Problems related to housing and requirements for sustainable housing design identified for the design guidelines produced in Japan [extracts] [12].
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6237",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",subtitle:"New Developments In Neurotransmission Research",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book collates the contributions of a selected number of neuroscientists that are interested in the molecular, preclinical, and clinical aspects of neurotransmission research. The seven chapters in this book address the latest research/review data related to GABA/glutamate system's organization and function, the structure of receptors, subtypes and their ligands, as well as the translational approach and clinical implications. The book offers readers a rich collection of data regarding current and future applications of GABA and glutamate neurotransmission, including promising research strategies and potential clinical benefits.",isbn:"978-953-51-3822-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3821-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4069-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68762",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",numberOfPages:138,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9883dc7bb642e8ae919261b2519547ba",bookSignature:"Janko Samardzic",publishedDate:"March 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6237.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12308,numberOfWosCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:37,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:69,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 26th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 17th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 29th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 29th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"188756",title:"Dr.",name:"Janko",middleName:null,surname:"Samardzic",slug:"janko-samardzic",fullName:"Janko Samardzic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188756/images/4710_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Janko Samardzic is an Assistant Professor and researcher at the Medical Faculty, University of Belgrade. He holds PhD in Medical Pharmacology and has extensive experience and expertise in Basic and Applied Neuroscience. Dr. Samardzic completed his postdoctoral studies at the University KU Leuven in Belgium and postgraduate specialty courses at the Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam. Currently, he also holds the position of Visiting Fellow at the University Children\\'s Hospital Basel, Switzerland. Dr. Samardzic is a member of European Colleague of Neuropsychopharmacology, Austrian Pharmacological Society, Swiss Society for Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology and Serbian Pharmacological Society. He is the author of a large number of peer reviewed papers and the regular speaker at the international scientific conferences. Janko is looking forward to continue juggling between the Serbia and Switzerland.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Belgrade",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"212",title:"Molecular Neuroscience",slug:"molecular-neuroscience"}],chapters:[{id:"59071",title:"Introductory Chapter: GABA/Glutamate Balance: A Key for Normal Brain Functioning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74023",slug:"introductory-chapter-gaba-glutamate-balance-a-key-for-normal-brain-functioning",totalDownloads:1614,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Janko Samardzic, Dragana Jadzic, Boris Hencic, Jasna Jancic and\nDubravka Svob Strac",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59071",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59071",authors:[{id:"188756",title:"Dr.",name:"Janko",surname:"Samardzic",slug:"janko-samardzic",fullName:"Janko Samardzic"},{id:"398264",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragana",surname:"Jadzic",slug:"dragana-jadzic",fullName:"Dragana Jadzic"},{id:"398265",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Hencic",slug:"boris-hencic",fullName:"Boris Hencic"},{id:"398266",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasna",surname:"Jancic",slug:"jasna-jancic",fullName:"Jasna Jancic"},{id:"398267",title:"Dr.",name:"Dubravka Svob",surname:"Strac",slug:"dubravka-svob-strac",fullName:"Dubravka Svob Strac"}],corrections:null},{id:"58028",title:"Early Life Experience, Maternal Separation, and Involvement of GABA and Glutamate Transporters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70868",slug:"early-life-experience-maternal-separation-and-involvement-of-gaba-and-glutamate-transporters",totalDownloads:1143,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The physiological response initiates with activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the autonomic nervous, and the immune systems. All actions promoted cellular adaptive changes in cells and tissues that protect the body and promote their survival. Diverse protocols of maternal separation (MS) in rodents presented alterations in central nervous system (CNS) such as learning disabilities, voluntary alcohol intake, and neurochemical changes. It is believed that the properties of these early life procedures are mediated by the high plasticity of the developing CNS. During critical development stage, brain regions, mainly those related to aggressive conditions, can have advancement abnormalities occasionally irreversible and thus adjust emotional processing when they grow to be adults. Early postnatal period and relationship between mother and infant are essential of normal stress response and emotional behavior. Probably, it involves the activation of intracellular signaling pathways, genome adaptations, adjusts in gene expression, and neural action. The objective of this article is to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge in the field focused on the maternal separation model, early life experience of postnatal stress, and the involvement of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate transporters.",signatures:"Gabriela Beatriz Acosta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58028",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58028",authors:[{id:"111733",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Acosta",slug:"gabriela-acosta",fullName:"Gabriela Acosta"}],corrections:null},{id:"58809",title:"Notch Signaling in the Astroglial Phenotype: Relevance to Glutamatergic Transmission",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73318",slug:"notch-signaling-in-the-astroglial-phenotype-relevance-to-glutamatergic-transmission",totalDownloads:1376,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glutamate (Glu), the major excitatory neurotransmitter, elicits its action through the activation of membrane receptors and transporters expressed in neurons and glial cells. Glial glutamate transporters, EAAT1 and EAAT2, remove this transmitter from the synaptic cleft preventing an excitotoxic insult. The Notch pathway is a signaling system involved in neuro- and gliogenesis. Radial glia (RG) generates neurons, oligodendrocytes, and astrocytes in a spatial and temporal pattern, in which Notch represses neurogenesis, maintaining the self-renewal potential of RG. Astrogenesis depends on several stimuli, Notch being a master regulator of the differentiation process. The cAMP-PKA-CREB signaling cascade cross talks with the Notch pathway, acting synergistically by reducing progenitor markers and inducing astrocytic differentiation. Notch1 mRNA is upregulated in a PKA/γ-secretase/NICD/CSL-dependent manner, suggesting a feedback loop to keep Notch active until astrocytic differentiation is complete. Glial differentiation is also modulated by PKC, which acts over NICD. In RG cells and astrocytes enwrapping glutamatergic synapses, EAAT1 transcriptional regulation is mediated by PKC, increasing Notch expression and its receptor intracellular traffic. It is clear that Notch represents an activity-dependent molecular key in RG cells that enable them to shape glutamatergic transmission through the expression of genes involved in glial/neuronal interactions.",signatures:"López-Bayghen Esther, Angulo-Rojo Carla, López-Bayghen Bruno,\nHernández-Melchor Dinorah, Ramírez Leticia and Ortega Arturo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58809",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58809",authors:[{id:"40836",title:"Prof.",name:"Esther",surname:"Lopez-Bayghen",slug:"esther-lopez-bayghen",fullName:"Esther Lopez-Bayghen"},{id:"208829",title:"Prof.",name:"Arturo",surname:"Ortega",slug:"arturo-ortega",fullName:"Arturo Ortega"},{id:"237405",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",surname:"Angulo-Rojo",slug:"carla-angulo-rojo",fullName:"Carla Angulo-Rojo"},{id:"237406",title:"BSc.",name:"Dinorah",surname:"Hernandez-Melchor",slug:"dinorah-hernandez-melchor",fullName:"Dinorah Hernandez-Melchor"},{id:"237407",title:"BSc.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Lopez-Bayghen",slug:"bruno-lopez-bayghen",fullName:"Bruno Lopez-Bayghen"},{id:"237411",title:"Dr.",name:"Leticia",surname:"Ramirez",slug:"leticia-ramirez",fullName:"Leticia Ramirez"}],corrections:null},{id:"57935",title:"Pharmacological Studies with Specific Agonist and Antagonist of Animal iGluR on Root Growth in Arabidopsis thaliana",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72121",slug:"pharmacological-studies-with-specific-agonist-and-antagonist-of-animal-iglur-on-root-growth-in-arabi",totalDownloads:1154,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) are a group of proteins with a high degree of sequence homology. At least 20 type of putative ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR)-like channels have been identified in Arabidopsis thaliana. To uncover the role of iGluR-like channels in plant root growth, we used a comprehensive set of compounds known to alter iGluR channels in the neurons. We found that Arabidopsis root system is highly sensitive to these compounds. iGluR competitive antagonists 6-Cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX) or 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione acted (DNQX) acts as a negative regulator of primary root and lateral root density. Continuous growth on antagonist also leads to impairment of root meristem size, which suggests that iGluR-like channels may play a role in meristem maintenance. However, application of iGluR agonists L-glutamate recovered Arabidopsis root growth. Taken together, these results suggest a correlation between the putative iGluR-like channel function and the alteration of root growth and development in the Arabidopsis roots.",signatures:"Shashi Kant Singh and Ing-Feng Chang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57935",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57935",authors:[{id:"56567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ing-Feng",surname:"Chang",slug:"ing-feng-chang",fullName:"Ing-Feng Chang"},{id:"230147",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashi",surname:"Singh",slug:"shashi-singh",fullName:"Shashi Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70958",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3477,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57103",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57103",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}],corrections:null},{id:"58832",title:"Antagonists of Ionotropic Receptors for the Inhibitory Neurotransmitter GABA: Therapeutic Indications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72678",slug:"antagonists-of-ionotropic-receptors-for-the-inhibitory-neurotransmitter-gaba-therapeutic-indications",totalDownloads:1517,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Agents that antagonize the action of GABA on ionotropic receptors are widely used to probe the function of this neurotransmitter. Three such agents are in common use: bicuculline, gabazine, and picrotoxinin. These three agents produce convulsions on systemic administration but act in significantly different ways. Bicuculline is a competitive antagonist of GABAA receptors. Gabazine is also a competitive antagonist of GABAA receptors, interacting with different residues on the receptors. Picrotoxinin is a noncompetitive antagonist acting on the chloride channel of GABAA and several other ionotropic CYS-loop receptors including glycine, GABAC, and 5-HT3 receptors. Many other structurally diverse agents are now known to act as GABA receptor antagonists, providing opportunities for the discovery of agents with selectivity for the myriad of ionotropic GABA receptors. TPMPA is a selective antagonist for GABAC receptors, which are insensitive to bicuculline. Like TPMPA, many antagonists of ionotropic GABA receptors are not convulsants, indicating that there is still much to be learnt about GABA function in the brain from the study of such agents and their possible therapeutic uses. The most recently discovered GABAA receptor nonconvulsive antagonist is S44819, which is subtype selective for α5-containing receptors, and is arousing much interest in relation to cognition.",signatures:"Tina Hinton and Graham A. R. Johnston",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58832",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58832",authors:[{id:"199156",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Graham",surname:"Johnston",slug:"graham-johnston",fullName:"Graham Johnston"},{id:"199160",title:"Dr.",name:"Tina",surname:"Hinton",slug:"tina-hinton",fullName:"Tina Hinton"}],corrections:null},{id:"58817",title:"Clinical Application of MR Spectroscopy in Identifying Biochemical Composition of the Intracranial Pathologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71728",slug:"clinical-application-of-mr-spectroscopy-in-identifying-biochemical-composition-of-the-intracranial-p",totalDownloads:2028,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) provides useful information regarding metabolic composition in the tissues, and advanced spectroscopic methods are used to quantify markers of tumor membrane turnover and proliferation (e.g., choline (Cho)), energy homoeostasis (e.g., creatine (Cr)), intact glioneuronal structures (e.g., N-acetylaspartate (NAA)), and necrosis (e.g., lactate (Lac) or lipids). Results are usually expressed as metabolite ratios rather than absolute metabolite concentrations. Because glial tumors have some specific metabolic characteristics that differ according to the grade of tumor, there is a potential for MR spectroscopy to increase the sensitivity of routinely used diagnostic imaging. MRS also has many diagnostic applications in neurosciences to support the diagnosis in conditions like demyelination, infections, and dementia and in postradiotherapy cases. Biochemical changes in the metabolism of tumor cells related to malignant transformation are reflected in changes of particular metabolite concentration in the tumor tissue. Our prospective study aimed to analyze the usefulness of proton MR spectroscopy in grading of glioma and to correlate various metabolite ratios like choline/creatine, choline/N-acetylaspartate, N-acetylaspartate/creatine, and lactate/creatine with the histopathological grades of glioma.",signatures:"B C Hamsini, Bhavana Nagabhushana Reddy, Sankar Neelakantan\nand Sunitha Palasamudram Kumaran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58817",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58817",authors:[{id:"211054",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunitha",surname:"P Kumaran",slug:"sunitha-p-kumaran",fullName:"Sunitha P Kumaran"},{id:"221485",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankar",surname:"Neelakantan",slug:"sankar-neelakantan",fullName:"Sankar Neelakantan"},{id:"398223",title:"Dr.",name:"B C",surname:"Hamsini",slug:"b-c-hamsini",fullName:"B C Hamsini"},{id:"398224",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhavana",surname:"Nagabhushana Reddy",slug:"bhavana-nagabhushana-reddy",fullName:"Bhavana Nagabhushana Reddy"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6998",title:"Synucleins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Role in Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b4b802fec508928ce8ab9deebd1375f",slug:"synucleins-biochemistry-and-role-in-diseases",bookSignature:"Andrei Surguchov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6998.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"266540",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",surname:"Surguchov",slug:"andrei-surguchov",fullName:"Andrei Surguchov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6989",title:"Biogenic Amines in Neurotransmission and Human Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4c7e866a847bc30d77f37feccdf72dbf",slug:"biogenic-amines-in-neurotransmission-and-human-disease",bookSignature:"Ahmet Uçar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6989.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"205106",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmet",surname:"Uçar",slug:"ahmet-ucar",fullName:"Ahmet Uçar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\r\n\tHealth is usually the physical or mental fitness of the person. The activity of the body is possible at times when the human consumes a nutrient-rich diet. There is a direct relationship between diet and health. Nutrition is the biochemical and physiological process by which a human uses food to support its life. A nutrient is a substance consumed by an organism to survive, grow and reproduce. There are different sources of nutrient consumption and animal meat is one of them. Meat is a perishable food and a rich source of protein. It is also composed of PUFAs, zinc, iron, selenium, and phosphorus followed by vitamin A and B-complex vitamins. Therefore meat is a good source of nutrient and bioactive compounds. During processing, some reactions are started such as oxidation. Plant bioactive compounds including antioxidants, polyphenols, and vitamins are added to meat for protection from oxidation and improving nutrition values. Plant sources also contain components that inhibit microbe growth and make meat safer for human health. Irradiated meat is free from bacteria but during processing, the oxidation process is started. To protect from oxidation, natural antioxidants sources are used. However, advanced processing technologies are used to improve the quality and nutritional value of meat and meat products.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-297-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-296-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-298-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"3923d89fcf837fac59c906f9694ab1f8",bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Sajid Arshad",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11638.jpg",keywords:"Composition, PUFAs, Nutrients, Antioxidants, Polyphenols, Oxidation, Shelf Life, Sonication, Irradiation, Quality, Safety, Health",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 20th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 7th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 6th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Assistant Professor at Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan whose area of research is food science particularly meat science and halal foods. 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Since 2007, more than half of the world’s population has been living in urban areas; that share is projected to rise 60% by 2030 [1]. A vast number of buildings, transport systems, and other facilities occupy cities, where intense socio-economic activities are performed. On the other hand, there have been various urban problems, including sprawl, traffic congestion, environmental pollution, waste, unemployment, and crimes. World cities are responsible for up to 70% of harmful greenhouse gases [2]. Furthermore, cities lie near waters, such as seas and rivers; therefore, urban areas are at increased risk from flooding and sea-level rise caused by climate change.
\nCities, as well as various city components, need to be designed and implemented toward sustainability. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations in 2015 also refer to cities, housing, and infrastructure. Typically, Goal 11 demands to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. Meanwhile, Goal 9 requires people to build resilient infrastructure [3].
\nAs the term “goal” indicates, achieving sustainability is the ultimate goal-oriented challenge. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks [4]. Besides, control science has produced remarkable results in many fields, particularly engineering [4]. Accordingly, utilizing control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainability and sustainable design.
\nBased on our accomplished research results, this chapter illustrates the methodology for designing sustainable structures with two examples. First, it shows the “control system for promoting sustainable structure design” and “process of producing and revising sustainable structure design guidelines.” Following these basic schemes, Section 4 demonstrates a way of producing and revising sustainable housing design guidelines. Furthermore, Section 5 outlines how to produce sustainable urban design guidelines.
\nThe “control system for promoting sustainable structure design” is demonstrated in \nFigure 1\n. The upper and lower areas divided by the dotted line represent the “theoretical world” and the “practical world,” respectively.
\nControl system for promoting sustainable structure design.
In this control system, “controlled objects” are structures, which include both new and existing structures. In this context, “structures” include various city components, such as houses, other buildings, roads, and parks, as well as the whole city.
\n“Disturbances” mean harmful influences on controlled objects resulting from environmental, social, or economic problems. Instances of the disturbances are adverse effects due to environmental pollution and a variety of impacts caused by climate change. The course from “disturbances” to “sustainability” means “adaptation.” This course has been added, on the basis of the current scientific understanding that achieving sustainability also needs adaptation measures to climate change impacts [5, 6, 7, 8].
\nThe purpose of control is the accomplishment of “sustainability.” The model of sustainability (\nFigure 2\n) demonstrates that sustainability requires both fundamental stability and internal stability, to achieve the long-term well-being of all humankind, within the finite global environment and natural resources [9]. Fundamental stability means environmental stability and a stable supply of necessary goods; the conditions for fundamental stability are “environmental preservation” and “sustainable use of natural resources” [9]. Meanwhile, internal stability is social and economic stability; the conditions for internal stability are “health,” “safety,” “mutual help,” and “self-realization,” which are essential for the humans’ well-being [9].
\nModel of sustainability [
“Controlled variables” mean the variables that relate to controlled objects and are necessary to be controlled for chiefly solving or preventing the problems or adapting to disturbances [10, 11]. On the other hand, “desired values” are extracted from the purpose of control, that is, sustainability. The control objective of this control system is to adjust the controlled variables to their desired values.
\nIn the practical world, the subjects of control are “people involved in design.” The subjects vary depending on types of structures. For example, if controlled objects are houses, people involved in design are homeowners, architects, designers, and homebuilders. Meanwhile, in case of the whole city, people involved include city planners, administrative staff, and representatives of the city residents.
\nIn this control system, people involved in design adjust the controlled variables to their desired values, by using the “sustainable design guidelines” and “sustainability checklist.” The design guidelines and checklist have nearly the same expressions, that is, elements, variables, and desired values. But the checklist is formed to smoothly compare measured or estimated variables to the desired values and search for controlled variables [10, 11].
\nWhen new structures are objects, information about the desired values first reaches “people involved in design” through the “sustainable design guidelines.” People involved prepare “drawings and specifications,” so that the variables of structure’s elements can satisfy their desired values to the maximum. At significant phases in the design process, people involved in design check the drawings and specifications by seeing the “sustainability checklist” [10, 11].
\nIn the case where objects are existing structures, the design process starts with “inspection” on the structure as an object. Referring to the “sustainability checklist,” the “people involved in design” measure or estimate each element’s variables of that structure. After finishing the inspection, the people involved mostly prepare “drawings and specifications” for improvement, so that controlled variables meet their desired values to full potential [10, 11].
\nThe process of producing and revising the sustainable structure design guidelines and sustainability checklist is demonstrated in \nFigure 3\n. The upper area of the figure is the theoretical world; the lower area is the practical world.
\nProcess of producing and revising the sustainable structure design guidelines and sustainability checklist.
The middle part shows the route of preparing and utilizing the “sustainable design guidelines” and “sustainability checklist.” System designers first produce or revise the design guidelines and checklist through the process of three stages. After that, system users employ the design guidelines and checklist. Subsequently, structure users utilize the completed structures that have been designed with the guidelines and checklist.
\nThe four blocks on the left side demonstrate the items to check when producing or revising the design guidelines and checklist. The contents of these four blocks can change over time. On the other hand, the two blocks at the lower right demonstrate the items to check when revising the systems, on the basis of the feedbacks from the guidelines/checklist users and the structure users.
\nThe production process of the design guidelines and checklist is composed of three stages: (1) identification of environmental, social, and economic problems related to the relevant structures, (2) identification of the requirements for sustainable design of the relevant structures, (3) determination of elements, variables, and their desired values in the design guidelines and checklist [12].
\nIn the first stage, system designers identify environmental, social, and economic problems related to the relevant structures, while observing trends in understanding such problems. The basis for the identification is that the problems affect the total six stability conditions shown in \nFigure 2\n, such as health, safety, and environmental preservation. When identifying problems, system designers take up local/particular problems in their country or region, in addition to global/general problems [12].
\nNext, based on the specified problems, system designers identify the requirements for sustainable design of the relevant structures. For example, if “global warming and climate change” are specified as problems in the first stage, “energy saving,” “use of renewable energy,” and “conservation of green spaces” can be specified as the requirements.
\nIn the third stage, system designers convert the requirements for sustainable design into the framework of “element-variable-desired value,” which can be found in the design guidelines and checklist. The aim of this conversion is the convenience of system users. The framework of “element-variable-desired value” concretely shows design targets of each part of the relevant structures; thus, it enables the system users to quickly find what should be designed and the design courses [12].
\nFirst, system designers determine “elements,” considering both the standard structures and the requirements for sustainable design. Structures in one category consist of almost the same component parts; accordingly, system designers can select important parts of the standard structures as elements. Moreover, they may add necessary elements to cover all of the requirements for sustainable design. For example, when “use of renewable energy” is identified as one of the requirements, “equipment for harnessing renewable energy” should be added as an element, even if it is not common in current ordinary structures [9].
\nNext, system designers determine “variables” by examining the relationships between each element and the relevant stability condition(s), as well as the related requirement(s) for sustainable design. For instance, if “equipment for harnessing renewable energy” is an element, its relationships with the relevant stability conditions, namely environmental preservation and sustainable use of natural resources, as well as the related requirement, namely use of renewable energy, should be examined. Consequently, “harnessed renewable energy” can be determined as its variable.
\nAfter that, system designers set the variables’ “desired values” to meet the relevant stability conditions. If “harnessed renewable energy” is the variable, its desired value can be set at “100% or more of the total energy usage.” When determining “desired values,” system designers also consider trends in technology and systems related to the relevant structures.
\nThe “sustainable design guidelines” and “sustainability checklist” need to be revised, adjusting to changing situations, and higher user-friendliness and accuracy. The revision process can be divided into three spheres: (1) changes in the theoretical world, (2) changes in the practical world, (3) feedback from the users [12]. After making preparations from the above three perspectives, system designers modify the guidelines and checklist tables.
\nObvious changes over time in the theoretical world need to be reflected into the design guidelines and checklist [12]. First of all, searching for recent changes in environmental, social, and economic problems, system designers can modify the list of problems related to the relevant structures. Based on the modified list of problems, the system designers can also amend the list of the requirements for sustainable design of the relevant structures. When amending these two lists, it is also necessary to observe the latest trends in “understanding problems related to the relevant structures” and “understanding about the relevant structures’ sustainability.” Subsequently, system designers examine amendments to the “element-variable-desired value” expressions of the design guidelines and checklist.
\nChanges over time in the practical world are also necessary to be reflected in the guidelines and checklist. Changes in the practical world include “changes in technology related to the relevant structures” and “changes in systems related to the relevant structure design” [12].
\n“Feedback from the guidelines/checklist users” and “feedback from the structure users” also need to be examined, as shown at the lower right of \nFigure 3\n [12]. The feedback from the guidelines/checklist users is information on reactions to the guidelines and checklist, such as comments about the user-friendliness and validity of these systems. Such information is utilized as a foundation for the improvement of the systems. On the other hand, the feedback from the structure users is information on reactions to the completed structures designed with the guidelines and checklist. Such information, including comments on the structures’ amenities and sustainability performance, is also useful for improving the systems.
\nWe produced the sustainable housing design guidelines and sustainability checklist, mainly for use in Japan. After that, we made revisions on the design guidelines and checklist. This section briefly explains the process of producing and revising the sustainable housing design guidelines, anew following the procedure demonstrated in \nFigure 3\n. In addition, this section has been organized based on Section 4 of our latest study results, “Comprehensive strategy for sustainable housing design.”
\nProducing the design guidelines begins with identifying environmental, social, and economic problems related to houses. In this case, we selected global/general problems and local/particular problems observed in Japan. Significant problems are shown in the second column of \nTable 1\n. Global/general issues include global warming and climate change, and increased medical and nursing care expenses due to aging population. Meanwhile, Japan’s local/particular problems include poor indoor thermal performance, and earthquake damage.
\nType of problems | \nMain environmental, social, and economic problems related to housing | \nRequirements for sustainable housing design | \nStability conditions | \n
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Global/general problems | \n\n
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Local/particular problems (in Japan) | \n\n
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Problems related to housing and requirements for sustainable housing design identified for the design guidelines produced in Japan [extracts] [12].
After specifying the housing-related problems, we identified the requirements for sustainable housing design. For instance, “poor indoor thermal performance” requires “improvement of indoor thermal performance.” In addition, relevant stability conditions are demonstrated in the right column of \nTable 1\n.
\nIn the third stage, we first specified “elements,” considering both the standard housing and the requirements for sustainable housing design. When considering the standard housing, we analyzed two factors: “material” and “space” [10, 11]. “Material” regards housing as the complexity of material elements, such as framework, exterior, thermal insulation, windows and doors, interior, and piping. “Space” considers housing as the complexity of spatial elements, such as rooms and areas [10, 11]. Moreover, in order to cover all of the requirements for sustainable housing design, we added necessary elements, such as “equipment for harnessing renewable energy.”
\nAfter specifying the elements, we identified the variables and their desired values. Choosing one element, namely “thermal insulation,” the rest of this section explains the details of identifying the variable and its desired value. First of all, we determined “thermal insulation performance” as the variable, considering two requirements, that is, “energy saving” and “improvement of indoor thermal performance,” as well as the relevant stability conditions. Higher thermal insulation performance contributes to “environmental preservation” and “sustainable use of natural resources” due to a decrease in energy usage for air-conditioning and heating, as well as residents’ better “health.”
\nWhen specifying the desired value, we observed trends in technology and systems related to housing thermal insulation performance. Japanese housing thermal performance has traditionally been low. Japan’s building codes have not stipulated the standards of housing thermal insulation performance. Meanwhile, since 2000, a national voluntary system, namely the Japan Housing Performance Indication Standards (JHPIS), have provided four-level thermal insulation performance grades. Consequently, we determined the desired value to be the highest level in the thermal insulation performance grades of the JHPIS.
\nThe above sustainable housing design guidelines produced in Japan have recently been revised. This latest revision has dealt with the three aspects as mentioned before: (1) changes in the theoretical world, (2) changes in the practical world, (3) feedback from the users.
\nFirst of all, observing recent trends in understanding problems related to houses, we have searched for problems which affect stability conditions. Consequently, as shown in the second column of \nTable 2\n\n, we have specified additional problems that should be dealt with. Based on these problems, additional requirements for sustainable housing design have also been identified. After that, these additional requirements have been incorporated into the framework of “element-variable-desired value.”
\nType of problems | \nEnvironmental, social, and economic problems related to housing | \nRequirements for sustainable housing design | \nStability conditions | \n
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Global/general problems | \n\n
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Local/particular problems (in Japan) | \n\n
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Additional problems and requirements for sustainable housing design identified for the latest revision of the design guidelines [extracts] [12].
Choosing one requirement, namely “storage of electricity,” the following describes the essentials of the identification and incorporation processes. In order to curb global warming, the utilization of renewable energy, particularly wind and solar power generation, is quickly increasing in many countries [13]. But the quantity of electricity extracted from solar and wind sources varies chiefly with the time of day, weather, and season. Therefore, a surge in wind and solar power generation is also raising the risks of power failures [14, 15]. In order to cope with such changing circumstances, we have added “storage of electricity” as a requirement for sustainable housing design. Besides, storing electricity leads to securing an emergency power source, which is one of the adaptation measures against climate change.
\nWhen incorporating the “storage of electricity” into the guidelines, we have added “storage battery” as a new material element. Subsequently, we have identified two variables of this new element: “type” and “linkage.” The desired value of “type” has been specified as “stationary battery or electric vehicle battery.” Meanwhile, the desired value of “linkage” has been determined to be “interconnection with the home electrical system.”
\nObserving recent trends in housing-related technology and systems, we have found noticeable changes, mainly in thermal insulation performance. Japanese housing thermal performance has been gradually improving, due to progress in technology and requirements for energy saving and occupants’ health. As a result, recently, a new national voluntary system, the “net-zero energy house (ZEH) certification standards,” has emerged and shown higher thermal performance criteria than usual criteria [16]. Recognizing these changes, we have lifted the desired value of “thermal insulation performance” of the two material elements: “thermal insulation” and “windows and doors.” To be concrete, we have revised the desired value from the highest level in the JHPIS’s thermal insulation performance grades to the relevant criterion stipulated in the ZEH certification standards.
\nAfter finding a constructive opinion in recent feedback from the system users, we have determined to include it in the latest revision. This opinion’s gist is that lighting fixtures utilized in living spaces should be products with brightness and color adjustment functions, for energy conservation and residents’ health. The necessary brightness of indoor artificial lighting changes depending on circumstances, including residents’ visual comfort and natural lighting through windows. Meanwhile, exposure to bright lights and blue light before bedtime suppresses melatonin secretion and can affect sleep and potentially cause diseases [17, 18]. Accordingly, especially in living spaces, lighting fixtures fitted with brightness and color adjustment functions are beneficial for energy conservation and residents’ health. Therefore, when revising the guidelines this time, we have added an explanatory note to “LED,” the desired value of lighting fixtures’ type, saying “lighting fixtures used in the living spaces are fitted with brightness and color adjustment functions.”
\nFinally, all of the above revision items have been incorporated into the table of the “element-variable-desired value” framework. The final revised version of the guidelines has been shown in \nTable 3\n in our latest study results, “Comprehensive strategy for sustainable housing design.” Extracts from this latest revised version are demonstrated in \nTable 3\n. The added and modified descriptions in the latest revision are written in
Element | \nVariable | \nDesired value | \n
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Framework | \nResistance to earthquakes | \nJHPIS 1–1: Grade 2 or over | \n
Durability | \nJHPIS 3.1: Grade 3 | \n|
Materials | \nCASBEE LRH2 1.1: Level 4 or over | \n|
Exterior (outer wall, roof, etc.) | \nFire resistance (outer wall) | \nJHPIS 2–6: Grade 3 or over | \n
Shape and color | \nConsideration for the landscape | \n|
Thermal insulation | \nThermal insulation performance | \n\n | \n
Windows and doors | \nThermal insulation performance | \n\n | \n
Sunlight adjustment capability | \nCASBEE QH1 1.1.2: Level 4 or over | \n|
Protection of glass against impacts | \nWith shutters | \n|
Piping | \nMeasures for maintenance | \nJHPIS 4.1: Grade 3 | \n
Lighting fixtures | \nType of light | \nLED | \n
Equipment for harnessing natural energy | \nHarnessed natural energy | \n100% or more of the total energy usage | \n
\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
\n | \n\n | \n|
Specified bedroom (Bedroom for elderly and wheelchair users) | \nRoutes to toilet and bath area, dining room, kitchen, and entrance | \nAccessible without steps | \n
\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
\n | \n\n | \n|
\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
Areas relating to water use and hot-water supply | \nAreas in the home | \nPlacing them closer | \n
Position and area of windows | \nNatural ventilation | \nCASBEE QH1 1.2.1: Level 5 | \n
Doorways | \nDifferences in level | \nNo differences | \n
Width | \n75 cm or more (Bath: 60 cm or more) | \n|
Garden area | \nRatio of the garden area to the exterior area | \n40% or more | \n
(1) Material elements are from “framework” to “storage battery;” spatial elements are from “specified bedroom” to “garden area.” (2) JHPIS means the Japan Housing Performance Indication Standards (for new homes). (3) CASBEE means CASBEE for Detached Houses (for new construction) – Technical Manual 2018 Edition. | \n
The latest revised version of the sustainable housing design guidelines [extracts] [12].
This section outlines how to produce sustainable design guidelines for the whole city. \nFigure 4\n shows the process of producing and revising sustainable urban design guidelines. This diagram has been drawn based on \nFigure 3\n in Section 3. First, the descriptions of “relevant structures” in \nFigure 3\n have been replaced with “cities” or “urban.” Moreover, three items have been added to the box of “Determination of elements, variables, and their desired values in the design guidelines and checklist.”
\nProcess of producing and revising the sustainable urban design guidelines.
As shown in the upper central part of \nFigure 4\n, producing the design guidelines starts with identifying environmental, social, and economic problems related to cities. While observing trends in understanding city-related problems, system designers search for the problems that should be identified. In this section, only typical global/general problems have been extracted and demonstrated in \nTable 4\n.
\nEnvironmental, social, and economic problems related to cities (Main global/general problems) | \nRequirements for sustainable urban design | \nStability conditions | \n
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Main global/general problems related to cities and requirements for sustainable urban design.
In the second stage, based on the selected problems related to cities, system designers identify the requirements for sustainable urban design. Identified requirements for sustainable urban design are demonstrated in the second column of \nTable 4\n. For example, “damage caused by natural disasters” and “harmful influences caused by climate change” require “exclusion of natural disaster danger areas from development areas” and “measures for disaster damage prevention and reduction.”
\nIn the third stage, the requirements for sustainable urban design are converted into the “element-variable-desired value” framework of the design guidelines. When designing the whole city, people involved must consider the extent of land development areas, the placement of city components, and city components’ design principles. The requirements in \nTable 4\n also extend over these three spheres. Therefore, as shown in \nFigure 4\n, we have divided the third stage into three steps: (1) development allowable areas, (2) spatial relationships among city components, (3) principles of designing city components.
\nThe first step focuses on the relationship between land development and natural features. As demonstrated in \nFigure 5\n, a municipal territory can be divided into development restrictive areas and development allowable areas. “Development allowable areas” are areas where land development can be permitted.
\nConcept diagram for considering sustainable urban design.
\n\nTable 5\n shows the essentials of the first part of the sustainable urban design guidelines. At first, we have identified “development allowable areas” as the element. Next, we have determined its three variables: (1) risk of biodiversity loss, (2) risk of natural disasters, (3) gradient of the topography. When defining “development allowable areas,” it is necessary to select areas where all these three variables meet their desired values.
\nElement | \nVariable | \nDesired value | \nRemarks | \n
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Development allowable areas | \nRisk of biodiversity loss | \nLower risk of biodiversity loss | \n\n |
Risk of natural disasters | \nLower risk of natural disasters | \n\n
| \n|
Gradient of the topography | \nFlat or gently-sloping topography | \n\n |
Sustainable urban design guidelines (1) development allowable areas [essentials].
The first variable, “risk of biodiversity loss,” is mainly related to two requirements shown in \nTable 4\n, namely “environmental protection” and “biodiversity conservation.” Considering these two requirements and their related stability condition, namely “environmental preservation,” we have determined its desired value as a “lower risk of biodiversity loss.” This means that areas with a higher risk of biodiversity loss, such as Key Biodiversity Areas, must be excluded from development allowable areas. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Key Biodiversity Areas are sites contributing significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity [19].
\nThe second variable, “risk of natural disasters,” is connected with another requirement in \nTable 4\n, “exclusion of natural disaster danger areas from development areas.” Considering this requirement and its related stability conditions, “safety” and “health,” we have specified its desired value as a “lower risk of natural disasters.” Examples of natural disasters are flood damage, landslides, drought damage, and forest fires. When estimating natural disaster risks, system designers should also consider future risks caused by climate change, in addition to current risks.
\nMeanwhile, the third variable, “gradient of the topography,” is associated with two requirements in \nTable 4\n\n, “environmental protection” and “accessible and universal design.” Considering these requirements and their related stability conditions, namely “environmental preservation,” “health,” and “safety,” we have determined its desired value as “flat or gently-sloping topography.” When steep slopes are disturbed by removing vegetation and developing the hillside or mountainside, significant environmental issues can arise. Potential consequences can include soil erosion, landslides, an increase in downstream runoff, and flooding [20, 21, 22]. Moreover, slopes become steeper, the provision of infrastructure and accessible design becomes more difficult and expensive [21]. Accordingly, areas with steep slopes should be excluded from development allowable areas.
\nThe second step, spatial relationships among city components, focuses on the placement of land development sites and facilities. Land development sites need to be situated in development allowable areas. As shown in \nFigure 5\n, land development sites can be divided into three major zones: (1) residence and service zone, (2) factory and plant zone, (3) primary industrial zone. The “residence and service zone” contains facilities for people’s use, such as housing, buildings for various services, streets, and parks. The “factory and plant zone” contains facilities for large-scale industrial production, such as manufacturing factories and power plants. The “primary industrial zone” includes farmlands and planted forests. In addition, the “factory and plant zone” and “residence and service zone” are closely connected to the “secondary industry” and “tertiary industry,” respectively. Meanwhile, facilities for interurban and local transport are also significant as city components. Accordingly, we have added typical transport routes to \nFigure 5\n, dividing them into passenger transport and freight transport.
\nBearing standard cities in mind, we have specified important spatial relationships among city components. Extracts of such relationships are shown in \nTable 6\n. Choosing one element, that is, “residence and service zone,” the rest of this section explains a key variable and its desired value. First, we have identified “extent of the residence and service zone from a station of passenger transport” as the key variable. Next, we have determined its two desired values: (1) within walking distance of an interurban railway station, (2) within short walking distance of a local transport (tram/bus) line’s station. At least one of the two desired values need to be met.
\nElement | \nVariable | \nDesired value | \nRemarks | \n
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Residence and service zones | \nFacilities placed in the residence and service zones | \nFacilities for people’s use and related facilities | \n\n
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Extent of the residence and service zone from a station of passenger transport | \n\n
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Main streets | \nLayout | \nWell-connection to essential facilities | \n\n
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Residential streets | \nAccess to main streets | \nConvenient | \n\n |
Routes of local public transport (tram/bus) | \nRelation with streets | \nOn main streets, in principle | \n\n |
Lots for larger buildings | \nRelation with streets | \nConnected to main streets | \n\n |
Lots for smaller buildings | \nRelation with streets | \nConnected to residential streets | \n\n |
Lots for frequently used facilities | \nRelation with passenger transport | \nIn close vicinity to passenger transport stations | \n\n |
Factory and plant zones | \nFacilities placed in the factory and plant zones | \nFacilities for large-scale production and related facilities | \n\n
| \n
Sustainable urban design guidelines (2) spatial relationships among city components [extracts].
Satisfying the above desired value contributes to meeting many of the requirements shown in \nTable 4\n. First, limiting the residence and service zones within walking distances of public transportation stations leads to environmental protection by preventing urban sprawl. It also promotes the shift from automobile to mass transit systems, walking, and biking, which reduces traffic congestion, pollution, and CO2 emissions. Meanwhile, an increase in walking and biking leads to better health. Furthermore, lively pedestrian traffic contributes to increasing economic vitality and social interaction, as well as preventing crimes through an increase in people’s “eyes on the street” [23, 24, 25].
\nThe third step shows the principles of designing city components. In this step, first, main city component types are identified as elements. Next, items that strongly influence urban sustainability are determined as variables. Part of such elements and variables are demonstrated in \nTable 7\n.
\nElement | \nVariable | \nDesired value | \nRemarks | \n
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Main streets | \nMain divisions of the street surface | \nSidewalk, planting zone, bike lane, roadway | \n\n |
Design of spaces for pedestrians | \nAccessible and universal design | \n\n | |
Roadway space | \nConsiderations for the passage of public transport (tram/bus) | \n\n | |
Residential streets | \nPassage | \nPedestrians, bicycles, vehicles for the residents | \n\n
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Larger buildings | \nEnergy usage of the building | \nNet zero energy building | \n\n
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Height limits for construction | \nNot high | \n\n
| \n|
Uses of the building’s street-level floor | \nPriority to service uses | \n\n | |
Smaller buildings | \nEnergy usage of the building | \nNet zero energy building | \n\n
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Height limits for construction | \nLow | \n\n
| \n|
Public open spaces (parks, etc.) | \nGreen coverage ratio | \nHigh | \n\n |
Manufacturing factories | \nRaw materials used for manufacturing | \nPriority to locally produced materials and used materials | \n\n |
Energy production plants | \nType of energy resources | \nRenewable energy | \n\n |
Sustainable urban design guidelines (3) principles of designing city components (extracts).
Choosing one element from this table, that is, “larger buildings,” the rest of this section comments on the selected three variables and their desired values. Meeting these desired values helps to fill various requirements for sustainable urban design.
\nConcerning the first variable, “energy usage of the building,” we have identified its desired value as “net-zero energy building.” Achieving this desired value requires buildings’ high-level energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy. In addition, installing equipment for using renewable energy, such as solar panels, is a measure for disaster damage reduction, since such equipment can provide emergency electricity.
\nMeanwhile, we have determined the desired value of “height limits for construction” to be “not high,” more specific “height for several-floor buildings at the maximum.” There are many disadvantages in constructing tall buildings, including skyscrapers. The taller the buildings become, the more difficult they achieve net-zero energy buildings. Installing solar panels on the roof is a common way to use renewable energy at building sites; however, high-rise buildings inevitably increase the ratio of total floor area to the roof area. Besides, high-rise buildings often block surrounding buildings from the sun and make it difficult to use renewable energy. Furthermore, controlling buildings’ height uniform with neighbors also contributes to better landscapes.
\nRegarding the third variable, “uses of the building’s street-level floor,” we have identified its desired value as “priority to service uses.” If the street-level floor of residential buildings facing main streets is allocated for service uses, such as shops, pedestrian traffic can increase. Lively pedestrian traffic helps economic vitalization, social interaction, and crime prevention [23, 24, 25].
\nThis chapter illustrated the system-control-based methodology for sustainable structure design, with the examples of housing and urban design. Section 2 showed the “control system for promoting sustainable structure design.” The third section demonstrated the “process of producing and revising sustainable structure design guidelines.” The fourth section included the extracts of the sustainable housing design guidelines produced and revised in Japan. Lastly, Section 5 outlined a way of producing sustainable urban design guidelines. Unlike the design of city components, such as houses, the design of the whole city needs extensive spatial planning. Accordingly, the final stage of producing sustainable urban design guidelines consists of the three steps: (1) development allowable areas, (2) spatial relationships among city components, (3) principles of designing city components.
\nAs already shown in our previous studies, this methodology has the following four characteristics: (1) visualization of the whole picture for promoting sustainable design, (2) user-friendliness, (3) comprehensiveness, (4) adaptability to different and changing situations [26]. The first characteristic originates in the schematization of the control system (\nFigure 1\n) and the process of producing and revising the design guidelines (\nFigure 3\n). Besides, this chapter has included two new diagrams, namely \nFigure 4\n and \nFigure 5\n, which are expected to help understand the whole picture for promoting sustainable urban design.
\nThe second feature, “user-friendliness,” originates from the “element-variable-desired value” framework in the sustainable design guidelines. Elements in the design guidelines are equivalent to actual parts of structures. Therefore, the system users can smoothly design the structures by comparing the actual structure or drawings with the design guidelines. Meanwhile, the third feature, “comprehensiveness,” means that this methodology can deal with various environmental, social, and economic issues. This feature results from the model of sustainability (\nFigure 2\n), which has been incorporated in the control system for promoting sustainable structure design (\nFigure 1\n).
\nThe fourth characteristic, “adaptability to different and changing situations,” originates in the process of producing and revising the design guidelines. As demonstrated in \nTables 1\n and \n2\n, local/particular problems in a country or region can be included in producing and revising the design guidelines. As a result, the produced and revised guidelines naturally become adaptable to that country’s or region’s situation. Meanwhile, Section 3.2 and Section 4.2 have shown the process of revising the design guidelines and its concrete instance, respectively. These study results include theoretical and practical ways to adapt the guidelines to changing situations over time.
\nOur main future work is further research on sustainable urban design. First, we must complete the sustainable urban design guidelines for practical use. After that, it is also necessary to revise the design guidelines by following the revision process shown in \nFigure 4\n. Through such future work, we are aiming to refine this methodology for designing sustainable structures.
\nThis paper discusses the implications of climate change in Indonesia and discusses the challenges to and opportunities for climate change mitigation and adaptation within Indonesia.
It is widely known that one of the reasons for climate change is global warming which is marked by an increase in air temperature. Climate change is associated with increased atmospheric temperature caused by the “Green House Effect” which occurs due to the increase in green house gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the gases that causes global warming. According to the IPCC [1], the average temperature of the earth’s surface over the past century has increased by 1.30 F. The presence of CO2 is related to the condition of forests in an area. The trees that make up forests of various types and growth rates, known as forest structure and composition, have a role in storing CO2. Forests are dominated by vegetation that has chlorophyll which functions in the photosynthesis process by requiring light energy, water and CO2 to form carbohydrates. Thus the forest will absorb carbon from the air and accumulate in the plant body in the form of stems, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruit and roots and soil. In general, this process is known as Carbon Sequestration [2, 3]. Thus the forest can function as a carbon sink. Therefore, well-well-maintained forests can increase carbon sequestration or reduce the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. In addition, by expanding the forest area, of course, its ability to absorb carbon will be higher. The development of various ecosystems over millions of years has resulted in certain patterns of carbon flow in global ecosystems. However, human (anthropogenic) activities in the use of fossil fuels, conversion of forest land and others have resulted in changes in the exchange of carbon in the atmosphere, land and marine ecosystems. As a result of these activities, there was an increase in the concentration of CO2 into the atmosphere by 28% from the CO2 concentration that occurred more than 150 years ago.
Indonesia’s swamplands, which are around 33 million ha, 20.6 million ha of which are peatlands. Most of the peatlands are spread across three major islands, namely Sumatra (35%), Kalimantan (32%), Papua (30%), Sulawesi (3%), and the rest (3%) is spread over a narrow area [4]. The role of peatland is important because it has a high carbon sequestration and is a natural resource that has a hydrorological function. The existing peatlands need to be protected from fire. Because if a fire occurs in the peat forest, it will cause large CO2 emissions and the resulting smoke will disrupt airlines and cause shortness of breath, etc. Peatlands play a major role in the development of agriculture, oil palm plantations or industrial plantations. For this reason, peatlands are managed with the principle of sustainable peatland management so that they can minimize environmental damage. Apart from peatlands, there are also mangrove forests that are found on the coast of the Indonesian archipelago which have a high carbon content known as blue carbon.
Peatlands planted with oil palm and acacia function as a carbon sequester through the photosynthetic process and carbon is stored as plant biomass. The carbon tethering process through the photosynthesis process is able to offset the loss of carbon stocks in the soil which are oxidized to CO2 gas emissions. However, if the expansion of oil palm plantations is excessive to the point where many natural forests are converted, it will have a negative impact on the biodiversity of the peatlands. The existing mangrove forests have also suffered a lot of damage because the area is used for the construction of ponds, excessive mangrove wood extraction and the large number of mangrove forests that have turned into settlements in coastal areas. The area of mangrove forests in Indonesia reaches 3.49 million ha but 52% or 1.82 million ha is in a damaged condition [5].
Carbon emissions from forest land including peat and mangrove forests generally fluctuate depending on many factors including climate, soil and hydrology. Environmental factors that greatly influence the amount of carbon emissions, especially from peatlands, are temperature, soil moisture and electrical conductivity (EC) [6]. These three factors fluctuate greatly from day to day depending on climatic and hydrological factors, resulting in high fluctuations in carbon emissions [7, 8]. High carbon content in natural and plantation forests is usually found in forests where the potential for wood or wood volume unit (m3/ha) is also very high. Therefore, if an area is only used for seasonal plant development, of course the carbon content is low. The lowest carbon content is when forest land has been converted into urban areas with the development of housing, markets, offices, development of road networks and infrastructure. Even with the construction of urban areas with various tall buildings, it has triggered the emergence of a heat island. One of the safety valves so that forest areas can maintain carbon content is the application of the agroforestry system. This system is a cultivation in an area with a mixture of perennials and seasonal plants.
In an effort to increase the prosperity of a country, a lot of forest is transferred to other uses such as the development of oil palm plantations, agricultural land, livestock grazing and urban expansion etc. In fact, many agricultural lands have changed their function into settlements. If this happens, the forest area will continue to decrease again because after the agricultural land has turned into residential land, the forest land is converted again for agricultural expansion, this happens continuously. In other words, deforestation and forest degradation have triggered climate change.
If viewed from the CO2 flux, there will also be changes in the basic CO2 flux from forest land, plantation land, agriculture and urban areas. It is certain and inevitable that the forest area will decrease and be used for non-forestry development. One of the reasons is the increase in population which is difficult to control every year. Thus, changing a forest area to non-forest will have an impact on the lack of carbon sequestration as shown in Figure 1.
The lower carbon sequestration of forest to non-forest areas. (a) Forests: very high carbon sequestration, (b) Agroforestry: high carbon sequestration, (c) Agricultural crops: low carbon sequestration, (d) Cities with infrastructure: very low carbon sequestration.
The conversion of forest land to non-forest land actually occurs as a result of economic motivation. For example, more forest land will be converted into oil palm plantations if the results of oil palm management turn out to be more profitable from an economic perspective. Therefore, forest management must endeavor to be able to generate more tangible benefits from non-forest uses.
Indonesian oil palm plantations have grown rapidly in large parts of Indonesia. Sumatra and Kalimantan are two large islands which are the main centers of oil palm plantations in Indonesia. About 90% of oil palm plantations in Indonesia are located on these two oil palm islands, and the two islands produce 95% of Indonesia’s crude palm oil (CPO) production. In the period 1990–2015, there was a revolution in the exploitation of oil palm plantations in Indonesia, which was marked by the rapid growth and development of smallholder plantations, namely 24% per year during 1990–2015. During this period, the forest land changed into oil palm plantations. This marks the end of the logging era and the drastic reduction of the plywood industry. The Ministry of Forestry has revoked many HPH licenses and an increasing number of plywood industries have closed due to a shortage of log raw materials. So in addition to the development of oil palm plantations, it is also planting industrial tree plantations which encourage the construction of pulp and paper mills. The area of Indonesian oil palm plantations in 2015 reached 11.3 million ha [9]. In 2017 it has reached 16 million ha. The largest proportion of oil palm plantations is smallholder plantations 53%, large private plantations 42%, and state plantations 5%. The rapid development of the palm oil industry has attracted the attention of the world community, particularly the world’s major vegetable oil producers. In 2019 the area of oil palm plantations has reached 14.6 million ha [10]. Indonesia has become the world’s largest palm oil producing country since 2006. Indonesia managed to surpass Malaysia in 2016 where Indonesia’s CPO production share has reached 53.4% of the world’s total CPO. Meanwhile, Malaysia only has a share of 32%. Likewise in the global vegetable oil market, palm oil has also managed to outperform soybean oil since 2004. In 2004, total CPO production reached 33.6 million tons, while soybean oil was 32.4 million tons. In 2016, the share of world CPO production reached 40% of the world’s main vegetable products, while soybean oil had a 33.18% share [11].
Indonesia with its enormous reserves of oil palm plantations needs to ensure that these resources contribute to its national energy plan. Therefore the central government has compiled a Biodiesel Mandate which is among the most ambitious in the world. By 2016, liquid fuels must contain at least 20 percent of biofuels (and by 2025, 30 percent). A subsidy program has also been established to account for the substantial difference in production costs between biofuels and conventional diesel. One can feel considerable optimism because this funding is based on taxes on Crude Palm Oil (CPO) exports rather than on national budget expenditures which are negotiated annually [12]. With the mandate of biodiesel, in an effort to achieve national energy independence, expansion of oil palm plantations is something that cannot be avoided.
The rapidly increasing share of palm oil in the world vegetable oil market has influenced the dynamics of competition between vegetable oils and has even led to a negative / black campaign against palm oil. In addition, the sustainability aspect of oil palm plantations is under the spotlight. The development of oil palm plantations in Indonesia is perceived as unsustainable and is accused of being the main cause of deforestation and loss of wildlife habitat. The rapid clearing of forest land into oil palm plantations has led to the perception that Indonesia has carried out deforestation on a large scale. Actually this action was taken by the Government of Indonesia in carrying out national development in order to improve the welfare of its people. So there are stages for a country to deforest for the welfare of its people. When viewed from the development history of a number of major countries in the world, both the United States and Europe have deforested their countries. Therefore, it is unfair if the issue of deforestation is used to suppress the growth of Indonesian oil palm plantations.
So far there have been many accusations stating that 67% of oil palm plantations are obtained from forest conversion [13]. Gunarso et al. [14] tried to examine the truth of forest conversion in Indonesia for oil palm plantations. This is done by using data from disturbed and undisturbed forest land cover classes according to the carbon stock sequence published by the Forestry Planning Agency in 2011. Carbon stock of natural/production forests, either undisturbed forest or disturbed forest, contains carbon stocks higher than carbon. Oil palm plantation stock. Thus, if there is conversion of production forest to oil palm plantations, there will be a decrease in land carbon stock or deforestation. Meanwhile, timber plantation, agricultural land (mixed tree crops, dry cultivation land) and shrubs/ abandoned land (schrub) contain lower carbon stocks than oil palm plantations. Thus, the conversion of scrub agricultural land/abandoned land, including industrial plantation forest land, into oil palm plantations is categorized as an increase in land carbon stock or reforestation. This study turns out to provide conclusions that are different from the allegations by Koh and Wilcove [13]. The Indonesian oil palm plantations planted until 2010, namely 8.1 million ha, turned out to be 5.5 million ha of which came from the conversion of agricultural land and abandoned land (reforestation). While the rest, namely 2.5 million ha, comes from conversion of production forests (deforestation). Because the area of deforestation for oil palm plantations is much less than the area of reforestation for oil palm plantations, in net terms, the expansion of Indonesian oil palm plantations to reach 10.4 million ha in 2013 is a form of reforestation and not deforestation. This means that the expansion of Indonesian oil palm plantations to 10.4 million ha in 2013 on a net basis is to increase land carbon stock or reforestation [15]. However, the conversion of forest land which was converted into oil palm plantations in 2019 has reached 14.6 million ha, so that deforestation cannot be avoided. This is what causes a huge source of CO2 emissions that actually triggers climate change.
The remaining forest area in Indonesia in 2019 is 94.1 million ha or 50.1% of the total land area [16] These forests play an important role in climate change mitigation and adaptation, so various strategies are needed and identification of opportunities to strengthen the results for both. a logical step. Therefore, the existence of the REDD+ Program will be very useful to support various steps that will help reduce the vulnerability of forest communities to the impacts of climate change. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degaradation (REDD+) is an effort to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, the role of conservation, sustainable forest management and increasing forest carbon stocks using a national approach and sub-national implementation. In its implementation, mitigation-adaptation synergy is needed which aims to find ways to take advantage of the synergy between REDD+ and climate change adaptation. Thus there is certainty that REDD+ will have impacts that go beyond mitigation and are sustainable in a climate that changes over time [17].
Indonesia still dominantly uses fossil energy sources that are not environmentally friendly and contribute to the increase in GHG which has been scientifically proven to change climate patterns with the emergence of global warming. Climate change will affect the duration of the dry and rainy seasons. This will certainly affect the yields in the agricultural-plantation sector and also the results of fishing in the sea. Therefore, people whose income depends on these two livelihoods will definitely be affected directly. To overcome this, it is necessary to implement climate change mitigation and adaptation programs. Here there are funding opportunities to carry out climate change mitigation and adaptation sourced from (1) public funds through the State Budget (APBN), (2) funds from abroad in the form of grants or loans (3) Funds from the private sector through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Green Bond [18].
The selection of the types of adaptation that can be carried out in various regions is basically a follow-up to the National Action Plan - Climate Change Adaptation (RAN-API). Understanding the impacts of climate change varies depending on location or region. In this condition, an assessment of the impacts and vulnerability of climate change specific to the economic sector in a location or region is required as a first step in selecting climate change adaptation options. Furthermore, an evaluation of adaptation options is carried out considering that the implementation of climate change adaptation requires additional costs [19]. One of the important elements needed in conducting a climate change impact and vulnerability assessment is climate information. This climate information plays a vital role in identifying the impact of global climate change on climate conditions in a region. The trend of climatic elements such as rainfall and air temperature observations is the earliest stage to see the effects of climate change in an area. Climate information is needed to (1) undergo impact models, for example: crop simulation models to assess the impact of climate variability in a region on the agricultural sector, (2) validate climate model outputs for projecting future climate conditions, compiling climate change scenarios. The uncertainty of future climate change is often approached by using more than one climate model or emission scenario. To understand the capabilities of climate models, validation of climate model outputs for the current period (control) is carried out using observational climate information. Compiling climate change scenarios also requires observational climate information, for example by changing (adjusting) observational climate information with differences between future climate projections and control periods [20].
Indonesia is the fourth largest country with GHG emissions in the world but does not make climate change a national priority agenda. At the international level, Indonesia has ratified the PARIS Agreement and has committed to reduce GHG emissions without conditions by 29% under a business as usual scenario in 2030 and up to 41% with international assistance. The government has established a policy framework such as RAN GRK SINCE 2011 and RAN API in 2014. These policies must be broken down to sub-national levels in the form of RAD GRK and RAD API. However, in practice, the policy framework and implementation often do not go hand in hand because local governments do not fully implement the policies set by the central government [21]. Addressing this challenge requires a strong synergy between the central government and local governments.
For indigenous community activists, fighting for community rights to support the implementation of REDD+ is very important. This is because the role of indigenous peoples is very real in protecting the forest and its environment. Those with local wisdom have the knowledge to protect and protect their territory with customary laws, customary institutions and tenure systems that are different from the Western system. In general, they apply communal ownership and do not understand property rights [22]. Tenure issues cannot be eliminated in forestry management in Indonesia. This is due to overlapping control of forest areas because there are claims of state blasphemy over customary forests which are controlled by customary law communities. State forest claims provide room for the State’s unilateral control over the forest through the various companies it owns or granting permits on it with the authority of the regional government. This has resulted in legislation and policies that are not clearly formulated, uncoordinated granting of permits and denial of recognition of indigenous peoples and other local forest users [23]. Indigenous peoples have a special role in REDD+, especially from the policy context, namely their participatory role. They have long lived in the forest and are able to care for and protect the forest for their survival from generation to generation. In addition, their cultural and spiritual relationship with the land and forest where they live is very deep [24]. Actually, the existence of this tenurial conflict has been eliminated somewhat by the implementation of the Social Forestry Program. In general, indigenous peoples have been given access to be able to carry out activities and manage in State forests. Tenure conflicts do not only occur on land already owned by companies that have forest concession permits but also in forest areas that have implemented the REDD+ program. So this is a challenge that must be resolved in the future.
Before REDD+ is fully implemented, a Demonstration Activity (DA) is carried out in the early stages. The implementation of DA is based on international guidelines from COP’s decision in the form of International Guidance for DA. The aim is to find out progress, evaluate the implementation of activities and lessons learned related to DA REDD+. In the implementation of DA REDD+, various activities carried out refer to the methodology issued by the IPCC but the mechanisms mostly follow the schemes issued by the Voluntary Standard such as VCS, CCBS and Plan Vivo. The implementation of REDD+ provides benefits and provides opportunities because it is in accordance with the principles of forest sustainability and provides benefits to the community and biodiversity preservation. The current conditions for DA REDD+ are various, many lessons learned have ended and are also results-based with varying progress which still needs further guidance [25]. A crucial implementation stage is the implementation of the Measuring, Reporting and Verifying (MRV) System. Developing country governments at the COP 16 meeting in Cancun 2010 were encouraged to carry out various mitigation activities, including: reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conserving forest carbon stocks, sustainable forest management, and increasing carbon stocks (FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1/C/Par. 70). In connection with these activities, a suitable and transparent measurement and reporting system needs to be established (FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1/C/Par.71). Specifically for activities funded by international or domestic sources, verification must be carried out based on the conventions / guidelines that will be developed (FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1/C/Par.71; FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add 1/B/Par. 61 and 62). During its development, the Monitoring, Reporting and Verification system was changed to Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV) at the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) 36 in Bonn, 2012. MRV system is the basic and main requirement of implementing the REDD+ program using the principles incentives that are assessed based on performance or pay for performance [26].
MRV activities include measuring and reporting the effectiveness of GHG reduction or absorption quantitatively using methods and procedures that are reliable, transparent and accountable. MRV is part of a monitoring system where measurement methods and results are conveyed using standard and consistent scientific principles. These activities will serve as the basis for payment for the performance of reducing emissions. Each MRV activity must be in line with the reporting principles of the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), which must be transparent, accurate, consistent, complete, comparable and have minimal uncertainty. The MRV system implementer is an independent body but still coordinates with the REDD+ Agency as a governing council. The UN-REDD Program has recommended a set of key considerations for the development of a national MRV system. As a system, MRV can be applied to several scales, namely national, sub-national (province, district) and projects. The MRV system can also be reported to certain agencies and verified or validated by certain agencies or associations related to carbon. The use of MRV at the local and national levels is highly recommended. At the international level, reporting to the UNFCCC is a must or a requirement. Because the MRV system reporting must be based on scientific principles, this is a challenge for scientists and foresters in implementing the MRV system [27]. This is very important because the MRV principle is applied to collect data on each type of forest, forest cover and the amount of carbon content contained therein. Forest conditions in Indonesia are very diverse and categorized as mega-biodiversity. Of course, there will be many difficulties in implementing MRV. The challenge that is often faced is the calculation of the biomass present in each forest type. Ideally, biomass calculations are carried out by developing an allometric equation for each tree species which is very expensive. If this is done per tree type in each forest type, it certainly requires a large biomass measurement fund. The REDD+ program is known for leakage, additionality and uncertainity. In REDD+ activities, forest land which is designated as the location for REDD+ implementation according to the stipulated time period must be able to prevent leakage from occurring[28]. Here it is necessary to take intensive care for the location of the implementation of REDDD + so that there is no leakage originating from the work area and the surrounding area. Thus, year after year additionality must be guaranteed. Given the prevalence of forest conversion to non-forest, unresolved tenurial conflicts and illegal logging, etc., it will definitely be difficult to avoid uncertainty.
Global warming has caused climate change around the world. The impact of climate change is very large which affects the joints of life from an economic, ecological, and social perspective. The main cause is deforestation and forest degradation which releases CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. Thus, if deforestation and forest degradation cannot be controlled, the earth’s temperature will get warmer. The warming of the earth’s temperature is also triggered by the use of fossil energy which is not environmentally friendly. Nowadays there is awareness from each country to start replacing fossil energy with biofuels that are more environmentally friendly. Indonesia has planned the production of biofuels to be independent of national energy that is environmentally friendly. One of them is by converting forest land for expansion of oil palm plantations and of course it will cause deforestation. So on the one hand developing environmentally friendly energy but on the other hand, sacrificing the area of the forest so that it becomes a contributor to CO2 emissions that trigger climate change. Therefore, it requires a strong determination from the Government to be able to find the best way that can benefit both of them in controlling climate change. In every program that is executed, there are always opportunities and challenges that must be faced. One of them is the implementation of climate change mitigation and adaptation programs, such as opportunities for implementing the REDD+ program, financing climate change management, and the availability of climate information. There are also challenges faced, such as the lack of synergy in the policy framework and implementation of climate change control, recognition of indigenous peoples’ rights, and uncertainty in the implementation of the REDD+ program.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Despite rich genetic diversity, manipulation of the cultivars through alternative techniques such as mutation breeding becomes important. Radiation is proven as an effective method as a unique method to increase the genetic variability of the species. Gamma radiation is the most preferred physical mutagen by plant breeders. Several mutant varieties have been successfully introduced into commercial production by this method. Combinational use of in vitro tissue culture and mutation breeding methods makes a significant contribution to improve new crops. Large populations and the target mutations can be easily screened and identified by new methods. Marker assisted selection and advanced techniques such as microarray, next generation sequencing methods to detect a specific mutant in a large population will help to the plant breeders to use ionizing radiation efficiently in breeding programs.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Özge Çelik and Çimen Atak",authors:[{id:"147362",title:"Dr.",name:"Özge",middleName:null,surname:"Çelik",slug:"ozge-celik",fullName:"Özge Çelik"},{id:"147364",title:"Prof.",name:"Çimen",middleName:null,surname:"Atak",slug:"cimen-atak",fullName:"Çimen Atak"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32842",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:74724,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:82,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"32837",title:"Environmental Gamma-Ray Observation in Deep Sea",slug:"environmental-gamma-ray-observation-in-deep-sea-",totalDownloads:2897,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Hidenori Kumagai, Ryoichi Iwase, Masataka Kinoshita, Hideaki Machiyama, Mutsuo Hattori and Masaharu Okano",authors:[{id:"108174",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidenori",middleName:null,surname:"Kumagai",slug:"hidenori-kumagai",fullName:"Hidenori Kumagai"},{id:"108237",title:"Dr.",name:"Masa",middleName:null,surname:"Kinoshita",slug:"masa-kinoshita",fullName:"Masa Kinoshita"},{id:"137650",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Iwase",slug:"ryoichi-iwase",fullName:"Ryoichi Iwase"},{id:"137656",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",middleName:null,surname:"Machiyama",slug:"hideaki-machiyama",fullName:"Hideaki Machiyama"},{id:"146918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mutsuo",middleName:null,surname:"Hattori",slug:"mutsuo-hattori",fullName:"Mutsuo Hattori"},{id:"146919",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaharu",middleName:null,surname:"Okano",slug:"masaharu-okano",fullName:"Masaharu Okano"}]},{id:"58998",title:"Ionizing Radiation-Induced Polymerization",slug:"ionizing-radiation-induced-polymerization",totalDownloads:1755,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Ionizing radiation can induce some kinds of reactions, other than polymerization, such as dimerization, oligomerization, curing, and grafting. These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"53780",title:"Gamma-Ray Spectrometry and the Investigation of Environmental and Food Samples",slug:"gamma-ray-spectrometry-and-the-investigation-of-environmental-and-food-samples",totalDownloads:2476,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gamma radiation consists of high‐energy photons and penetrates matter. This is an advantage for the detection of gamma rays, as gamma spectrometry does not need the elimination of the matrix. The disadvantage is the need of shielding to protect against this radiation. Gamma rays are everywhere: in the atmosphere; gamma nuclides are produced by radiation of the sun; in the Earth, the primordial radioactive nuclides thorium and uranium are sources for gamma and other radiation. The technical enrichment and use of radioisotopes led to the unscrupulously use of radioactive material and to the Cold War, with over 900 bomb tests from 1945 to 1990, combined with global fallout over the northern hemisphere. The friendly use of radiation in medicine and for the production of energy at nuclear power plants (NPPs) has caused further expositions with ionising radiation. This chapter describes in a practical manner the instrumentation for the detection of gamma radiation and some results of the use of these techniques in environmental and food investigations.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Markus R. Zehringer",authors:[{id:"311750",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus R.",middleName:null,surname:"Zehringer",slug:"markus-r.-zehringer",fullName:"Markus R. Zehringer"}]},{id:"54118",title:"Gamma Rays from Space",slug:"gamma-rays-from-space",totalDownloads:2005,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"An overview of gamma rays from space is presented. We highlight the most powerful astrophysical explosions, known as gamma-ray bursts. The main features observed in detectors onboard satellites are indicated. In addition, we also highlight a chronological description of the efforts made to observe their high energy counterpart at ground level. Some candidates of the GeV counterpart of gamma-ray bursts, observed by Tupi telescopes, are also presented.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Carlos Navia and Marcel Nogueira de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"189908",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Navia",slug:"carlos-navia",fullName:"Carlos Navia"},{id:"243084",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"marcel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Marcel De Oliveira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"227",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",issn:"2753-894X",scope:"
\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
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His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{id:"81920",title:"Rethinking an Approach for Sustainable Globalization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105141",signatures:"Parakram Pyakurel",slug:"rethinking-an-approach-for-sustainable-globalization",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81297",title:"Legumes Cropping and Nitrogen Fixation under Mediterranean Climate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104473",signatures:"Fernando Teixeira",slug:"legumes-cropping-and-nitrogen-fixation-under-mediterranean-climate",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81493",title:"Rust Disease Classification Using Deep Learning Based Algorithm: The Case of Wheat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104426",signatures:"Shivani Sood, Harjeet Singh and Suruchi Jindal",slug:"rust-disease-classification-using-deep-learning-based-algorithm-the-case-of-wheat",totalDownloads:40,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81428",title:"Observatory of Sustainable Development in Postgraduate Study Programs in Baja California",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104641",signatures:"Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez, Maria Marcela Solis-Quinteros, Maria Esther Ibarra-Estrada and Angel Ernesto Jimenez-Bernardino",slug:"observatory-of-sustainable-development-in-postgraduate-study-programs-in-baja-california",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81751",title:"NanoBioSensors: From Electrochemical Sensors Improvement to Theranostic Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102552",signatures:"Anielle C.A. Silva, Eliete A. Alvin, Lais S. de Jesus, Caio C.L. de França, Marílya P.G. da Silva, Samaysa L. Lins, Diógenes Meneses, Marcela R. Lemes, Rhanoica O. Guerra, Marcos V. da Silva, Carlo J.F. de Oliveira, Virmondes Rodrigues Junior, Renata M. Etchebehere, Fabiane C. de Abreu, Bruno G. Lucca, Sanívia A.L. Pereira, Rodrigo C. Rosa and Noelio O. 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Paul",slug:"organoids-and-commercialization",totalDownloads:33,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Organoids",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11430.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"81412",title:"Mathematical Morphology and the Heart Signals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104113",signatures:"Taouli Sidi Ahmed",slug:"mathematical-morphology-and-the-heart-signals",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"81360",title:"Deep Learning Algorithms for Efficient Analysis of ECG Signals to Detect Heart Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103075",signatures:"Sumagna Dey, Rohan Pal and Saptarshi Biswas",slug:"deep-learning-algorithms-for-efficient-analysis-of-ecg-signals-to-detect-heart-disorders",totalDownloads:31,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"81294",title:"Applications of Neural Organoids in Neurodevelopment and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104044",signatures:"Jing Gong, Jiahui Kang, Minghui Li, Xiao Liu, Jun Yang and Haiwei Xu",slug:"applications-of-neural-organoids-in-neurodevelopment-and-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Organoids",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11430.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"81318",title:"Retinal Organoids over the Decade",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104258",signatures:"Jing Yuan and Zi-Bing Jin",slug:"retinal-organoids-over-the-decade",totalDownloads:41,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Organoids",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11430.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"81068",title:"Characteristic Profiles of Heart Rate Variability in Depression and Anxiety",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104205",signatures:"Toshikazu Shinba",slug:"characteristic-profiles-of-heart-rate-variability-in-depression-and-anxiety",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"80691",title:"Applications of Quantum Mechanics, Laws of Classical Physics, and Differential Calculus to Evaluate Source Localization According to the Electroencephalogram",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102831",signatures:"Kristin S. Williams",slug:"applications-of-quantum-mechanics-laws-of-classical-physics-and-differential-calculus-to-evaluate-so",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",value:7,count:13,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. 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In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. 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