and is also responsible for sedimentation in high mountain environments. Elevated landscapes are the feature of recently glaciated environments as compared to those that have never been glaciated. In connection to this, ‘paraglacial processes’ that have been conditioned by past glaciation comes under ‘Nonglacial geomorphic processes’. It contrasts with periglacial processes, which are directly driven by the formation or melting of ice or frost [24].
The movement of a glacier works under the force of gravity. The flow of a glacier is downward because they collect mass (ice) due to the precipitation and wind pressure and get melted in small packs as shown in Fig. 3.
A glacier when in the state of equilibrium does not change in either in steepness or size because it works under the principle of accumulation = ablation. The equilibrium line altitude is because of zero net accumulation or ablation from the altitude. Advancement and recession in a glacier depends upon the changes in the rates of accumulation i.e. if the accumulation area of a glacier shrinks, for example, and the equilibrium line altitude rises, then the glacier will recede [25].
Components of mass balance of a glacier
The mass balance of a glacier is controlled by temperature and precipitation and is calculated by taking the difference between accumulation and ablation. If accumulation is greater than ablation, then the glacier has positive mass balance and will advance. If ablation is greater than accumulation, then the glacier has negative mass balance and will recede.
Gravity accompanied with the mass in a glacier pushes it to flow downward. A receding glacier flows slowly but flows in becoming thin with snout position receding backwards.
Glacier mass balance and atmospheric circulation by NASA.
The ice discharge from a glacier is by the accumulation and ablation area, thus maintaining a steady-state profile. The velocity of a flowing glacier is controlled by the glacier’s mass. Some glaciers have dynamic flow driven by other factors, for example, surging glaciers, tidewater glaciers, ice streams or ice-shelf tributary glaciers.
The process of deformation and sliding downwards is how the glaciers move (see Fig.4). The velocity, motion and flow of glacier is controlled under several factors as follow:
Shape of geometrical formation of ice (thickness, steepness),
Properties of ice in temperature and density,
Geometrical valley,
Conditions of bedrock such as: hard, soft, frozen or thawed bed,
Hydrology in subglacial manner,
Terrestrial environment like: land, sea, ice shelf, sea ice, and
Mass balance in terms of rate of accumulation and ablation.
During the movement of the glaciers, there acts a driving stress. This driving stress, also called gravitational driving stress, is controlled by the density of ice, gravitational acceleration, temperature, ice thickness and ice surface slope. These resistive stresses basically operate at the glacier bed and make
Three ways of the movement of glaciers under the driving stress:
Creeping due to internal deformation
Sliding of basal
Subglacial deformation under soft bed.
All glaciers flow by creep, but only glaciers with water at their base (temperate or polythermal) have basal sliding, and only glaciers that lie on soft deformable beds have soft sediment deformation. If all three factors are present, one can have the ingredients to contribute to fast ice flow.
Variations in the earth’s gravitational field under changes in mass distribution with the movement of ice slabs into the oceans, is being detected by the satellites of Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) since 2002. This provides us assistance and data as well, in monitoring the present condition of the ice sheets, at monthly intervals, under gravitational changes.
Dr. Bert Wouters, a visiting researcher at the university of Colorado, says that in the last few decades, as and when compared for the first few years of the GRACE mission; around 300 billion tonnes of ice is being lost by the ice sheets and its loosing rate is apparently increasing and adding substantial contribution in the sea level rise; almost double in recent years, compared to some few years.
The heavy loss of the ice sheets in the last few decades has not formed any general consensus among the scientists based on observations of the satellites. One agreement related to the loss of the ice sheets is that it may have been due to anthropogenic warming. In other words, natural processes such as severe fluctuations in atmospheric conditions, especially the shifting pressures in the North Atlantic, El Niño and La Niña effects, may have anthropogenic causes, as well as being due to the ocean currents.
"Dr Wouters state that, “if observations span only a few years, such \'ice sheet weather\' may show up as an apparent speed-up of ice loss which would cancel out once more observations become available" [26].
The information received from the GRACE mission clearly mentions mass changes to the ice sheets after the comparison of nine years of data by a team of researchers. They detected that the ability to detect accurately an accelerating trend in mass loss depends on the length of the record.
The Satellite Monitoring about Sea Level Rise
The deformation in the ice sheets in the Antarctic region in the last few decades is alarming and its losses are unconvincing. If atmospheric fluctuations would be studied as the cause of the changing trend in the loss of the ice sheets at this region, it would leave a very meagre percent.
The satellite survey and study in the region specifically provides information about the mass loss of the ice sheets in the Antarctic region, and for Greenland, it will require us a time span of about ten years
It could be further added to our study, after the result of the satellite information regarding the mass loss in the ice sheets in the Antarctic region, that a continuous monitoring of the ice sheets through the satellite would be better to identify and predict the melting rate along with the observation in the sea level rise because 99.5 percent of the earth’s glaciers of Antarctic and that of Greenland would raise global sea level to about 63m, if melted completely
The rational study regarding the sea level rise due to the ice sheets to 2100 might be 35cm if too high or low. Hence, prediction in the sea level rise, according to the studies, is an alarm for us to lift necessary steps to mitigate the onslaught.
The rise rate of about half a degree celsius in the temperature in the last 100 years has no doubt caused Global Warming. Not to say, even half a degree would be enough to affect our planet’ life. U.S. Environmental Agency (EPA) has stated in one of its survey report that, in the last 100 years, the sea level has raised from 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20cm) [27]. The rise in the temperature this way has paved the way for the melting of the polar ice sheets and floating icebergs to melt and could be if not on a large be one of the even small causes for the rise in the sea level.
Antarctica accounts for about 90 percent of the world\'s ice
90 percent of the world’s ice, around 2133 meters (7000 fts.) (including 70 percent of fresh water) is ice covered landmass in Antarctica at the south pole (Fig.6). It is hypothetical to say but, if the entire ice gets melt, the level in the seas around it would rise up to 61 meters (200 fts). Since, the average temperature in Antarctica is -37 degrees C, it cannot happen.
It can be said that the amount of ice covered at the Greenland, if gets de-freeze, would raise the level of sea around it to 7 meters (around 20 fts). On being close to the equator, the chances of de-freezing of the ice sheets is more as contrast to that of Antarctica.
The temperature variation of sea water has bigger impact over density of water. It is observed that water is most dense at 4 degrees celsius. The temperature above and below 4 °C, water density decreases and occupies a bigger space; leading to a proportionate rise in the water level in the oceans.
A report issued by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changes of 1995, projected that by 2100, there would be rise of 50 centimeters (20 inches) with the lowest estimation of 15 centimeters (6 inches) and 95 centimeters (37 inches) the highest. This rise will be governed by the melting of glaciers and ice sheets along with the thermal expansion of the oceans. The rise of sea level at 20 inches cannot be considered trivial as far as the coastal regions are concerned, especially during storms, as it can bring havoc to the life and property nearly it.
The date of ‘Nature Climate Change’ of March 16th, 2014 (Sunday) revealed that there is rapid loss of ice sheets, over the past decade due to a rise in air and ocean temperature caused partly by climate change (see Fig.7). The increase in the melt has caused serious concern for the rise in the waters of the sea around the region even faster than projected, threatening the coastal life at large [28].
Shfaqat Khan, a senior researcher of Technical University of Denmark, wonders by saying, “North Greenland is very cold and dry, and is believed to be a very stable area. It is surprisingly to see ice loss in one of the coldest regions on the planet.”
As of other glaciers on the island, the stability of the region is more important as it has much deeper attachments to the interior ice sheets. It is also said that, “
8 inches in the sea level rise has been observed globally since the start of 1900 and is projected to have further rise to 3 feet by the end of 2100.
Over three-quarters of the Greenland houses 680,000 cubic miles of ice sheet, stretching up to 3 miles in thickness in all directions finally confluencing at the sea nearby. The glaciers specifically of the southeast and the northwest have dumped enormous amounts of ice into the ocean, in the last 20 years and that has accounted for a more of 15 percent global rise of the sea level.
Helheim glacier in the southeast Greenland.
According to Dr. Shfaqat Khan, “These changes at the margin can affect the mass balance deep in the centre of the ice sheet”. Moreover, the creeping rate of the sea levels is 3.2
The study under Katie Valentine in ‘Nature Climate Change’ comprising 600 mile Wilkes Basin in the East Antarctica (Fig.8) states that, if the melts of ice would raise the sea level by 10 to 13 feet [29], it would be alarming and the researchers also find the region vulnerable because of the small ‘ice plug’ that may melt over the next few centuries. In this addition, East Antarctica could be a large contributor to the sea rise.
Study shows that East Antarctica region is perhaps more vulnerable in causing rise in the world’s sea level for thousands of years. A study on Sunday, May 5, 2014 at 9:25 am.(Source: by Katie Valentine)
Matthias Mengel, a leading author in this study says that, “East Antarctica’s Wilkes Basin is like a bottle on a slant. Once uncorked, it empties out. However, it is a distant threat.” The authors conducting study on it says that warming can be limited to keep the plug in place. This was noted out when the method of simulation was adopted under scenarios with water found to be 1 to 2.5 degrees warmer than what it is today. We can however, on the basis of our observations, say that if, concrete steps are not taken, our planet would come under the hit of another 2 degrees Celsius ‘ hike adding much to the global warming. When giving a first look at the Wilkies Basin, we can conclude that the East Antarctic region might contribute to the sea level rise, although it is a talk of distant future [30-35].
Anders Levermann told to National Geographic that, “This is unstoppable when the plug is removed.” Speed of its removal cannot be expected but, it’s definitely a threshold.
No doubt, if the entire ice of Antarctica would melt, it would raise the sea level to about 188 feet. Another study of 2012 states that over the past decade, Antarctica has lost about 50 percent of the ice cover because Antarctic glaciers have started with irreversible melt which could lead the sea level to rise up to 1 centimeter. In one of the recent studies on the declining of the ice belt at Antarctica, it has come into view that the glaciers in this region have begun with a self-sustained retreat [36-46].
Adding to the study, Eric Steig said that, “These new results show that the degree of melting experienced by the Antarctic ice sheet can be highly dependent on climatic conditions occurring elsewhere on the planet.”
In other very alarming study done by the National Snow and Ice Data Center in Boulder, Colorado, stated in March 2014 that, the region is experiencing the fifth-lowest winter sea-ice cover ever since 1978.
Two separate teams of scientists cleared that, the glaciers at Antarctica have passed a point of no return and will keep on melting rapidly especially that of the western Antarctica
Getty Images by Traci Watson, on May 13, 2014; 9:14 a.m.
The likely result: a rise in global sea levels of 4 feet or more in the coming centuries, says research made public on May 12, 2014, Monday by scientists at the University of Washington, the University of California-Irvine and NASA\'s Jet Propulsion Laboratory as shown in Fig.9.
Sridhar Anandakrishnan, glaciologist of Pennsylvania State University says that, "It really is an amazingly distressing situation. This is a huge part of West Antarctica, and it seems to have been kicked over the edge."
Studies in progress show that the glaciers are in their stage of collapse and that is inevitable. We cannot reverse the situation. The Thwaites Glacier also known as ‘the river of ice’ is in its early stages of collapse and is almost inevitable. Half a dozen glaciers are dumping ice into the sea with pace which will give a rise of about 4 feet in the sea level, as per Eric Rignot, a glaciologist at the University of California-Irvine and laboratory at NASA’s jet propulsion.
The same claim was made by Rignot at a briefing on May 12, 2014 Monday.
When studied about the retreating of the glaciers, Rignot and his team collected data made available to them through satellites and aircrafts to picture changes in six West Antarctic glaciers and the terrain underlying the massive ice, they found that the glaciers are stretching out and shrinking in volume by dumping mass of ice into the ocean.
Collapse of Thwaites Glacier
At the same time, the portion of each glacier projecting into the sea is being melted from below by warm ocean water as shown in Fig. 10. That leads to a vicious cycle of more thinning and faster flow, and the local terrain offers no barrier to the glaciers\' retreat, the researchers report in an upcoming issue of Geophysical Research Letters.
A report in the mid of May 2014 Week\'s Science says the Thwaites Glacier will collapse, perhaps in 200 years. The paper doesn\'t specify the amount of sea-level rise associated with Thwaites\' demise.
The data of 19 years in the reported in the journal Geophysical Research Research Letters confirms that the melting of the West Antarctic glaciers are warming up in a speedy way in contrast to less warming of the southern hemisphere.
The West Antarctic ice sheet remained unstable and this had been an element of wonder among the glaciologists. According to the NASA research, there is enough water in the ice sheets of Amundsen Sea that is enough to raise the global sea levels by more than a meter. It is also said that, if the entire ice sheet of West Antarctic region changes to water, it can make the sea level to rise by at least five meters (See Fig.11).
The recent study reveals that there is a steady change in the glacial grounding line, that clears us for the movement of the glacier towards the sea where its bottom leaves no abrasion on rock rather starts to float on water. Glacier has the nature to flow towards the sea and bear an iceberg that floats and later melts. Now, this has always been a matter of perplexity whether this process is going to accelerate?
The same is being considered by Eric Rignot, glaciologist at the Nasa Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of California, Irvine. Eric Rignot, glaciologist and his research partners estimates that the tidal movement can be responsible for bringing bending lines in the glaciers especially of the West Antarctic. This research was carried out when these glaciers were monitored between 1992 and 2011 on the basis of the data of European Space Agency. Since all the grounding lines had retreated from the sea by more than 30 kilometers. These are a bit hard to study because of their depth at which these are buried i.e. at more than hundreds of meters under the ice sheets.
An important clue can be obtained from the shift of the ice against the tidal waves and its flowing direction. It also signifies the acceleration of melting. It is also taken into consideration that the slow process of movement of the glacier cuts the rise in the sea level and as it inches towards the sea, more ice piles up behind it, collecting into mass.
As the water seeps under the ice sheet, it reduces friction rate and adds speed for the frozen water downstream and the whole glacier picks speed supporting the grounding line to move further upstream. Here, the melting could be slow at pace, but, not stoppable. The same phenomenon has been reported from the glaciers of Greenland
Birth of an iceberg: a massive crack in West Antarctica’s Pine Island glacier.
Prof. Rignot has again and again expressed his concern over the retreating of the glaciers of the West Antarctica in pointing out: “At current melt rates; these glaciers will be history within a few hundred years. We’ve passed the point of no return.” So, the collapse of this sector appears inevitable.
We have derived multiple reasons for the mass de-freezing of the ice sheets under Antarctica and is thus giving pace for the ice under it to advance towards the ocean causing huge loss in the ice blocks.
With the ice extension, Antarctica is also losing its ice cover. It seems amazing statement, but, analysis in this concern will certainly help us to find some concrete way in the context of global warming. The ice mass chart from GRACE satellite as shown in Fig.12 (a) and\n\t\t\t\t\tFig.12 (b) helps us in this illustration.
On the basis of the observations and model studies, it is found that the sea ice is extending in the Antarctic sea despite the warmth in and around the Antarctica region. But, during each winter it allows to grow due to changes in ocean and wind circulation combined with changes in moisture levels. as compared to that of the Southern Hemisphere (SH), it remains cold and allow the ice to extent and grow. It can also be said that the growth of the Antarctica sea ice is likely because of the changes in the wind circulation combined with the moisture levels and that of the ocean currents. Moreover, the changes undergoing in the stratospheric ozone layer may also play significant role in this context.
Hypothetical studies observe its happening. Explanation by the studies of Zhang 2007 well contributes to understand the warming concepts in the Antarctic region [47].
(a). Antarctic Ice Mass Loss [manual update]; (b). Antarctic Ice Extent Increase updates annually; (c). Arctic Ice Extent updates annually
An increase in the upper ocean temperature and a decrease in sea ice growth leading to decrease in salt rejection from ice in the upper ocean salinity and density are very clear by the model due to the increase in the surface air temperature and downward longwave radiation. The enhanced thermohaline stratification tends to suppress convective overturning along with the reduction in the salt rejection and upper ocean density, leads to a decrease in the upward ocean heat paving way for sea ice melting. The decrement in the ice melting from the ocean heat flux is faster as compared to the ice growth in the weakly stratified Southern Ocean, leading to an increase in the ice production. This mechanism is the main reason why the Antarctic sea ice has increased in spite of warming conditions both above and below during the period 1979–2004 and the extended period 1948–2004 [48, 49, 50].
The ice mass extends to grow in the Southern Hemisphere during winters more than the usual days. Whereas, the ice mass, at Antarctica, decreases during the summers, as per the satellite observations.
It can be concluded, after these kind of researches, that more snow precipitation might be expected in the Antarctica in the future than compared to today’s scenario where the ice discharge rate has increased.
Warming of Antarctica
Increase in the sea ice of Antarctic
Decrease in the ice mass of Antarctic land
Since the Arctic (Northern Hemisphere) acts in the opposite direction regarding ice extent with losing ice mass as shown in Fig.12(c), it is not gaining that much of ice extent as that of the Antarctica. We may say that, because Northern Hemisphere has more land surface than that of the Southern Hemisphere which is mostly water body and ice mass, the two hemisphere acts in two opposite ways.
From the above study, it is seen that the Earth’s land [51-53] covers by 148940000 km2 (29.2%) and water by 361132000 km2 (70.8 %) that means every mm rise in sea will have a shift of melting ice into water around:
Assuming average sea level rise of 0.5mm, then additional water will be added to sea water as under:
Area of Water=361132000 km2x 1000 x1000=361132x109 sqm per year
Rise of water=0.5mm/1000=5x10-4 m
Total water added=(361132x109 sqm) x (5x10-4 m) =1805660x105 cum (i.e.180.566 billion tonne)
By year 2100, when sea rise is likely to be raised to 3.6 feet=1.1 Meter, then additional water will be added:
Multiplier = (1.1m x 1000/0.5mm)=2200
Water will be added=(180.566 billion tonne x 2200)= 397.245 trillion tonne
Earth Rotational Angle 23.430
Thus, such heavy weight shift of (approx.) 400 trillion tonnes minimum or (approx.) 1200-1450 trillion tonnes maximum from polar ice-sea or Northern / Southern coast and green land to sea water, might force to the change in spinning angle of the earth from 23.43 degree to 23.430 (+ or -) as seen in Fig. 13. Further detailed analysis is still required or model is to be prepared to find out the exact date and time as to when such situation may arise.
What would be the fate of the Earth and its living creatures, when it happens?
From the study, it is very much clear that Global Warming is happening and Polar Ice melt /Green land ice melt is continuing fast. This will not only affect our living and developments but have dire impacts on:
The poles of the earth are patched completely with solid ice that of Antarctica and the sea ice.
Fast shrinkage of the polar ice will diminish by 2040, fast rise in the Sea Level, danger for species like: polar bears, penguins etc., northern portion of Canada, USA and UK may be affected by cold waves, heavy snow falls and storms due to shifting and melting of heaviest ice sheets in the Atlantic sea. Permafrost may create further warming which cannot be reversed.
Tectonic movement, wind action, ice, fire, and the living things on the surface with the interference of the atmospheric pressure and temperature combines to make geological structure of the earth and its processes.
In the landscape change, glaciers play wide role. A gradual movement of ice down the valley causes scraping and sculpting of the underlying rocks producing sediments in the form of glacial flour.
In the last 100 odd years the sea level has risen to about 6 and 8 inches (15 to 20 cm) due to global warming as being stated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
To an average depth of 2,133 meters (7000 fts), the region of Antarctica is covered with ice and if the entire ice of the region would melt then, the rise in the sea level around it would come to 61 meters (200 fts). Since, the average temperature of Antarctica region is -37 °C, there is no danger of the ice melting.
Since the sea levels are lifting up at an alarming rate of 3.2
The estimation of the rise of 50 centimeter (20 inches), by 2100, with the lowest of 15 centimeters (6 inches) and the highest of 95 centimeters (37 inches), in the sea level due to the thermal expansion under the ocean and also because of the melting of the glaciers and ice sheets
The mass of the ice located in Greenland is 680,000 m3, and it stretches up to 3 miles thick, covering three-quarters of the island. Some of the glaciers, particularly those in the southeast and northwest, have in the past 20 years dumped a increasing amount of ice into the ocean nearby, accounting for the rise of the water level by up to 15 % over the period.
The planet is on a track to hit 2°C rise in the temperature if major steps to curb climate change aren’t taken, and already much of the globe’s warming has been absorbed by the oceans.
Glacier has started a phase of self-sustained retreat and will irreversibly continue its decline. There may be a chance to grow glaciers at northern portion of Canada, USA, UK and may create venerable conditions of snow fall and cold waves in these regions and likely to force for shifting of living population at safer place.
A calculation shows that between April 2003 and April 2012, the region was losing ice at the rate of 10 billion tons a year.
By year 2100, if a minimum of
Thus, looking into the weight shift from polar (Northern / Southern coast) to sea, it might create change in the spinning angle of the Earth from 23.43 degree to further (+) or (-). The day may be a dark day on the beautiful planet when the entire living creatures may face dire consequences of their end up, provided things are checked and not to go beyond our control today. Try to imagine the consequences, act fast to “Save Earth; Save Life”.
Enormous and extensive support provided by the management of School of Management Sciences, Lucknow, with a profound guidance under Harcourt Butler Technological Institute, Kanpur, has been a gliding way in accomplishing this project. Author Prof. Bharat Raj Singh expressed his special tribute to his mother Jagpatti Devi Singh who encouraged him to devote entire life for rendering the services to the human beings, though she had now left us for heavenly abode, leaving behind, her blessings for us.
Bacteria, fungi (yeasts and molds), mycobacteria, prions, protozoa, and viruses are common pathogens infecting humans and animals. They typically exist within the host or in the environment. It has been observed that these microorganisms exhibit a notable difference in the natural survivability in the environment, as well as susceptibility to chemical and physical inactivation. For example, under ambient and dried conditions, human coronaviruses seem to lose their infectivity in a matter of several hours to several days [1], whereas endospores and prions may remain infectious for years to decades or even indefinitely [2, 3].
As more and more data have become available regarding the survivability and susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides, it has been observed that the pathogens seem to demonstrate an order of susceptibility to chemical and physical inactivation. E. H. Spaulding first proposed a classification system for the sterilization and disinfection of medical instruments based on the infection risk in 1939 [4]. On the basis of this classification, the concept of a hierarchy of pathogen susceptibility was proposed, in which microorganisms are placed into several groups and ranked from least susceptible to most susceptible. In this hierarchy concept, bacterial spores were ranked the least susceptible, followed by mycobacteria, non-enveloped viruses, fungi, vegetative bacteria, and enveloped viruses. The susceptibility hierarchy was also believed to be related to the biochemical and biophysical characteristics of a pathogen [5, 6].
This hierarchy concept has been slightly modified and expanded over the years. For example, prions were added and considered less susceptible to inactivation by microbicides than bacterial spores; small non-enveloped viruses were considered less susceptible than large non-enveloped viruses; and the order between mycobacteria and small non-enveloped viruses was sometimes reversed (Figure 1) [7, 8, 9, 10]. Additionally, it has been suggested that the hierarchy concept may be applied either “vertically” (i.e., ranking of susceptibility
Proposed hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides. Note: slightly different versions of the hierarchy concept have been proposed in the literature. Mycobacteria have been placed above small non-enveloped viruses, and molds have been placed above large non-enveloped viruses in certain versions. In some versions, the small and large non-enveloped viruses are combined; and yeasts and molds may be combined.
The hierarchy concept has been quite useful for enabling scientists to better understand the innate difference among various types of pathogens. In the case of newly emerged pathogens, especially, the hierarchy concept has helped stakeholders design and implement a disinfection strategy swiftly with a reasonable level of confidence. The concept also helps the contaminant control for food, pharmaceutical, and biopharmaceutical products, as it is impractical to test every possible contaminating pathogen, and a robust infectivity assay system may be lacking for certain pathogens (e.g., hepatitis E virus).
Despite its usefulness, the hierarchy concept should be interpreted with caution, as it may oversimply the differences and trending of pathogen susceptibilities. Further examination and refinement of the concept may be necessary; and several important questions should be answered. For example, how often do exceptions to the hierarchy occur and what are the underlying reasons? Could a trending be specific to a given type of chemistry? Is the hierarchy the same between susceptibility to both chemical and physical inactivation? Why do pathogens in the same group, or even the same family or genus, sometimes exhibit striking differences in susceptibility? Is there a way to identify and separate reliable/consistent trending versus blurred/variable trending? A deeper look at the efficacy data for various types of microbicidal actives, especially for non-enveloped viruses, may help stakeholders understand the scope, reliability, and limitation of the hierarchy concept so that it can be best utilized.
This chapter reviews the inactivation efficacy data from the literature against non-enveloped viruses for several commonly used types of chemistries, either in formulated or unformulated form, in an effort to generate a separate relative order of susceptibility among these non-enveloped viruses for each type of chemistry and to differentiate consistent versus variable trending. Physical inactivation approaches are not covered in this chapter, although a significant degree of variation also exists for physical treatments. It is not clear that the physical inactivation approaches, in general, are governed by the same hierarchy to susceptibility as is observed for chemical inactivation approaches [12].
Currently, there are a total of 21 families of viruses (including enveloped and non-enveloped) identified for humans [13], which represent only a small part of the entire paradigm of viruses in nature, whose host ranges extend from vertebrates to plants to bacteria. The most common families of non-enveloped viruses for humans and animals include
Family | Example virus | Abbreviation | Genus | Genome | Size (nm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adenovirus type 2 | AdV-2 | ds DNA | 70–90 | ||
Adenovirus type 5 | AdV-5 | ds DNA | 70–90 | ||
Adenovirus type 8 | AdV-8 | ds DNA | 70–90 | ||
Human astrovirus | HAstV | ss RNA | 28–35 | ||
Feline calicivirus | FCV | ss RNA | 28–40 | ||
Human norovirus | HuNoV | ss RNA | 28–40 | ||
Murine norovirus | MNV | ss RNA | 28–40 | ||
Tulane virus | TuV | ss RNA | 28–40 | ||
Porcine circovirus | PCV | ss DNA | ∼17 | ||
Hepatitis E virus | HEV | ss DNA | 32–34 | ||
Human papillomavirus | HPV | ds DNA | 50–60 | ||
Bovine parvovirus | BPV | ss DNA | 20–28 | ||
Canine parvovirus | CPV | ss DNA | 20–25 | ||
Human parvovirus B19 | B19V | ss DNA | 23–26 | ||
Minute virus of mice | MVM (MMV) | ss DNA | 20–25 | ||
Porcine parvovirus | PPV | ss DNA | 20–25 | ||
Bovine enterovirus | BEV | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Coxsackievirus | Cox | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Echovirus 11 | Echo11 | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Encephalomyocarditis virus | EMCV | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Enterovirus 71 | EV-71 | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Enterovirus D68 | EV-D68 | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Foot and mouth disease virus | FMDV | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Hepatitis A virus | HAV | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Poliovirus type 1 | PV1 | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Rhinovirus | RV | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Seneca Valley virus | SVV | ss RNA | 30–32 | ||
Bovine polyomavirus | BPyV | ds DNA | 40–50 | ||
Simian virus 40 | SV40 | ds DNA | 40–50 | ||
Bluetongue virus | BTV | ds RNA | 60–80 | ||
Reovirus type 3 | REO-3 | ds RNA | 60–80 | ||
Rotavirus | Rota | ds RNA | 60–80 |
Common families of human and animal non-enveloped viruses.
Among these, the
It is worth noting that viruses are typically classified taxonomically on the basis of virion properties (size, shape, envelope, physical, and chemical properties, etc.), genome organization, replication mechanism, antigenic properties, and biological properties [13, 14, 15]. The final classification is a combined consideration of these properties. However, the stability and susceptibility to inactivation of a virus may not relate to all of these properties and, as such, may not always align with the taxonomic classification system. For example, the susceptibility of a virus to surfactants may primarily be related to the envelope of the virion and not related to the genome structure or mode of replication.
The susceptibilities of non-enveloped viruses to chemicals have been found to be highly variable and somewhat hard to predict, since they do not always agree with the hierarchy concept. For example, according to the hierarchy concept as modified by Sattar [8], small non-enveloped viruses should be less susceptible than large non-enveloped viruses. Additionally, if there is a fixed hierarchy, all small non-enveloped viruses should either display similar levels of susceptibility or should demonstrate a definitive trend of relative susceptibility, regardless of the type of microbicide. Based on the literature, neither of these predictions appear to hold in every case. The relative order of susceptibility seems chemistry-dependent; and sometimes viruses within the same family or even genus have been found to exhibit unequivocal differences in their susceptibilities (reviewed in [16]). Any trending or hierarchy, therefore, must be reviewed in the context of the type of chemistry, and it should not be assumed that non-enveloped viruses within the same family or genus will always display similar susceptibilities to a given microbicide.
Viral inactivation may be achieved by chemical and/or physical methods. The subset of chemicals commonly used for inactivation of non-enveloped viruses includes alcohols, oxidizers, halogen compounds, quaternary ammonium compounds, phenolics, aldehydes, acids, and alkalines [17, 18, 19]. These differ with respect to efficacy, stability, toxicity, material or surface compatibility, cost, and sensitivity to organic soil load. Soil load is a term used to signify an organic matrix used to challenge the inactivating efficacy of a microbicide. It is intended to mimic secretions or excretions in which the virus would be released from an infected person or animal. Some chemistries (e.g., sodium hypochlorite, phenolics, and aldehydes) are mostly used for environmental or medical device disinfection. Other chemistries (e.g., ethanol) are more commonly used for hand hygiene, while some others (e.g., quaternary ammonium compounds) may be used for both environmental disinfection and skin antisepsis (Table 2).
Class | Chemical | Typical conc. | Usage | Mechanism of viral inactivation | Sensitivity to soil load |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alcohols | Ethanol | 50–95% | Disinfection; Antisepsis | Protein denaturation | + |
Isopropanol | 70–90% | Disinfection | Protein denaturation | + | |
Oxidizers | Sodium hypochlorite | 0.01–0.5% | Disinfection | Protein/genome damage | ++ |
Chlorine dioxide | 0.1–1 mg/L | Disinfection; Water treatment | Protein/genome damage | — | |
Hydrogen peroxide | 0.1–10% | Disinfection; Antisepsis | Lipid/protein/genome damage | + | |
Hypochlorous acid | 0.002–0.1% | Disinfection; Water treatment | Protein/genome damage | ++ | |
Peracetic acid | 0.01–1% | Disinfection; Sterilization | Protein denaturation | — | |
Povidone-iodine | 0.02–8% | Disinfection; Antisepsis | Protein/genome damage | ++ | |
Chlorohexidine | 0.02–0.2% | Antisepsis | Protein denaturation | + | |
QAC | BKC, DDAC, etc. | 0.01–0.2% | Disinfection | Lipid/protein damage | + |
Low pH | Acids | ≤ pH 4 | Sanitization; Biomanufacturing | Capsid/protein damage | — |
High pH | NaOH, etc. | ≥ pH 10 | Disinfection; Tissue processing | Capsid/genome damage | — |
Aldehydes | Glutaraldehyde | 0.02–2% | HLD; Sterilization | Crosslinking/protein & genome damage | — |
Formaldehyde | 0.1–5% | Disinfection/Preservation | Alkylating/protein & genome damage | — | |
OPA | 0.02–2% | HLD; Sterilization | Crosslinking/protein damage | — | |
Phenolics | Phenylphenol, etc. | 0.05–5% | Disinfection | Protein damage | — |
Common types of chemistries used for non-enveloped viral inactivation.
Abbreviations used: BKC, benzalkonium chloride; Conc, concentration; DDAC, didecyldimethylammonium chloride; HLD, high-level disinfection; NaOH, sodium hydroxide; OPA, ortho-phthaldehyde; QAC, quaternary ammonium compounds.
The virucidal efficacy of a product is not only determined by the type and concentration of the chemical, but is also heavily influenced by the formulation, pH, exposure (contact or dwell) time, organic soil load, temperature, and surface characteristics (as applicable), etc. [10, 20, 21, 22]. Given the differences between various testing methods, as well as the intrinsic variability of viral infectivity (titration) assays, a general conclusion on the efficacy of a particular type of active ingredient will be enhanced if the efficacy is derived from multiple sets of data and under various application conditions (such as the concentration of the microbicidal active(s), contact time, formulation matrix (as applicable), and organic soil load, etc.) Additionally, in order best to explore the relative ranking of susceptibility between viruses, or the lack thereof, efficacy data from side-by-side studies wherein the same test methodologies and conditions were used would be preferable. Care should be taken when comparing data from different studies, especially if the formulations, test methods, and test conditions were different.
Alcohols, primarily ethanol and isopropanol, are widely used for hand hygiene and environmental disinfection, and their efficacies against bacteria and viruses have been extensively studied [23, 24, 25]. Ethanol at a concentration of 70–90% and isopropanol at 70% have been broadly shown to be effective against enveloped viruses; however, their efficacies against non-enveloped viruses are much more variable.
The trending of the degree of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to ethanol and isopropanol is generally clearer and more consistent than it is for many other types of chemistries, thanks to the large amount of data in the literature. The relative ranking of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses seems to differ between ethanol and isopropanol; and the ranking does not appear to align well with the classical virological taxonomy.
For ethanol, parvoviruses and the polyomavirus simian virus 40 have low susceptibility, while rotavirus (a reovirus) is susceptible (Table 3). Viruses in the
Virusa | Method | Soil/Matrixb | Log10 Reduction after | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
30 s | 1 min | 5 min | 10 min | ||||
PPV | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 0.3 | 0.6 | [26] | ||
MVM | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 0.3 | 0.7 | [26] | ||
HEV71 | Suspension test | Medium | < 1 | [27] | |||
HAV | Suspension test | Medium | 0.4 | [28] | |||
HAV | Suspension test | 20% fecal | 0.4 | [28] | |||
HuNoV | Suspension test | 20% stool | <0.5 | [29] | |||
TuV | Suspension test | Medium | <0.5 | [30] | |||
PV1 | Suspension test | 20% fecal | 0.3 | [28] | |||
PV1 | Suspension test | Medium | 0.4 | [31] | |||
PV1 | Glass | Medium | 2.3 | 1.0 | 5.0 | [31] | |
PV1 | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 2.1 | 1.8 | [26] | ||
PV1 | Suspension test | Medium | 4 | [28] | |||
FCV | Suspension test | Medium | 1.7 | 2.2 | [30] | ||
AdV-8 | Suspension test | Medium | 1.9 | [33] | |||
AdV-5 | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 2.4 | >4.1 | [26] | ||
AdV-5 | Stainless steel | Medium | ∼5 | [34] | |||
MNV | Suspension test | Medium | 5 | [30] | |||
Rotavirus | Suspension test | Medium | > 3.1 | [28] | |||
CPV | Stainless steel | Medium | 0.1 | [36] | |||
SV40 | Suspension test | Medium | <1 | [37] | |||
PV1 | Glass | Medium | 2.9 | 2.9 | 5.4 | [31] | |
TuV | Suspension test | Medium | <0.5 | [30] | |||
FCV | Suspension test | Medium | <0.5 | [30] | |||
HEV71 | Suspension test | Medium | <1 | [27] | |||
PV1 | Suspension test | medium | <1 | [37] | |||
PV1 | Glass | Medium | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.0 | [31] | |
AdV-5 | Stainless steel | Medium | ∼1 | [34] | |||
AdV-8 | Suspension test | Medium | 2.0 | [33] | |||
MNV | Suspension test | Medium | 1.8 | 3.1 | [30] | ||
SV40 | Suspension test | Medium | >4 | [37] | |||
Rotavirus | Suspension test | Medium | > 4 | [42] |
Efficacy of alcohols against non-enveloped viruses.
See Table 1 for abbreviations used for viruses.
BSA, bovine serum albumin; medium, culture medium; RT, room temperature.
Entries in purple font indicate results from undiluted or diluted formulations with the indicated microbicidal active ingredients.
Interestingly, the above order of susceptibility does not appear to hold the same for isopropanol (Table 3). For example, the polyomavirus simian virus 40 is much more susceptible to isopropanol than many other non-enveloped viruses; and poliovirus appears to display a lower susceptibility, similar to that of hepatitis A virus and human enterovirus 71. Murine norovirus is still more susceptible than feline calicivirus to isopropanol, but not as susceptible as simian virus 40 or rotavirus. The apparent difference between adenovirus 5 and adenovirus 8 that has been observed for ethanol has not been observed for isopropanol.
An oxidizer or oxidizing agent is a chemical that has the ability to oxidize other molecules, i.e., to accept their electrons. Common oxidizing agents used for disinfection, sterilization, or antisepsis include hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, ozone, and halogen-containing compounds such as sodium hypochlorite (bleach), hypochlorous acid, povidone-iodine, chlorohexidine, and chlorine dioxide, etc. These compounds can react with and alter the proteins and nucleic acids of non-enveloped viruses and render them noninfectious. Oxidizers comprise a large group of chemicals, and the relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to oxidizers seems to vary by specific type of active ingredient (Table 4).
Virusa | Method | Soil/Matrixb | Log10 Reduction after | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
≤ 1 min | 2 min | 5 min | 10 min | ||||
FCV | Suspension test | Medium | 3 | [29] | |||
FCV | Suspension test | 20% stool | 0.5 | [29] | |||
MNV | Suspension test | Medium | 3 | [29] | |||
MNV | Suspension test | 20% stool | 0.0 | [29] | |||
CPV | Stainless steel | 90% plasma | < 1 | [43] | |||
CPV | Stainless steel | 5% serum | 5 | [43] | |||
HAV | Stainless steel | 5% serum | 5 | [43] | |||
HAV | Stainless steel | 90% plasma | <1 | 5 | [43] | ||
HAV | Suspension test | PBS/20% fecal | 4 | [28] | |||
PV1 | Suspension test | PBS/20% fecal | 4 | [28] | |||
PPV | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 0.6 | 1.0 | [26] | ||
MVM | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 3.0 | 4.4 | [26] | ||
PV1 | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 2.8 | 4.5 | [26] | ||
AdV-5 | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 4 | [26] | |||
PV1 | Glass | Medium | 0.4 | 0.9 | [16] | ||
RV14 | Glass | Medium | >4.9 | [16] | |||
PPV | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 0.5 | [26] | |||
MVM | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 1.5 | [26] | |||
PV1 | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 3.9 | [26] | |||
AdV-5 | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 2.3 | [26] | |||
MNV | Suspension test | Medium | ∼3 | [52] | |||
HAV | Suspension test | Medium | ∼3 | [53] | |||
PV | Suspension test | Medium | >3 | [53] | |||
CPV | Stainless steel | BSA | 1.6 | [34] | |||
MVM | Stainless steel | BSA | 2.3-2.9 | [34] | |||
PPV | Stainless steel | BSA | 3.8-5.5 | [34] | |||
AdV-5 | Stainless steel | BSA | 4.9-5.8 | [34] |
Efficacy of oxidizers against non-enveloped viruses.
See Table 1 for abbreviations used for viruses.
BSA, bovine serum albumin; PBS, phosphate buffered saline; medium, culture medium; RT, room temperature.
Viral-inoculated lettuce was washed with PAA solution for a defined period of time.
Entries in purple font indicate results from undiluted original or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
Parvoviruses are generally among the least susceptible viruses to various types of oxidizers, including sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, and peracetic acid. However, for sodium hypochlorite, minute virus of mice appears to be more susceptible than porcine parvovirus and canine parvovirus. All picornaviruses appear to exhibit a similar degree of susceptibility to sodium hypochlorite; but within the family of
The trending for hydrogen peroxide seems more complex than that for sodium hypochlorite. For example, there seems a higher level of variability within the
For peracetic acid, hepatitis A virus also seems less susceptible than poliovirus. Both feline calicivirus and murine norovirus are susceptible to peracetic acid and so is adenovirus.
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) are widely used as active ingredients for disinfectants. Among the advantages of QAC are good stability, dual function of disinfection and cleaning, surface activity, low toxicity, and lack of odor, etc. The potential limitation in the microbicidal efficacy and possible effect in promoting antimicrobial resistance of QAC have also been discussed in the literature [54, 55].
Quaternary ammonium compounds are generally efficacious on most vegetative bacteria and enveloped viruses. Their efficacies against non-enveloped viruses, however, are generally much weaker. Nevertheless, several non-enveloped viruses, such as rotavirus, rhinovirus, and coxsackievirus A11, have been shown to be susceptible to QAC. The susceptibility levels among the
Virusa | Method | Soil/matrixb | Log10 reduction after | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
30 s | 1 min | 10 min | 60 min | ||||
PPV | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 0.4 | [26] | |||
MVM | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 0.5 | [26] | |||
PV1 | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 0.5 | [26] | |||
AdV-5 | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 1.8 | [26] | |||
AdV-8 | Suspension test | Medium | 1.0-1.8 | [57] | |||
AdV-5 | Suspension test | Medium | 3.7-5.3 | [57] | |||
TuV | Suspension test | Medium | <0.5 | [30] | |||
PV1 | Suspension test | BSA/yeast extract | 0.0 | [58] | |||
AdV-25 | Suspension test | BSA/yeast extract | 0.3 | [58] | |||
Cox A11 | Suspension test | BSA/yeast extract | >5.1 | [58] | |||
FCV | Suspension test | Medium | <0.5 | [29] | |||
MNV | Suspension test | Medium | <0.5 | [29] | |||
Rhinovirus | Glass | Medium | >3.0 | >3.3 | [16] |
Efficacy of QAC against non-enveloped viruses.
See Table 1 for abbreviations used for viruses.
BSA, bovine serum albumin; medium, culture medium; QAC, quaternary ammonium compound.
Entries in purple font indicate results from original or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
Acids and alkalines, either used alone or in combination with other active ingredients in formulated products, can be an effective means for viral inactivation. Acids may be used for disinfection, sanitization, textile or face mask pretreatment, or viral clearance during biopharmaceutical manufacturing. Alkalines may also be used for disinfection, sanitization, and viral clearance during biopharmaceutical manufacturing and can be effective against even the least susceptible of pathogens, the prions [58].
It has been widely reported that a low-pH treatment (typically at pH 4 and below) can effectively inactivate most enveloped viruses, although some enveloped viruses, such as bovine viral diarrhea virus, still exhibit a relatively low susceptibility to this treatment pH [22]. The range of susceptibilities of non-enveloped viruses to low pH seems quite scattered and often goes against the “conventional wisdom” that non-enveloped viruses are not susceptible to acidic pH (Table 6). For instance, in the family of
Virusa | Method | Soil/Matrixb | Log10 Reduction after | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
20 min | 30 min | 45 min | 1–2 hr | ||||
REO-3 | Suspension test | Medium | 1–3 | [59] | |||
PCV | Suspension test | Medium | >3 | [60] | |||
MVM | Suspension test | Medium | <1 | [61] | |||
MNV | Suspension test | Medium | <0.5 | [30] | |||
TuV | Suspension test | Medium | <0.5 | [30] | |||
PARV4 | Suspension test | Medium | 2–3 | [61] | |||
B19V | Suspension test | Medium | > 4 | [61] | |||
FCV | Suspension test | Medium | 6.3 | [30] | |||
FCV | Suspension test | Medium | >5 | [62] | |||
PV | Suspension test | Medium | <1 | [63] | |||
PV | Suspension test | Medium | <1 | [64] | |||
HAV | Suspension test | Medium | <1 | [64] | |||
MNV | Suspension test | Medium | <0.5 | [30] | |||
TuV | Suspension test | Medium | <0.5 | [30] | |||
Cox A9 | Suspension test | Medium | <1 | [65] | |||
FCV | Suspension test | Medium | ∼3 | [30] | |||
FCV | Suspension test | Medium | ∼4.7 | [62] | |||
RV | Suspension test | Medium | >3 | [65] | |||
FMDV | Suspension test | Medium | >3 | [65] | |||
MVM | Suspension test | Medium | <1 | [66] | |||
EV71 | Suspension test | Medium | <1 | [67] | |||
EV-D68 | Suspension test | Medium | ∼4–5 | <5 | [67] | ||
B19V | Suspension test | Medium | [66] |
Efficacy of low pH against non-enveloped viruses.
The
Feline calicivirus and murine norovirus in the family
Viruses, both enveloped and non-enveloped, are generally susceptible to high pH. At an environment of pH 12 or above, most if not all non-enveloped viruses would be inactivated, with extent depending both on temperature and contact time. Reovirus, simian virus 40, hepatitis A virus, canine parvovirus, poliovirus, murine norovirus, and Tulane virus seem to be less susceptible than minute virus of mice, feline calicivirus, adenovirus, rotavirus, and foot-and-mouth disease virus. It may be worth noting that the order of susceptibility to high pH seems to be in discord with the hierarchy concept by the greatest degree: in this case, an enveloped virus, bovine viral diarrhea virus, seems to be less susceptible than most, if not all, non-enveloped viruses [22]; parvoviruses are not necessarily less susceptible than many other non-enveloped viruses; and the size of the viral particle does not seem to matter much with regard to the degree of susceptibility (Table 7).
Virusa | Method | Soil/Matrixb | Log10 Reduction after | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
≤ 1 min | 10 min | 30 min | 1 hr | ||||
MNV | Suspension test | Medium | ∼2 | [30] | |||
TuV | Suspension test | Medium | ∼2.2 | [30] | |||
FCV | Suspension test | Medium | >5.5 | [30] | |||
REO-3 | Suspension test | Medium | 3 | [68] | |||
Cox B | Suspension test | Medium | 5 | [69] | |||
Echo 11 | Suspension test | Medium | 6 | [68] | |||
BVDV | Suspension test | Medium | 2.5 | [70] | |||
HAV | Suspension test | Medium | 2.7 | [59] | |||
SV40 | Suspension test | Medium | 3.9 | [70] | |||
HAV | Stainless steel | 5% serum | 3.0 | [43] | |||
HAV | Stainless steel | 90% plasma | 3.6 | [43] | |||
CPV | Stainless steel | 5% serum | 3.5 | [43] | |||
CPV | Stainless steel | 90% plasma | 5.2 | [43] | |||
MVM | Suspension test | Medium | >4.7 | [71] | |||
MVM | Suspension test | Medium | >4 | [66] | |||
CPV | Suspension test | Medium | 5.6 | [70] | |||
PV | Suspension test | Medium | 5.9 | [70] | |||
AdV-2 | Suspension test | Medium | >6.9 | [70] | |||
AdV-5 | Suspension test | Medium | >6 | [72] | |||
HAV | suspension test | Medium | 2.4 | [59] | |||
PV | suspension test | Medium | 4.1 | [63] | |||
Avian Reo | Suspension test | Medium | 4 | [73] | |||
PV | Suspension test | Medium | 5.1 | [73] | |||
Bovine Rota | Suspension test | Medium | >6 | [73] |
Efficacy of high pH against non-enveloped viruses.
Entries in purple font indicate results from undiluted or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
Aldehydes, such as glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, and
Virusa | Method | Soil/Matrixb | Log10 Reduction after | References | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5 min | 10 min | 30 min | 60 min | ||||
HAV | Suspension test | Medium | 3.0 | [75] | |||
PPV | Stainless steel | BSA | 1.7–2.8 | [34] | |||
MVM | Stainless steel | BSA | 2.5–3.3 | [34] | |||
PV1 | Suspension test | Medium | >3 | [76] | |||
AdV-5 | Stainless steel | BSA | 4.9–6.3 | [34] | |||
PPV | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 3.6 | [26] | |||
MVM | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | >4.4 | [26] | |||
AdV-5 | Suspension test | Medium | >5.0 | [77] | |||
Ortho-phthaldehyde, 0.55% | |||||||
PPV | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | 3.6 | [26] | |||
MVM | Stainless steel | Erythrocytes + BSA | >4. | [26] |
Efficacy of aldehydes against non-enveloped viruses.
See Table 1 for abbreviations used for viruses.
BSA, bovine serum albumin; medium, culture medium; RT, room temperature.
Entries in purple font indicate results from original or diluted formulations with microbicidal active ingredients.
In the simplified hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicides concept, small non-enveloped viruses are considered less susceptible than large non-enveloped viruses, and both groups of non-enveloped viruses are believed to be less susceptible than enveloped viruses. The hierarchy concept also assumes that the ranking applies to all types of microbicidal actives. Additionally, the hierarchy concept can generally lead to common notions that viruses that share similar virological properties (e.g., same family or genus of virus) may be expected to display similar degrees of susceptibility and that the smaller a virus is, the less susceptible it will be to microbicides in general.
These generalizations are correct, to a degree. For example, most enveloped viruses are indeed more susceptible than non-enveloped viruses to chemical inactivation. It should be noted though that exceptions to the hierarchy concept do exist, e.g., especially in the case of viral susceptibility to acids and alkalines [22], and exceptions are not uncommon for certain other chemistries. The hierarchy concept was never applied specifically to physical inactivation approaches, nor should it be. The evidence for heat inactivation, UV inactivation, and gamma irradiation indicates differing rankings of susceptibility to these modalities. Envelope status and particle size do not, in each case, relate to susceptibility for inactivation by these physical approaches [22, 78, 79, 80].
The validity of the hierarchy concept
The accuracy and usefulness of a hierarchy concept can be improved if the model is broken into separate chemistries for non-enveloped viruses, since many viruses do exhibit a reliable and consistent trend of susceptibility for a specific type of chemical. Table 9 and Figure 2 provide a summary of the relative order of susceptibility for selected non-enveloped viruses under specific types of chemistry.
Chemical | Lower susceptibility | Medium susceptibility | Higher susceptibility |
---|---|---|---|
Ethanol | Animal parvovirus | Poliovirus | Murine norovirus |
Simian virus 40 | Foot and mouth disease virus | Rhinovirus | |
Hepatitis A virus | Human norovirus | Adenovirus 5 | |
Enterovirus 71 | Feline calicivirus | Rotavirus | |
Adenovirus 2, 8 | |||
Isopropanol | Animal parvovirus | Adenovirus 5, 8 | Simian virus 40 |
Hepatitis A virus | Murine norovirus | Rotavirus | |
Enterovirus 71 | |||
Poliovirus | |||
Feline calicivirus | |||
NaOCl | Porcine parvovirus | Minute virus of mice | Feline calicivirus |
Hepatitis A virus | Hepatitis A virus | Adenovirus | |
Poliovirus | Rotavirus | ||
Enterovirus 71 | |||
Murine norovirus | |||
H2O2 | Animal parvovirus | Poliovirus | Rhinovirus |
Hepatitis A virus | Murine norovirus | Feline calicivirus | |
Adenovirus | Rotavirus | ||
PAA | Animal parvovirus | Poliovirus | Feline calicivirus |
Hepatitis A virus | Murine norovirus | ||
Adenovirus | |||
QAC | Animal parvovirus | Feline calicivirus | Rotavirus |
Poliovirus | Murine norovirus | Rhinovirus | |
Adenovirus 8, 25 | Adenovirus 5 | Coxsackievirus A11 | |
Low pH | Minute virus of mice | Human parvovirus 4 | Feline calicivirus |
Hepatitis A virus | Rhinovirus | ||
Poliovirus | Foot and mouth disease virus | ||
Enterovirus 71 | Enterovirus EV-D68 | ||
Coxsackievirus A9 | Human parvovirus B19 | ||
Murine norovirus | |||
Rotavirus | |||
Reovirus | |||
High pH | Bovine viral diarrhea virus | Reovirus | Murine minute virus |
Simian virus 40 | Feline calicivirus | ||
Hepatitis A virus | Adenovirus | ||
Canine parvovirus | Rotavirus | ||
Poliovirus | Foot and mouth disease virus | ||
Murine norovirus | |||
Tulane virus | |||
Aldehydes | Porcine parvovirus | Minute virus of mice | Poliovirus |
Hepatitis A virus | |||
Feline calicivirus | |||
Adenovirus | |||
Reovirus | |||
Rotavirus |
Relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses to chemical inactivation.
Abbreviations used: H2O2, hydrogen peroxide; NaOCl, sodium hypochlorite; PAA, peracetic acid; QAC, quaternary ammonium compound.
Relative order of susceptibility of non-enveloped viruses per microbicidal chemistry. Note: various types of adenoviruses exhibit different degrees of susceptibility to ethanol and quaternary ammonium compounds.
The Spaulding concept of the hierarchy of susceptibility of pathogens to microbicidal inactivation, along with its modifications, has been widely influential. Multiple industries as well as regulatory agencies have adopted or referenced this concept to various degrees [9, 10, 81, 82]. The concept does provide a good tool for understanding the innate differences and trending of susceptibility among various types of pathogens. For the most part, the hierarchy is insightful and valuable. It is particularly helpful when a pathogen is newly emerged, and limited or no knowledge is yet available regarding its level of susceptibility to microbicides [83, 84]. In fact, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S. CDC) use the hierarchy concept as the basis of the Emerging Viral Pathogen Guidance for Antimicrobial Pesticides and public hygiene [10, 82, 85, 86] specifically to deal with just such a possibility.
It should be cautioned, however, that the hierarchy concept is largely oversimplified and by no means perfect [87]. For viruses, although enveloped viruses are usually more susceptible than non-enveloped viruses, certain enveloped viruses such as bovine viral diarrhea virus can be less susceptible than some non-enveloped viruses (e.g., feline calicivirus) under certain chemistries (e.g., low pH and high pH).
The accuracy and applicability of the hierarchy concept are more complex and limited among non-enveloped viruses. The trending is highly dependent on the type of chemistry; and the size of the virion is not always a primary determinant of viral susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses. If a clearer and more consistent trending can be identified among non-enveloped viruses, albeit only specific to a given type of chemistry, the knowledge should be useful.
To generalize an order of susceptibility, for a specific chemistry, data from side-by-side studies wherein viruses are evaluated concurrently by the same test method and under the same conditions should, ideally, be used. When results from different studies are used, caution should be taken to exclude conditional or case-specific differences that result from the test methodology and/or condition. For instance, a surface (carrier) test may give different log10 reduction results than a suspension test of the same microbicide or formulation under certain situations [88]. For example, the data of Kindermann et al. [47] and Tyler et al. [31] indicate that sodium hypochlorite causes a higher log10 reduction value (LRV) when tested in a suspension test than in a surface test. On the other hand, glutaraldehyde has been found to cause similar log reduction in either methodology, while hydrogen peroxide causes higher LRV in the surface test, which is thought to be likely related to the consumption of hydrogen peroxide by the protein in the virus-suspending solution [31].
The organic soil load in which the challenge virus is suspended prior to inoculation can also impact the viral inactivation outcome, especially for oxidizers, alcohols, and QAC. It would be inaccurate or even misleading if a result from a light organic load (e.g., 5% animal serum or phosphate-buffered saline) were to be directly compared with a test that used a heavier organic load (e.g., 90% blood or 20% fecal suspension). Tung
Other testing conditions may also affect the reduction results. For instance, a higher contact temperature may work in the favor of the virucide under investigation, which may result in a higher log reduction. Nemoto et al. [56] reported that a 0.125% glutaraldehyde solution completely inactivated rotavirus after 10 min under ambient temperature, but not when evaluated on ice. The pH and other components in the product formulation could also affect the viral reduction outcome, presumably by activating the chemical and/or by a synergistic or additive effect between the pH and the active chemical [22, 39, 89]. The efficacy of formulated versus non-formulated microbicides may differ even within the same type and concentration of active(s). For example, formulated QAC and ethanol products have been reported to exhibit strong activities against certain non-enveloped viruses albeit the efficacy may be weaker for non-formulated solutions [45, 54, 90, 91]. Therefore, the formulation of the microbicidal active must be considered. The viral stock (i.e., inoculum) preparation method and the challenge viral titer may also affect the reported viral reduction efficacy. For example, purified virus may be more susceptible than crude virus preparations [49]; viral clumps can make the virus less susceptible [92]; and a higher viral challenge titer could make the chemical harder to achieve an expected log10 reduction. Sometimes, viruses propagated in different host cell types may behave differently. It would therefore be ideal if all studies could use a standardized viral preparation and infectivity assay protocol. This is, of course, practically challenging. Last, but not least, the method for preparing the microbicide and the verification of the active concentration might also differ from lab to lab, thus potentially influencing the efficacy results obtained.
Despite these practically hard-to-avoid differences in test methodology and conditions, some generalizations on the pattern of susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses can still be made with confidence. For instance, it is quite apparent that the
The family
Different types of adenoviruses seem to exhibit varying degrees of susceptibility to ethanol and QAC. For example, adenovirus type 5 appears to be notably more susceptible to ethanol than are adenovirus types 2 and 8. In general, however, adenoviruses are more susceptible than many other non-enveloped viruses. Considering that adenovirus type 5 is listed as one of the allowable challenge viruses for a generic or “broad-spectrum” virucidal efficacy claim (i.e., a product that is effective for adenovirus type 5 may be considered effective against all viruses) [97, 98], this practice may not represent a challenge and lead to an insufficient safety margin, which is not supported by the published data.
Parvoviruses are among the smallest of non-enveloped viruses. The animal parvoviruses (e.g., minute virus of mice, porcine parvovirus, bovine parvovirus, canine parvovirus, etc.) are considered to exhibit very low susceptibility to chemical inactivation [99] and are commonly used as a worst-case model for viral inactivation studies. This literature review generally supports this notion, although it should be noted that the animal parvoviruses do not appear to represent a worst-case challenge for high-pH inactivation, and porcine parvovirus seems less susceptible than minute virus of mice at times. Additionally, human parvovirus B19 seems especially susceptible to acid treatment [100].
It has been observed that the particle size of a virus is not an exclusive or even a primary determinant of susceptibility to microbicides for non-enveloped viruses, albeit this characteristic may play a role. There are numerous reports demonstrating that larger non-enveloped viruses, such as adenoviruses and reoviruses, are less susceptible than some of the smaller non-enveloped viruses for certain chemistries. Interestingly though, rotavirus, a large non-enveloped virus, indeed seems to be the most susceptible among non-enveloped viruses, except to low pH.
The mechanisms underlying the large variation in susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses and the chemistry dependency are not always clear, but they could presumably be related to the physicochemical properties of the virus as well as the mechanisms of action of the chemical inactivants. For alcohols, for instance, it has been proposed that the hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity of the viral particles is an important determinant of susceptibility [101]. Poliovirus, which is hydrophilic, is more susceptible to ethanol than it is to isopropyl alcohol. This is attributed to the fact that ethanol is more hydrophilic than isopropanol. In comparison, the hydrophobic simian virus 40 is susceptible to isopropanol but not to ethanol [101]. Enterovirus 71 (EV71) and enterovirus EV-D68 (EV-D68) are both enteroviruses in the family
A review of the relative order of susceptibility for non-enveloped viruses under each chemistry reveals that the order for some chemicals (e.g. aldehydes) seems to fit the traditional hierarchy concept well (e.g., parvoviruses are less susceptible than larger viruses); but the order for some other chemistries (e.g., low pH) does not seem to agree with the concept as well.
The variability in viral susceptibility to physical treatments is not covered in this chapter; however, a marked degree of variation also exists for physical treatments, both within non-enveloped viruses and between enveloped and non-enveloped viruses [12, 16, 21, 49]. A comparison of the order of susceptibility of viruses to chemical versus physical treatments and an exploration of the underlying mechanisms would be interesting and revealing.
This chapter reviewed the literature on chemical inactivation of non-enveloped viruses, with an emphasis on the relative difference and trending of susceptibility among some relevant (from a public health perspective) non-enveloped viruses under each type of chemistry. The traditional concept of a hierarchy of susceptibility to microbicides provides a useful tool in understanding and predicting the susceptibility of a pathogen; however, the concept tends to be oversimplified. The order of susceptibility among non-enveloped viruses depends on the type of chemistry, and there is no universal order that holds true for all types of chemistries. Picornaviruses and caliciviruses exhibit a particularly high degree of intrafamily variation, and the order may even be reversed between viruses, depending on the chemistry. Additionally, larger non-enveloped viruses are not always more susceptible than some of the smaller non-enveloped viruses. It may be inappropriate to consider adenovirus type 5 as a worst-case non-enveloped virus; and even the animal parvoviruses, universally considered among the least susceptible to chemical inactivation, do not actually represent the least susceptible virus type for certain chemistries.
The author thanks Drs. Raymond Nims and M. Khalid Ijaz for the critical review of the manuscript and discussion.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"379",title:"Vitaminology",slug:"alimentology-vitaminology",parent:{id:"42",title:"Alimentology",slug:"alimentology"},numberOfBooks:12,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:252,numberOfWosCitations:133,numberOfCrossrefCitations:130,numberOfDimensionsCitations:245,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"379",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11021",title:"B-Complex Vitamins",subtitle:"Sources, Intakes and Novel Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ad50bc292cda8d24f11aef2f5ef88f51",slug:"b-complex-vitamins-sources-intakes-and-novel-applications",bookSignature:"Jean Guy LeBlanc",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11021.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67023",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean Guy",middleName:null,surname:"LeBlanc",slug:"jean-guy-leblanc",fullName:"Jean Guy LeBlanc"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10631",title:"Vitamin D",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"34a58a10957f49842f0b13d78ccacb09",slug:"vitamin-d",bookSignature:"Öner Özdemir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10631.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62921",title:"Dr.",name:"Öner",middleName:null,surname:"Özdemir",slug:"oner-ozdemir",fullName:"Öner Özdemir"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7038",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba24f0913341357b0779ff9529c4bbfc",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",bookSignature:"Julia Fedotova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7038.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"269070",title:"Prof.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Fedotova",slug:"julia-fedotova",fullName:"Julia Fedotova"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8594",title:"Fads and Facts about Vitamin D",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1731029867f0d79c633e3408fc03ebd2",slug:"fads-and-facts-about-vitamin-d",bookSignature:"Edward T. 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It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"56440",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70162",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6338,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"50921",doi:"10.5772/63712",title:"Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet",slug:"menaquinones-bacteria-and-foods-vitamin-k2-in-the-diet",totalDownloads:3272,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Vitamin K2 is a collection of isoprenologues that mostly originate from bacterial synthesis, also called menaquinones (MKs). Multiple bacterial species used as starter cultures for food fermentation are known to synthesize MK. Therefore, fermented food is the best source of vitamin K2. In the Western diet, dairy products are one of the best known and most commonly consumed group of fermented products.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet",authors:[{id:"184784",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Walther",slug:"barbara-walther",fullName:"Barbara Walther"},{id:"188194",title:"Mrs.",name:"Magali",middleName:null,surname:"Chollet",slug:"magali-chollet",fullName:"Magali Chollet"}]},{id:"66098",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84445",title:"Golden Rice: To Combat Vitamin A Deficiency for Public Health",slug:"golden-rice-to-combat-vitamin-a-deficiency-for-public-health",totalDownloads:3307,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) has been recognised as a significant public health problem continuously for more than 30 years, despite current interventions. The problem is particularly severe in populations where rice is the staple food and diversity of diet is limited, as white rice contains no micronutrients. Golden Rice is a public-sector product designed as an additional intervention for VAD. There will be no charge for the nutritional trait, which has been donated by its inventors for use in public-sector rice varieties to assist the resource poor, and no limitations on what small farmers can do with the crop—saving and replanting seed, selling seed and selling grain are all possible. Because Golden Rice had to be created by introducing two new genes—one from maize and the other from a very commonly ingested soil bacterium—it has taken a long time to get from the laboratory to the field. Now it has been formally registered as safe as food, feed, or in processed form by four industrialised counties, and applications are pending in developing countries. The data are summarised here, and criticisms addressed, for a public health professional audience: is it needed, will it work, is it safe and is it economic? Adoption of Golden Rice, the next step after in-country registration, requires strategic and tactical cooperation across professions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government departments often not used to working together. Public health professionals need to play a prominent role.",book:{id:"7978",slug:"vitamin-a",title:"Vitamin A",fullTitle:"Vitamin A"},signatures:"Adrian Dubock",authors:[{id:"273220",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Dubock",slug:"adrian-dubock",fullName:"Adrian Dubock"}]},{id:"62836",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79350",title:"The Role of Thiamine in Plants and Current Perspectives in Crop Improvement",slug:"the-role-of-thiamine-in-plants-and-current-perspectives-in-crop-improvement",totalDownloads:1534,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Current research is focusing on selecting potential genes that can alleviate stress and produce disease-tolerant crop variety. The novel paradigm is to investigate the potential of thiamine as a crop protection molecule in plants. Thiamine or vitamin B1 is important for primary metabolism for all living organisms. The active form, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), is a cofactor for the enzymes involved in the synthesis of amino acids, tricarboxylic acid cycle and pentose phosphate pathway. Recently, thiamine is shown to have a role in the processes underlying protection of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. The aim of this chapter is to review the role of thiamine in plant growth and disease protection and also to highlight that TPP and its intermediates are involved in management of stress. The perspectives on its potential for manipulating the biosynthesis pathway in crop improvement will also be discussed.",book:{id:"6709",slug:"b-group-vitamins-current-uses-and-perspectives",title:"B Group Vitamins",fullTitle:"B Group Vitamins - Current Uses and Perspectives"},signatures:"Atiqah Subki, Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin and Zetty Norhana\nBalia Yusof",authors:[{id:"240031",title:"Dr.",name:"Zetty-Norhana Balia",middleName:null,surname:"Yusof",slug:"zetty-norhana-balia-yusof",fullName:"Zetty-Norhana Balia Yusof"},{id:"261167",title:"Mr.",name:"Aisamuddin Ardi",middleName:null,surname:"Zainal Abidin",slug:"aisamuddin-ardi-zainal-abidin",fullName:"Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin"},{id:"261169",title:"Ms.",name:"Atiqah",middleName:null,surname:"Subki",slug:"atiqah-subki",fullName:"Atiqah Subki"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56440",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6322,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"56013",title:"Vitamin C: An Antioxidant Agent",slug:"vitamin-c-an-antioxidant-agent",totalDownloads:7744,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:51,abstract:"Vitamin C or ascorbic acid (AsA) is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties, found in both animals and plants. It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"69402",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency and Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-and-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1536,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin D (VD) is a molecule that can be synthesized directly in the humans’ body or enter the organism with food in the form of inactive precursors. To exert its biological action, VD undergoes two-stage hydroxylation (at the 25th and 1st position) catalyzed by cytochromes P450, the presence of which has already been shown in almost all tissues of the human body. The product of hydroxylation is hormone-active form of vitamin D–1,25(OH)2D. 1,25(OH)2D binds to specific vitamin D receptor (VDR) and regulates the expression of genes involved in bone remodeling (classical function) and genes that control immune response, hormone secretion, cell proliferation, and differentiation (nonclassical functions). VD deficiency is prevalent around the globe and may be one of the key factors for diabetes development. The direct association between vitamin D deficiency and type 1 (T1D) and type 2 (T2D) diabetes has been proven. Detection of VDR in pancreas and adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and immune cells allowed implying the antidiabetic role of vitamin D by enhancing insulin synthesis and exocytosis, increasing the expression of the insulin receptor, and modulating immune cells’ functions. This chapter summarizes data about relationship between VD insufficiency/deficiency and development of T1D and T2D, and their complications.",book:{id:"7038",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",fullTitle:"Vitamin D Deficiency"},signatures:"Ihor Shymanskyi, Olha Lisakovska, Anna Mazanova and Mykola Veliky",authors:null},{id:"76108",title:"Vitamin D Metabolism",slug:"vitamin-d-metabolism",totalDownloads:418,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Vitamin D plays an important role in bone metabolism. Vitamin D is a group of biologically inactive, fat-soluble prohormones that exist in two major forms: ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) produced by plants in response to ultraviolet irradiation and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) derived from animal tissues or 7-dehydrocholesterol in human skin by the action of ultraviolet rays present in sunlight. Vitamin D, which is biologically inactive, needs two-step hydroxylation for activation. All of these steps are of crucial for Vitamin D to show its effect properly. In this section, we will present vitamin D synthesis and its action steps in detail.",book:{id:"10631",slug:"vitamin-d",title:"Vitamin D",fullTitle:"Vitamin D"},signatures:"Sezer Acar and Behzat Özkan",authors:[{id:"29878",title:"Dr.",name:"Behzat",middleName:null,surname:"Özkan",slug:"behzat-ozkan",fullName:"Behzat Özkan"},{id:"348287",title:"Dr.",name:"Sezer",middleName:null,surname:"Acar",slug:"sezer-acar",fullName:"Sezer Acar"}]},{id:"50754",title:"Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites",slug:"medicinal-chemistry-of-vitamin-k-derivatives-and-metabolites",totalDownloads:1868,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin K acts as a cofactor for γ‐glutamyl carboxylase. Recently, various biological activities of vitamin K have been reported. Anti‐proliferative activities of vitamin K, especially in vitamin K3, are well known. In addition, various physiological and pharmacological functions of vitamin K2, such as transcription modulators as nuclear steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) ligands and anti‐inflammatory effects, have been revealed in the past decade. Characterization of vitamin K metabolites is also important for clinical application of vitamin K and its derivatives. 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