Summary of parameters obtained from XRR fitting compared with expected values.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-717-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-716-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-718-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"2204ff2e64bffb84a4bf1b74bb38bfa1",bookSignature:"Dr. Hector Pérez-de-Tejada",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11492.jpg",keywords:"Plasma Dynamics, Fluid Flow Description, Space Research, Technical Devices, Multinational Participation, Communication Systems, Digital Links, World Information Patterns, Global Input Response, Wave-Particle Interactions, Instrument Identification Coverage, Open Access Data",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 31st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 19th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 18th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A seasoned researcher with over 50 years of experience in Geophysics and Space Physics, with over 200 publications, a member of the International Astronomical Union, and former president of the Mexican Geophysical Union.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"345070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-de-Tejada",slug:"hector-perez-de-tejada",fullName:"Hector Pérez-de-Tejada",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345070/images/system/345070.png",biography:"Graduate of the Physics School at the National University of Mexico in Mexico City with a Masters and Doctorate degree from the University of Colorado in Boulder, Colorado (1970).\r\nFull time researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National University of Mexico since 1970. \r\nPresident of the Mexican Geophysical Union (1982-1984) and head of the Space Physics Department in the Institute of Geophysics (2016-2018)",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466997",firstName:"Patricia",lastName:"Kerep",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466997/images/21565_n.jpg",email:"patricia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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This reaction takes place inside a reactor in which the reactants are inserted as gases. Temperature and pressure are the two main parameters to be controlled. Temperature affects the rate in a predictable manner (Arrhenius behavior). The pressure range, even when it has a lower impact, determines whether the deposition mechanism will be surface-reaction limited or transport limited. During a transport-limited process, the deposition speed is very high, and the growth rate is very sensitive to the temperature. On the contrary, a surface-reaction regime can reach rates as low as an atomic layer per cycle by means of an oversupply of reactants available in the vicinity of the surface. This regime is more conditioned by the boundary layer than by the main flow of reactants, being less dependent on the temperature.
The atomic layer deposition (ALD) technique, though bearing many resemblances to CVD, excludes the gas phase reaction of the precursors. ALD is characterized by chemisorption steps while the physisorbed molecules are purged away during the necessary purge steps [1, 2, 3]. ALD relies on the activation of the surface on top of which the resultant layer is placed. This activation insures the growth to be self-limited to the minimum thickness determined by the reaction (usually an atomic layer). The substrate surface exhibits a certain density of surface sites, for example, OH groups, which serve as “anchors” for the metal precursor molecules. ALD requires four steps: I—chemisorption of the metal precursor to surface (OH) groups; II—release of the by-products during the purge; III—the reaction of the oxygen source with the remaining reactive groups at the metal ion; and IV—the purge of the by-products. After steps I–IV, the surface is again covered with (OH) groups, now on the deposited surface layer. The chemisorption of the precursor molecules to the surface, which can happen via different chemical reactions (1), stops suddenly when all surface sites are occupied. As a consequence, the ALD process exhibits extremely low deposition rates and an accurate control of the film thickness. The strict timely separation of the two precursor materials, which is achieved with the purge steps, gives the difference between ALD and CVD.
The key role played by the buffer material in the ALD technique can be identified from the described procedure. Surface preparation consists of the chamber introduction of some precursor that reacts with the former and improves the adhesion of the deposited compound. After that, deposition is performed by cycles in order to grow, layer by layer, the required material in a controlled manner. In the case of binary oxides, each cycle requires an oxygen source and a metal precursor. The oxidant and precursor chemically react, giving rise to a conformal growth layer above the buffered surface. The reaction during each cycle is summarized in Eq. (1):
Before repeating each cycle, purge gases are inserted into the chamber to avoid further reactions with possible remaining products. Once a complete run has occurred (activation, oxidant and precursor, and purge gases), the process is repeated as many times as required to obtain the desired film thickness. It is worth to point out that the two gas-phase reactants are not in contact in the gas phase since the surface reactions are performed sequentially. The reaction (Eq. (1)) occurs when the second reactant reaches the surface. This sequence avoids possible reactions in the gas phase that could collapse at the surface forming undesired grains. Typical deposition rates are in the order of 0.1 nm per cycle [2].
ALD is a very versatile technique for many reasons. Among them, we emphasize here those that allow large-scale production: suitability to be applied in a wide temperature range, low cost, and easy scalability. Many reviews have addressed the fundamentals of ALD and its applications [1, 4]. Instead, the aim of the present study is to demonstrate how a spurious phase, produced by some inherent details of the technique, could be used to achieve devices with improved characteristics. This chapter highlights exactly such an issue in a concrete example: the deposition of a thin film of HfO2 by ALD on top of a Ti-buffered Si/SiO2 substrate. We will show how an unconsidered change, produced by the nature of the oxidant itself, has occurred at the Ti buffer during the ALD cycle, determining the growth of an extra oxide layer of TiOx and thus providing interesting and useful features to the final device. We will take advantage of several microscopic and macroscopic techniques in order to fully characterize the resulting oxide layer, in order to fully elucidate the effect produced by the surface reaction.
In brief, we report here the structural evidence for the presence of TiOx below the HfO2 layer and discuss the key role of the O3 precursor in its formation during the ALD process. Although it is quite difficult to disentangle the oxidant and/or precursor effect, some signs seem to point to the former as the main responsible one of the produced changes. We also include macroscopic electrical evidence to support that the TiOx layer determines the occurrence of a very interesting metal-insulator-metal nonvolatile memory device. Besides, an additional deposition process was carried out in order to clarify whether we could be in presence of another unconsidered effect. Finally, we will introduce a phenomenological model to describe the electrical response and microscopic transport properties that support the microscopic picture achieved.
For ALD-based HfO2 growth, the oxygen source is typically either H2O [4] or O3 [4] while the metal source could be for example Tetrakis(dimethylamino)hafnium (TDMAH) or TEMAH [5]. In our specific case, O3 and TDMAH were the oxygen and metal source, respectively, although we will also include some comparison with samples grown using H2O instead of O3. The substrate employed was commercial Si (highly doped)/thermally oxidized SiO2 (120 nm) of 1 cm2 size. The Ti layer (20 nm) was sputtered on top. After Ti sputtering, the ALD process—using either ozone as oxygen source and TDMAH as the metal precursor—was carried out to obtain a uniform 20 nm-thick HfO2 layer. After this deposition process an array of 5 lines by 16 columns was determined by means of optical photolithography, delimiting 80 squared-shaped structures of 200 μm lateral size covered with sputtered Pd (40 nm)/Co (35 nm) acting as the top electrode (TE). To complete these two terminal devices, the access to the bottom contact was achieved by a scratch.
As downscaling of storage devices is approaching its physical limits, new strategies based on emergent materials and non-previously explored effects are moving into the focus of intense research as FLASH memory replacement. In particular, the metal-insulator-metal (MIM) structures acting as memory cells are developing as prominent candidates for such replacement. The resistive switching (RS) is the mechanism underlying the memory behavior. Its appealing features (speed, downscaling, retention, endurance) have evolved into a nowadays mature technology, coined as resistive random access memory (ReRAM).
The ability to produce a reversible change of conductance in these technologically simple structures (the RS effect) relies on the extremely large electric field applied to the strategically engineered thin insulating layer (i.e., between the metallic electrodes) but also on the choice of the electrodes’ material. Basically, the effect consists of a switching process between a high resistance state (HRS) and a low resistance state (LRS) through a soft dielectric breakdown of the insulating layer(s). The change from HRS to LRS is called the SET process and the opposite one (from LRS to HRS) is referred to as RESET. Thus, memristive cells are resistive switching units, and their unique properties are strongly dependent on the materials used and on the fabrication details. They could need an initial electroforming process or not, and the polarity could be a relevant parameter (bipolar switches) or not (unipolar switches). Comprehensive discussions on the resistive switching phenomena are found in Ref. [6].
The simplicity of the geometrical structure and the absence of transistors make the concept extremely interesting for low-power, high-density, and nonvolatile memory applications. However, a challenge to achieve a technological implementation, using the RS concept, is to be allowed to select a designated cell within a passive crossbar array without interference from neighboring cells (i.e., the sneak currents problem) [7].
A way to overcome the sneak currents problem includes the use of rectifying elements to isolate each nonvolatile memory cell. The integration of a rectifying element, to achieve bipolar operation, would solve the sneak path problem “in situ.” But so far no sufficiently scalable material has been found yet [7]. Therefore, simple structures based on nanometer thick oxides are a major topic of work in scientific and industrial research. A detailed knowledge of expected behaviors allows material engineering. In that sense, rectifying metal/oxide junctions, based on TiOx, ZnO, and on TaO2−x, has been recently described [8, 9], where upon appropriate oxygen vacancy accumulation the interface is switched to a non-rectifying resistive device. In particular, structures based on HfO2 have shown excellent rectifying capabilities [10, 11]. Besides, hafnium oxide is a preferred high-k material, and therefore it is one of the most promising ReRAM materials since it has been already added to the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS). From the industrial point of view, this fact is an enormous advantage and explains why so much effort is being done related with HfO2.
In this scenario, and responding to the actual trend on multifunctional components, there is a renewed interest on the mechanisms governing its dielectric behavior. These facts, combined with the observation of perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (which involves another promising low-power memory mechanism [12]) in Co films deposited on high-k materials [13] and FeFETs based on doped HfO2 [14], put devices based on HfO2 again in the focus of the attention.
The MIM stack was electrically characterized in a two-terminal configuration (see inset Figure 1a). We used a Keithley 4200 unit hooked through coaxial wires to a room-temperature probe station. Applying voltage while recording the current flowing through the stack allowed us to identify the general properties of the devices. In particular, sweeping voltage in a pulsed way is suitable for avoiding heating effects.
(a) Current as a function of voltage (I-V) measured with a pulsed sweep (see lower right inset). The upper left inset sketches the stack (TE stands for top electrode while SP is the way to access to the bottom contact of the structure). (b) I-V curve displayed in semi-logarithmic scale. As can be seen from the inset, the protocol consists in two repetitions of each polarity sweep in order to test the nonvolatile behavior.
Figure 1a shows a typical current-voltage (I-V) dependence of a fabricated stack, obtained by sweeping voltage pulses, as demonstrated in the inset in Figure 1a. Four branches can be defined: (a) from 0 to +15 V, (b) from +15 to 0 V, (c) from 0 to −15 V, and (d) from −15 to 0 V. After deposition (pristine state), all devices are found in HRS (branch A in Figure 1a). When the positive voltage applied to the top electrode is increased, the device abruptly switches to LRS in a SET operation happening at around +5 V. No additional previous “forming” is required. Upon decreasing the stimulus (branch B), the I-V curve exhibits huge hysteresis (the semi-logarithmic scale in Figure 1b highlights the change rate).
Further cycling with positive voltages reproduces the LRS, as shown in the second and fourth sweeps in Figure 1b. Thus, the programmed state is nonvolatile with respect to the time scale of the measurement.
When the polarity is reversed, the negative voltage cycle starts in the HRS (branch C in Figure 1a), even when the positive cycle finished in a LRS, that is, a rectifying response is found. This behavior is referred to as a non-crossing hysteresis in the literature [15]. From that HRS on, the description of the negative voltage cycle is completely analogous to the positive one, and the other SET operation is recorded each time the voltage reaches ~ 5 V. After a negative polarity sweeping loop, the positive HRS is recovered at the positive stimulus.
It is worth to point out that even when no trace of a RESET operation was observed, just upon zero voltage crossing the rectifying capability of these devices rebuilds a high-resistance level.
Memristive cells are classified into bipolar and unipolar behavior. Bipolar cells are those which demonstrate the SET and RESET operations in opposite voltage polarities, for example, SET at positive polarity and RESET at negative voltage. In turn, in unipolar cells the SET and RESET can occur at the same polarity (while other parameters need to be controlled, i.e., current compliance). Whether both polarities are required to operate the memristive cells or not is determined by the mechanism governing the switching. Despite the difference, typical memristive cells (being either bipolar or unipolar) depict crossing I-V curves, a behavior qualitatively different from the one obtained in our Pd/Co/HfO2/Ti/SiO2/Si samples. So far samples showing non-crossing I-V curves were referred to as complementary RS [7]. This behavior can be modeled as the response of two coupled bipolar memristive switches in series, in a back-to-back configuration. Within this scheme, one of the two coupled memristive switches (or RS units) shows the SET operation at a positive voltage, while the other one exhibits the SET at a negative voltage. When the stimulus polarity change is produced, instead of maintaining the low-level resistance obtained during the positive excursion, it reveals the high-level resistance corresponding to the second RS unit. The coupling between the two RS units would be responsible for RESET screening. The explanation for apparent RESET absence arises on the fact that alternating the voltage polarity leads us to measure the reversed RS unit. However, if we record the resistance level between consecutive pulses (applying a small pulse of the same polarity even when the sweeping curve goes through zero), we progressively observe the changes from HRS to LRS at certain polarity and from LRS to HRS at the opposite voltage polarity. Interestingly, the back-to-back configuration determines two different pair of states: positive high- and low-resistance states (pHRS and pLRS, respectively) and equivalently for negative polarity (nHRS and nLRS).
By following the resistance level, measured in between every two consecutive pulses during the pulsed voltage sweep (green pulses in Figure 2b and d), the specific voltage values at which the SET and RESET occur (identified as the changes from HRS to LRS, and from LRS to HRS, respectively) can be identified. If the resistance level is recorded with a positive pulse (green pulses in Figure 2b), the pHRS and pLRS will be tested, while if the small pulse consists of a negative voltage value (green pulses in Figure 2d), the nHRS and nLRS will be under study. In that way, the two units can be split. By experimentally exploring the voltage required to observe each operation by a unique pulse (positive SET and RESET and negative SET and RESET), reduced protocols were achieved. Figure 2b and d sketch the protocols used to distinguish the two RS units. Instead of going through the whole sweep as in Figure 1, a unique voltage pulse is chosen to reach the LRS. In each case, positive and negative, the highest signal is used to SET the unit while the pulse with the inverted polarity is used to RESET it, and in between two pulses act as the reading voltages to quantify the resistance level. Figure 2a (Figure 2c) shows the resistance at pHRS and pLRS (nHRS and nLRS) as a function of the elapsed time. Figure 2a (Figure 2c) corresponds to applied values of +10 V (−10 V) for SET operation and − 3.5 V (+3.5 V) for RESET while the resistance is recorded in between at +3 V (−3 V). All applied pulses last for 5 ms. Resistance levels measured at +3 V and − 3 V can be recognized as the two possible states displayed by the hysteretic curves shown in Figure 1. Although some dispersion can be appreciated within each defined state (pHRS, pLRS, nHRS, and nLRS), the rate between each pair of HRS and LRS remains of four orders of magnitude for at least 2000 repetitions.
Resistance measured at 3 V after the SET and RESET operations for each RS unit. (a) Corresponds to pHRS and pLRS, with Vset = +10 V, Vread = +3 V, Vreset = −3.5 V (protocol sketched in (b)), while (c) represents nHRS and nLRS, with Vset = −10 V, Vread = −3 V, Vreset = +3.5 V (protocol sketched in d).
To gain further insight into the electrical response of the device, we performed capacitance measurements. Capacitance is a differential quantity that has to be recorded applying an AC voltage; frequency and amplitude (levels) are the parameters of such an AC signal. To quantify the capacitive contribution an electrical model is required. Two different models considering a capacitor and a resistor were employed: serially and parallely connected. In both cases, the capacitive term was equivalent pointing out the predominance of the capacitive over the resistive term. An LCR meter Agilent E4980 parameter analyzer was used to perform the measurements in a two-terminal configuration connected through coaxial wires to a probe station with a heating system.
Figure 3b was obtained applying a 100 kHz–100 mV AC signal while sweeping a superimposed DC voltage. Most relevant conclusions are obtained under different polarization conditions or bias (DC voltage). Remarkably, no change of the capacitance is observed even though the applied DC sweep goes through the values expected to switch the electrical resistance of the device (Figure 3a) includes an I-V curve for comparison). Such independence as a function of DC bias is usually attributed to a parallel-plate capacitor, that is, a MIM stack. Instead, two RS units are supposed to take part in a complex scenario of different states. The measurement of a constant value implies that whatever the involved switching mechanism is, at least the capacitive component will remain unaffected. Moreover, recording C-V at different frequencies and/or temperatures (Figures 3c and 4a, respectively) also exhibits a value independent on the bias.
Capacitance as function of bias voltage (C-V) recorded at 100 kHz and room temperature (b). The upper panel (a) offers a reference with the switching observed during an I-V excursion. (c) C-V measured at room T under different AC frequencies.
It is worth pointing out that capacitance appears unaffected by DC stimulus but is strongly dependent on the two additional parameters analyzed: AC frequency and temperature,
Regarding the measurements as a function of temperature, such dependence (Figure 4a) reminds us of a semiconductor material since the amount of available carriers increases [16]. However, as we mentioned, the constant capacitance is the signature of a MIM-like stack. How to reconcile an MIM indication, of an invariable capacitance as function of bias, with a semiconductor-like dependence with the frequency? Where does the semiconductor nature arise from? Some works report a semiconducting behavior of HfO2 at HRS [17] but since no change is observed beyond the SET value this cannot be a satisfactory explanation. To have a deep insight on this issue, the LRS was analyzed as a function of the temperature (Figure 4b). The current flowing across the stack, measured in a two-terminal connection at +15 V, increases with temperature which evidences a nonmetallic behavior (it could be an insulator or a semiconductor). Moreover, this would be in agreement with the capacitance dependence on the temperature. Nevertheless, it remains unclear as to how to justify the flat C-V observed for the whole bias range.
(a) Capacitance as function of temperature. Each point represents the average value obtained within the ±15 V bias range. (b) Resistance measured at +15 V (pLRS) as function of temperature. The decrease is usually attributed to a nonmetallic behavior.
Beyond the mentioned dependencies, the absolute value of capacitance deserves to be discussed. If we proceed by considering a parallel-plate capacitor (Eq. (2)), as suggested from the C-V flat trend, the dielectric constant of HfO2 could be found considering the area and thickness as known parameters. Eq. (2) is the capacitance attributed to a parallel-plate capacitor with metal electrodes of area A, a dielectric material characterized by εr (dielectric constant referred to the vacuum permittivity ε0), and thickness t:
However, such estimation offers in all the cases (different frequencies and temperatures) extremely low values of εr compared with the one expected (εr = 0.005 calculated from experimental data against εr = 20 which was expected [18]). Even though a certain dispersion could be a reasonable (i.e., related with the particular deposition method), the estimated difference exceeds in orders of magnitude of the spread so far reported. Devices with different areas, HfO2 thicknesses, and TE materials were also measured supporting the dielectric constant obtained in samples with 20 nm-thick HfO2 and square (200 μm2) side top electrodes. Figure 5 includes data from all those devices, showing capacitance scales as expected with area but not with thickness. In fact, three different HfO2 thicknesses were measured presenting the same absolute value. This independency with the HfO2 thickness suggests either that the model is incorrect (capacitance does not originate from the TE/HfO2/Ti like in a parallel-plate capacitor fashion) or that HfO2 is not the dielectric of the capacitor that governs the general trend. Importantly, also, Au electrodes were tested without remarkable differences. Although a semiconductor behavior is deduced from the temperature dependence, a capacitive term related with some depletion layer formation is ruled out since the C-V trend should follow the width modulation with bias.
(a) Capacitance as function of area, including many different samples measured at 100 kHz. Capacitance scales as expected with area while no variation is observed for different HfO2 thicknesses. Considering different TE’s material does not reflect changes. (b) Sketch of a proposed explanation for the behavior observed in
Another interesting issue is extracted from the extrapolated intercept in Figure 5. A zero intercept is expected when a pure capacitor is measured. Instead, a nonzero value is related with an extra contribution usually from unconsidered terms, such as interfacial effects. However, if an interfacial effect is suspected, that should not be at the TE interface since the two explored materials seem to converge to the same intercept. The possibility of a nonzero intercept also highlights the need of measuring many areas in order to get the real slope. The upper-left inset demonstrates the difference between point-to-point slope determination and the real one provided by the area dependence.
So far, the capacitance dependence does not follow the expected trend with HfO2 thickness. In addition, the absolute value of the measured capacitance appears not to be related with the dielectric constant usually attributed to such materials. Something else determines the capacitive behavior, although a depletion layer formation was discarded based on the absence of dependence with bias voltage. Moreover, two different memristive cells were necessary to explain the non-crossing feature and the impossibility of appreciating RESET operations. There is no clue yet about where those RS units, acting as junctions, are located. However, once more if we consider two different elements a plausible picture is obtained. Figure 5c sketches two M-I-S (metal-insulator-semiconductor) devices connected in series. As it is well-known the sum of capacitors in series is governed by the smaller term, because the sum corresponds to the inversion value for each MIS. Since the inversion value of capacitance is not directly related to the dielectric material but to the semiconductor properties, that offers a possible explanation for the independence with HfO2 thickness. Also, given the fact that the semiconductor rules the absolute capacitance value, the temperature dependence can be satisfactory understood.
Interestingly, the accuracy of such an explanation arises on the fact of considering two MIS stacks with opposite-doped semiconductors but exactly the same flat-band condition, which means the voltage required to exactly compensate the band bending. That voltage is the one at which the change between accumulation and depletion occurs. Now, two new questions appear:
Why should the inversion capacitance for both MIS stacks be coincident? and
Why they switch from accumulation to inversion and vice versa at the very same voltage?
In the following we will try to identify the origin of these two elements within the stack composition to answer these questions.
In order to determine each layer’s thickness, roughness, and density within the obtained stack, X-ray reflectivity (XRR) was recorded. Since the top electrodes are patterned, that is, Pd/Co does not constitute a uniform layer, the samples studied by XRR do not have the metal cover. This technique distinguishes materials by their electronic density. A typical measurement consists of the grazing incidence of X-rays, starting with total reflection and followed by a pronounced decrease identified as the critical angle, when the X-rays start penetrating the material. Following oscillations are related to the interference pattern produced by the interference of X-rays reflected by the different interfaces present within the sample under study. The critical angle and the period are directly related to the density of the material on top and the total thickness, respectively. Further estimations require a model and, by fitting it, a deeper comprehension of the stack can be achieved. Figure 6a includes XRR experimental data and a fitting. The experimental data are shown normalized by the Fresnel coefficient (
(a) X-ray reflectometry normalized with Fresnel coefficient (
Parameter | From fitting | Expected | |
---|---|---|---|
HfO2 | Thickness [nm] | 26.5 | 20 |
Roughness [nm] | Not fitted | 1 (AFM determined) | |
Density [g/cc] | 10.1 | 10.12 | |
Ti/TiOx | Thickness [nm] | 27.8 | 20 |
Roughness [nm] | 0.6/1.,9 | — | |
Density [g/cc] | 4.3/3.8 | 4.50/4.25 | |
SiO2 | Thickness [nm] | 45.9 | 120 |
Roughness [nm] | 0.3 | — | |
Density [g/cc] | 2.5 | 2.65 |
Summary of parameters obtained from XRR fitting compared with expected values.
As discussed, the contrast in this X-rays technique is related with the electronic density of the materials. This feature makes it impossible to distinguish between Ti and TiO2 layers. However, an important conclusion has to be highlighted; the Ti-related layer is 50% thicker than what it was supposed to be. Since the accurate control of Ti sputter deposition can be assured, this could consist of an indirect proof of oxidation.
Note that for the underlying SiO2 layer the obtained density is quite precise. However, we did not expect the proper thickness for that layer because the angular resolution limits the maximum accessible value (usually below 150 nm).
To define whether a pure Ti or a TiO2 layer is present, secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) was performed at room temperature (Figure 6b). This is a destructive technique in which an Ar beam impacts the sample detaching its constituent atoms, which are collected by a detector. In this way, as the Ar beam etches the surface progressively, a profile composition is obtained (depending on the etching rate, the time variable can be regarded as the depth function). Starting with an exposed HfO2 layer, as the sputter time increases, traces attributed to deeper layers can be observed. When the HfO− signal decreases, Ti and TiO− traces increase pointing out the interface location. Figure 6b allows one to recognize oxygen presence through the full titanium layer. Complete oxidation of the titanium layer implies an absence of the Ti bottom electrode and, in that case, the bottom electrode would be formed by the highly doped silicon substrate. According to such an observation, and as it was suggested by electrical measurements, a thicker dielectric material has to be considered.
Thus, both electrical and chemical evidence indicate a clear layer modification by which the stack is significantly modified compared to the designed stack. Nonetheless, RS was positively affected in the way that some desirable properties were improved. From the technological point of view, extremely low leakage currents, free-forming behavior, complementary bipolar junctions, and low power consumption are at the core of qualities that the next memory generation has to achieve. All these properties were attained by samples presented herein (for more details see Ref. [19]). Thus, it is of paramount importance to disentangle the oxygen source and metal precursor effects of the ALD HfO2 process on the titanium oxidation.
So far, ALD HfO2 deposition has not been reported for such underlying layers’ modification. To validate our hypothesis about O3 influence, an additional fabrication proposal was dealt with. The aim of such exploration is to use H2O instead of O3 as an oxygen source, maintaining the hafnium precursor as before. As shown in Table 2, different combinations of layer thicknesses were explored. Thicker and thinner Ti layers (than the one used in the initial batch) will allow us to understand the impact of oxygen diffusion on the Ti metal-layer oxidation. Also, different HfO2 thicknesses will help to clarify whether the ALD cycles, the temperature persistence, or the longer diffusion times give rise to the discovered oxidation of the full Ti layer.
SiO2 thickness | Ti thickness | HfO2 thickness | Access to BE |
---|---|---|---|
120 nm | 20 nm | 10 nm | Scratch |
120 nm | 20 nm | 20 nm | SiO2 removal from back contact |
120 nm | 10 nm | 20 nm | Scratch |
120 nm | 20 nm | 20 nm | SiO2 removal from back contact |
120 nm | — | 20 nm | Scratch |
120 nm | — | — | Scratch |
Details of complementary batch designed to disentangle oxidant and/or precursor effects.
Structural and electrical characterizations do not show any significant variation with respect to usual HfO2-based RS devices reported elsewhere [20, 21]. All of them show a forming requirement and are needed to be externally limited to avoid current runaway. After the forming operation, states of high power consumption (mW) were observed. Besides, no double rectification was appreciated within the new batch. All those remarkably features, highlighted as desired in the former case (with ozone as oxidant), seem to be related with the TiOx layer formed in the experiments. Figure 7 constitutes one example of the referred characteristics: forming operation, no-self limitation, and crossing behavior. Moreover, Yoon et al. [22] who follow a similar deposition process (O3-based ALD-deposited HfO2 over a Ti layer) demonstrate current-voltage dependence strikingly similar to that reported here. Although they attribute such behavior to the interface quality, structural analysis is missing, leading to thinking about an effect of Ti oxidation (in the following referred to as TiOx), analogous to what was demonstrated in this study. Figure 8 summarizes the subsequent steps that would explain the proposed stack composition of the ozone-based samples.
Prototypical behavior of one sample SiO2 (120 nm)/Ti (10 nm)/HfO2 (20 nm)/Pt of the new fabrication process. After the first voltage excursion, the device is found in an irreversible low resistance state.
Sketch of process flow and the changes produced during ALD process using ozone as oxidant.
In this framework a picture of the involved mechanism in such unusual switching is required. Since the resultant stack was shown to be composed by a multilayer insulator (20 nm of HfO2, 30 nm of TiOx, and 120 nm of SiO2), it is hard to justify any reversible switching operation.
We will now focus on the role of the SiO2 dielectric layer, which was thermally grown from the very initial Si wafer.
Thermal oxidation is closely related with semiconductor doping. Si doping, related with wafer resistivity (4–40 mΩ cm, provided by the manufacturer), is about 4.1018–4.1019 cm−3 and allows one to understand that although a semiconductor behavior is expected, such high doping screens its nature. Within this scenario Si behaves like a metal and explains capacitance independence with respect to bias stimulus. Nonetheless, this issue hinders capacitance-temperature dependence explanation. Besides, a highly doped semiconductor affects the growth rate [23] and the impurity content of the resultant oxide [20]. This explains the current flow across a 200 nm dielectric as trap assisted [16] and justifies such a low current level, even at LRS.
Within a multilayered dielectric, the voltage drop on each layer (Eq. (3)) is subjected to each layer’s permittivity, εl [24]. Although such an estimation seems very complex in this situation, at least it is possible to argue that HfO2 has a higher permittivity than it was ever reported to SiO2 [20] and lower than what could be attributed to TiO2 and its related sub-oxides (generally denoted as TiOx [25, 26]). Table 3 presents an estimation of voltage drops on each dielectric sub-layer. This means that most of the voltage drop is restricted to the SiO2 layer avoiding HfO2 and/or TiOx to be formed and/or switched.
Material | εi | Thickness (nm) | Vi (V) |
---|---|---|---|
HfO2 | 20 | 10 | 0.24 |
TiOx | 80 (40) | 30 | 0.18 (0.36) |
SiO2 | 3.9 | 120 | 14.58 (14.40) |
Voltage drop on each dielectric sublayer. Quantities between parentheses indicates voltage drop variation depending on the permittivity attributed to TiOx.
The situation could be summarized as follows: a multilayered dielectric sandwiched between two metal-like electrodes (Pd/Co and highly doped Si) shows RS. Such behavior cannot be explained by usual HfO2 or TiO2 switching because of the voltage drop competition, associated with their individual dielectric constants. On the other hand, Eq. (3) relies on the fact that no charges are present at the interfaces and, consequently, no voltage drop is expected in those regions. It is not clear whether this assumption is correct or not but even if so, the voltage drop on the HfO2 and/or TiOx should be indeed lower than considered (making harder the switch of each layer).
We can also use the impedance spectroscopy (IS) technique to deepen the understanding of the mechanisms involved in the resistive switching. In this particular case, to measure the impedance, in the range 100 Hz–10 MHz, we set the oscillator amplitude of the impedance analyzer to 5 mV and applied a DC bias of 3 V. In this context, the obtained results for the complex impedance are presented in a complex plane plot usually called the Nyquist diagram [27], where minus the imaginary part of the impedance is plotted as function of the real one. In Figure 9a and b the Nyquist diagrams corresponding to pHRS and pLRS are shown. In these plots, each point corresponds to the imaginary and real components of the impedance at different frequencies. It is interesting to remark that the capacitive behavior of the measured devices is evidenced by the negative values of the measured imaginary part of the impedance. If a model is proposed for the equivalent circuit of the device, the value of each equivalent component can be found.
Nyquist plot constructed from impedance measurements under +3 V bias and 5 mV AC signal in (a) pHRS, and (b) pLRS.
In Figure 9a and b, the inset show the equivalent circuit used to model the impedance of each state. In the pHRS (Figure 9a), two blocks connected in series were necessary to properly fit the measurements while only one was required in the pLRS case (Figure 9b). Both the low- and high-resistance states have a common block composed of a resistor in parallel to a constant-phase element (CPE) [27]. In addition, the high-resistance state has also another block constituted by a resistor in parallel with a capacitor. The obtained values for all these elements are summarized in Table 4. A CPE is an artificial way of representing a wide dispersion of characteristic times. It can be thought as a capacitor but instead a unique resonant condition, a dispersion of them (usually related with different species underneath), is taken into account. Its mathematical expression is given by
pHRS | pLRS | ||
---|---|---|---|
R | 1.1.107 Ω | 9.6.106 Ω | |
m (CPE) | 0.71 | 0.74 | |
p (CPE) | 3.7.10−10 | 2.8.10−10 | |
R | 1.3.106 Ω | — | |
C | 4.7.1013 F | — |
In this case, we will not focus on the model for each state (pHRS and pLRS) but in the comparison of them. It is worth to point out that an equivalent behavior was obtained also in the comparison of the nHRS and nLRS. For that reason, in the following, we will refer generically to HRS and LRS even though only the positive case is being presented. Our aim is to get a more detailed comprehension of the switching behind the macroscopic behavior. Compared with Figure 9a, experimental data of Figure 9b could be mimicked with only one of the two arrays mentioned before. It seems that the LRS maintains the wide dispersion of species that gives rise to the CPE element while the parallel capacitor-resistor block disappeared. This finding, together with the fact that the parallel resistor-CPE remains constant, reveals that a diode has been overcome. A block consisting of a parallel capacitor-resistor is the usual model to represent a diode below the forward-biased threshold. Thus, the removal of that block to model the LRS implies a diode-like behavior during the HRS and consequently a barrier to overcome in order to get the conductive condition.
Finally, we suggest a plausible mechanism for switching operation: TiO2 interfaces with HfO2 and SiO2 could play the role of a barrier, originating two junctions. Band bending would assist the current to flow through one of them, while the other has to be overcome after charge trapping had taken place. That would offer possible states in the forbidden gap to the electrons. A condition for which this happens could be related with each sharp switching operation (observed in I-V dependence). This could be the reason why half of a loop in the DC I-V curve was also identified in Ref. [22]. In that case, TiOx had only one interface with an oxide suitable to be switched. Thus, a trapping-based mechanism would be attributed to such behavior which cannot be reflected by capacitance measurements. In such a way, no capacitance change could be expected. Moreover, the TiOx semiconductor nature would explain the capacitance-temperature dependence that we observed. It is worth to point out that resistive switching mechanisms without ion movement requirement have attracted attention since it would be less downgrading to the memory cell neighborhood, in terms of chip integration [28].
We described the ALD technique in detail, pointing out many interesting, efficient and unique capabilities. Besides, we highlighted the problem found when there is an interaction of a material to be deposited or the precursors used in its growing process, with the pre-deposited layers on the substrate. We exemplified the case describing a particular case, where the nonvolatile memory device of the ReRAM type was grown.
The ALD technique was used to obtain HfO2-based devices with some remarkable features. The use of different precursors, and the fact that a non-negligible interaction between these precursors and pre-existent stacks could produce unconsidered phases, has been discussed in detail. A careful analysis of the device’s structure (initially suggested by difficulties in the understanding of measured electrical features) triggered the comprehension of the actual structure of the device. An additional oxide layer was formed because the precursor reacted with the buffer material, giving rise to a completely different stack. Remarkably, this fact rendered advantageous properties which could be useful in the field of multifunctional memory applications.
While an MIM stack was expected (consisting of Pd/Co/HfO2/Ti), a post-deposition structural characterization proved oxidation of the metallic layer underlying the ALD-deposited oxide. Using water instead of ozone as an oxidant allowed to attribute titanium oxidation to the very high reactivity of the oxidant primary employed. Once the complete stack composition was determined, a feasible scenario about the switching mechanism was proposed. This gathers the evidence obtained, through electrical and structural measurements, in a unique picture that captures all features highlighted within memory behavior.
The authors would like to acknowledge R. Zazpe and L. Hueso for providing the samples that motivated this chapter and M.J. Sánchez for fruitful discussions on the impedance measurements. Special thanks has to be given to H. Zhang, who performed AFM measurements, and A. Savenko, who was in charge of in-depth SIMS measurements.
C.P. Quinteros also wants to acknowledge DAAD and Argentinian Education Ministry for funding her stay at the Forschungszentrum Jülich.
The authors do not declare any conflict of interest.
This chapter is part of the thesis “Óxidos delgados para micro y nanoelectrónica: degradación, ruptura y aplicaciones tecnológicas” in Spanish by C.P. Quinteros at Buenos Aires University, presented in March 2016 (http://digital.bl.fcen.uba.ar/gsdl-282/cgi-bin/library.cgi?a=d&c=tesis&d=Tesis_5923_Quinteros).
Heavy metals are natural elements that have a high atomic weight and a density at least five times that of water, due to their high degree of toxicity, some such as Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), Copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se) Zinc (Zn) and Mercury (Hg) are considered harmful to health and the environment, raising concerns for setting up adequate prevention or restoration measures that reduce these risks. A special topic of global interest is the residual concentrations of heavy metals since some studies have shown that heavy metals, especially because are considered bioaccumulative in various matrices (range from ng kg−1 to less than 10 mg kg−1) [1].
These last components are generated mainly by human activities such as mining, emissions, agriculture, and industrial waste; some studies mention that in high concentrations heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, and Pb can have potential toxic effects, for example, some studies they have observed that they could interact with the to the growth and general metabolism of humans and animals [2]. Also, it was reported that mean concentrations of heavy metals could affect the biodiversity through their bioaccumulation in different organisms, although it has been observed that this also depends on the type of ecosystem, the exposure time and other environmental factors [3]; such as, some reports suggest that the disposal mechanisms could also depend on the balance between sorption and desorption, as well as the natural dynamics of the soils on which they are deposited, the soil constituents (inorganic and organic), and the chemical nature of the soil. Compound [4].
Many studies have found that waste dumps are sources of heavy metals, most have reported As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn, although the receptor organs are diverse, due to the conditions of storage, disposal, and importance in food production, the treatment of soils and aquifers contaminated by these compounds has gained interest in the last decade [5, 6, 7]. The disposition that each of them could have to the environment, can be measured in terms of leachates, whose composition varies from one site to another since they regularly are created by the biodegradation of waste, in some cases, depending on their diffusion capacity in the soil, they could pollute both groundwater and surface water [8]. Numerous studies have emphasized the importance of remediating these sites, mentioning that feasible and long-term alternatives must be created, especially, that guarantee low exposure of these pollutants in places that have a population immersed or that are destined for activities of the primary sector [5].
Heavy metal contamination and pesticides is a serious problem worldwide due to their toxicity, furthermore, assessing the impacts is very complex due to the fact that many species have cumulative and non-biodegradable properties, but cases have been reported, in which certain species of plants could be indicators of these pollutants [6, 8]; also, although some organisms usually transport or extract them from a matrix, they only transform it to other oxidation states in the soil, in terms of bioremediation, some technologies take advantage of this behavior to reduce their mobility and toxicity, however, if they are not remediated sites, metals can reach humans [9, 10, 11].
However, although it has been shown that these methods tend to control various types of organic or inorganic pollutants in the long term [12, 13, 14], some studies have warned about the risk factor of those plant species that tend to be hyperaccumulative and can also be a food source for some grazing or wild species (it has been reported that the concentration of Cd or Pb metals in hyperaccumulating plants is usually between 10 and 100 times higher than that of the soil) [15, 16].
Vetiver grass is a perennial herb of the Poaceae family, native to India. It is a plant that has been cultivated for many years in Asia, especially in India [17], can grow in a wide range of climatic conditions, and if planted correctly can be used anywhere in tropical, subtropical or Mediterranean climates [18].
Compiled by Méndez-Cano [19]; the plant vetiver is a perennial herb that forms dense clumps Figure 1; it has sterile inflorescences and seeds and reproduces vegetatively It can withstand extreme droughts due to the high salt content in the sap of its leaves, it can withstand extreme droughts due to the high salt content in the sap of its leaves and also flooding for long periods. It grows in a wide range of soils with different levels of fertility, it is tolerant to extreme climatic variations, such as prolonged droughts, floods and temperatures ranging from −9–55°C. It grows in soils, including rocky soils, and can also be grown in hydroponic conditions. It tolerates pH levels between 3.3 and 12.5, as well as saline, acidic, alkaline and sodic media with a high load of nutrients and heavy metals. It is classified as a C4 type plant due to its high atmospheric CO2 fixation capacity.
Recent research compares the variability in biomechanical properties of
Authors demonstrate the application of vetiver grass has been widely promoted in tropical regions as a cost-effective and environmental-friendly solution for slope stabilization and erosion control for many years. Despite its potential, vetiver grass utilization has not been widely accepted by disadvantaged agricultural communities at landslide hazard areas [23].
Also floating Hydroponic System (FHS) is a potential and cost-effective technique for wastewater treatment. Vetiver is a more efficacious material for phytoremediation due to its physiological and morphological properties [24].
Although there are reports of several species discovered with high potential for phytoremediation, vetiver is a grass species that meets all the criteria required to eliminate contaminants in water and soil, but are few reports of use [12]; an important point is that this plant can survive under hydroponic conditions, has been used for a long time in water and soil conservation [25, 26, 27], in the rehabilitation and restoration of landfills, as in the phytoremediation of leachates, it survives under hydroponic conditions [28]. Many species have been reported as metal phytoremediators but few have been reported to be able to adapt to extreme altitude, climate, variable pH, and exposure conditions in eutrophic systems; thus, it is of great importance to continue studying native species to identify potential alternative phytoremediators [29]. For these reasons, in this study, we present a review of the importance of vetiver, its characterization, and its potential use as a remediation alternative.
Vetiver belonging to the Poaceae family, native to India [19]. Is one of the few species of grass that meets all the criteria necessary to eliminate contaminants [28]. Regarding its morphological characteristics, it’s a tall grass (1–2 m) with abundant vegetative growth, characterized by a massive, finely structured and deep root apparatus, capable of reaching 3–4 m deep in the first year [27]. For this trait, vetiver grass is well known for its effectiveness in controlling erosion and sediments [30].
It has long, narrow leaves that produce a thick growth barrier that cuts and separates runoff water. This type of growth also allows vetiver to act as an effective filter by trapping sediments and contaminants linked to them such as heavy metals and some pesticide residues [31]. One of the most useful physiological characteristics of vetiver is its high tolerance to high concentrations of heavy metals such as Al, B, Ba, Be, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, S, Se, Tl, V, and Zn [12, 13, 19, 31, 32]. In Figure 2, shows a summary of the morphological characteristics of vetiver plant, and heavy metals to tolerant.
Morphological characteristics of vetiver (
Some studies mention that the dense and finely structured root of this plant creates an ideal environment for microbiological processes in the rhizosphere, these characteristics also make vetiver a good alternative for stabilizing river banks and road embankments and preventing erosion [31]. However, the efficiency and cost-effectiveness in water and soil conservation, particularly in the treatment of wastewater, were only recognized in the decade of the 80s when its outstanding physiological and morphological characteristics were identified [31], but these distinctive features, make it an effective phytoremediator species for the treatment of various types of contaminants; also these attributes, together with its high biomass production, type of reproduction, and adaptations to climate changes, also make vetiver an ideal species for the phytoremediation not only of soil but also of artificial systems such as wetlands [12].
The different techniques applied for the characterization of heavy metals are presented in Table 1.
Technique | Characteristics | References |
---|---|---|
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) | Identify at least 70 elements in quantities as low as 10–14 g, high selectivity. | [33, 34] |
Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) | Quantify chemical elements that constitute a material quickly, accurately. | [7, 13, 35] |
X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) | Identify analytes or other components of interest, is very useful for qualitative analysis. | [36, 37] |
Techniques for characterization of heavy metals.
One of the techniques that can be used for the identification of heavy metals is Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS), this analytical technique is widely used to determine more than 70 elements in solution and in different matrices, in quantities as low as 10–14 g with reasonable selectivity, little manipulation, and minimum sample size. It can indirectly identify anions and organic compounds [33, 34]. This technique is older than ICP-OES (Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy), and various authors have reported studies comparative with other methods cited in environmental regulations [12, 28, 38], some mention that it makes it possible to quantitatively determine the chemical elements that constitute a material quickly, precisely, and accurately [7, 13, 39].
To convert solid and liquid samples into aqueous solutions for analysis with ICP-OES and AAS, it is necessary to eliminate all organic material to avoid interferences and obtain the analytes of interest at detectable concentrations [12, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43]. Acid digestion is a necessary process in the identification of metals, which is done by acid decomposition at high temperatures [36] or using mixtures of HNO3 and H2O2 [37].
Another method used is X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF). It can identify analytes or other components of interest and it is thus very useful for qualitative analysis. It is currently used in the fields of archeology, forensic sciences, medicine, geology, coatings, materials, electronics, pharmaceutics and environmental sciences, used this method to perform qualitative and quantitative analyses of heavy metals [35, 44].
Several authors have achieved the mitigation of different types of heavy metals using vetiver grass (Table 2) and determined the amount of Cr absorbed from the residual sludge of a tanning facility and found a concentration of 596.92 mg kg−1 in the leaf tissue [38], others studies showed that the effect on vetiver of having a concentration of As of 225 mg kg−1 is a slight yellowing of the leaves and a small decrease in biomass [36]; these results confirm that this grass can survive successfully in soils moderately contaminated by As [31].
Heavy metals | Origin | References |
---|---|---|
Cr | Residual sludge tannery | [39] |
Cd, Cu, Fe, and Pb | Compost leach | [38] |
As, Cd, Ni, Pb, and Zn | Ash remediation | [28] |
Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn | Rehabilitation of iron mine | [13] |
Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn | Water polluted with heavy metals | [12] |
Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn | Soil contaminated with heavy metals | [38] |
Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn | Industrial waters | [24] |
B | Industrial waters | [44] |
Heavy metals absorbed for vetiver grass.
The capacity of vetiver to remove contaminants has also been tested using compost leachate, an experiment that was allowed to stand for 112 days without aeration, showed that the concentration of Cd, Cu, Fe, and Pb decreased after the treatment with vetiver, and therefore can be used to for the bio-purification of compost leachate [42]; others study evaluated the efficiency of vetiver in the absorption of metals based on the translocation and bioaccumulation factors, the results revealed that roots have a high uptake capacity for Cd, Pb, and Zn, however, there was a low translocation of metals such as Cd, As, Ni, and Pb towards the aerial part of the plant and accumulation of Zn in the roots was the highest at 100% [28].
However, some similar reports found a highs amount of Fe accumulated in the roots, despite this, the results show that vetiver is a good phythostabilizer and potential accumulator of heavy metals since in the roots they also found the presence of Al, Cu, Mn, Zn, Cr, and Ni, but in concentrations, inferiors to Fe [13]. In research similar, the absorbed metals were found to be in order Fe > Pb > Cu > Mn > Zn, the results also showed that as the length and density of the roots increases, so does the absorption of heavy metals, but suggest being careful if in the site intends to develop other species, due to the competition of Fe and its importance in the physiological processes of plants [12].
In 2007, a study assessed the efficiency of the vetiver grass in the phytoextraction of Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn in order to establish whether this plant could be considered a good hyperaccumulator of those heavy metals. Phytoextraction experiments showed that vetiver was little efficient in the uptake of Cr and Cu (less than 0.1% in shoots and roots after 30 days for both metals), but highly efficient in the uptake of Pb and Zn (0.4% in shoots and 1% in roots for Pb and 1% in both shoots and roots for Zn, after 30 days), for these reasons, vetiver grass can be considered a good enough “hyperaccumulator” of Pb and Zn [41].
In 2013, other researchers measured the ability to remove heavy metals from industrial wastewater. Vetiver were grown on four samples of industrial wastewater taken from a milk factory, a battery manufacturing plant, an electric lamp plant, and an ink manufacturing plant, the results indicated that could tolerate and grow in wastewater [24].
On the other hand, some studies have evaluated the efficiency of vetiver in the treatment of leachates with the aim of reducing chemical oxygen demand, total suspended solids, total dissolved solids and total organic carbon in municipal landfill leachates. The results revealed a removal efficiency of approximately 90% [45]. A relevant study evaluated the differences in tolerance and accumulation of boron between reed (
Further studies could focus on increasing the uptake of heavy metals using, for example, chelating agents [41] and explore the ability of vetiver to participate in the remediation of other pollutants such as endosulfan [49]. The dense growth of vetiver roots can prevent erosion and landslides and act as a natural barrier that could be used in landfill cells to prevent leachates from infiltrating the aquatic mantle, regardless of the impermeable barrier (geomembrane) that is commonly used in landfills.
The new trends in the restoration of degraded soils, wastewater and even leachates generated from urban waste include phyto-management as part of a Circular Economy model which is an attractive and viable alternative that is already being explored by different companies; it is based on the principles of preservation and optimization of natural resources, as well as improving the efficiency of production systems by eliminating or reducing environmental contaminants. Therefore, phytoremediation can be considered a circular economy strategy because it aims to reduce both the entry of materials and the production of waste.
In different matrices water, soil, air there are inorganic contaminants which include trace elements that are essential for the growth and development of plants, heavy metals and some non-metallic elements such as As and B are also included. Toxicity varies according to many factors, such as the chemical form of the elements, concentration, persistence among other factors, some compounds can be transformed to their less toxic forms such as Cr.
Based on group experience we know that this species can survive, tolerate, absorb and transform. Also based on the literature we know that there must be periods of acclimatization of the species for its transformation and or ideal absorption of the compounds. Due to previous knowledge about the phytoremediation process, which is an integral methodology where at the same time the species phytovolatilizes, rhizofiltration, phytodegrades. Due to the characteristics of the species, it can be a permeable membrane to prevent or sequester toxic elements to the water table, but thanks to the life cycle of this species it can absorb significantly contaminated by its modular growth. However, dead leaves may contain some compounds that cannot be degraded and these should be confined or incinerated to ensure that they do not return to the soil.
The essential oil extracted from vetiver roots can be used in the perfume industry, vetiver leaves can be used for roofing of rustic houses and the plant is already used as a fire barrier because it keeps growing even after being burned. In addition, the use of vetiver has the purpose of improving the management of degraded spaces and their restoration through innovative phytoremediation techniques. Vetiver could be used in many countries throughout the world due to its economical accessibility and ability to adapt to different climatic conditions, as well as its capacity to remove different types of pollutants as has already been evidenced.
Grateful for the postgraduate scholarship from the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACyT) -Mexico (430983), the Catedra-CONACyT 781 and DAIP-UGto Project # 811/2016. The authors also thank Promotora Ambiental (S.A. de C.V.) for the financial support provided and for the permission to use their facilities.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Al | aluminum |
B | boron |
Ba | barium |
Be | beryllium |
Cd | cadmium |
Co | cobalt |
Cr | chromium |
Cu | copper |
Fe | iron |
Mg | magnesium |
Mn | manganese |
Ni | nickel |
Pb | lead |
S | sulfur |
Se | selenium |
Tl | thallium |
V | vanadium |
Zn | zinc |
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In general, the pyrolysis types are classified base on heating rate mainly either fast or slow pyrolysis. The characteristic and properties of wood vinegar are primarily influenced by the type of carbonaceous feedstocks as well as the production techniques. Wood vinegar is a complex mixture of polar and non-polar chemicals with various molecular weights and compositions. Its major constituent is water (80–90%). Some physical properties; such as pH, specific gravity, dissolved tar content are, respectively, within the range of 2–4, 1.005–1.016 g/mL, 0.23–0.89% wt, and color, odor and transparency have been reported. In addition, the degree of oBrix was ranged between 1.7 and 6.6. Besides water, the chemical compositions of wood vinegars consisted of acetic acid with the largest component (30.45–70.60 mg.mL−1). A high number of phenol derivatives have been found and those in higher concentrations were 4-propyl-2-methoxyphenol (5–11 mg.mL−1) followed by 2-methylphenol (2–4 mg.mL−1). Wood vinegar has been regarded as a natural product, which claimed to be capable in several fields of application. In agriculture, wood vinegar has been used in vegetable cropping in order to combat disease, pest control, improve growth and fruit quality, seed germination accelerator as well as herbicide. In pharmaceutical and medical applications, it is used for the preparation of detoxification pad while in veterinary and animal production, incorporation of the wood vinegar in feed could promote acidity in large intestine to inhibit growth of enteropathogenic microbes. In food processing, wood vinegar has a characteristic smoke flavor, and also exhibits microbial growth inhibition. In addition, several investigators reported that bio-oil and wood vinegar obtained from fast pyrolysis and carbonization showed a high potential on organic wood preservative. In summary, the wood vinegar prepared from the tropical wood and/or biomass waste is widely beneficial. 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It is the conversion of forested land to non-forested land by humans. Deforestation occurs when a land dominated by naturally occurring trees is converted to provide certain services in response to the human demand. The indiscriminate felling of trees has resulted in a reduction of 3.16% in the global forest cover from 1990 to 2015. Although India has seen an increment in the total forest cover of ca. 1%, still there are certain regions in the country that have sought a decrease in the forest cover. The main reasons attributed to the reduction in forest cover are shifting cultivation, rotational felling, other biotic pressures, diversion of forest lands for developmental activities, etc. Continuous illicit cutting of trees has impacted the microclimatic conditions, hydrological cycle, soil quality, biodiversity, etc. of the country, thereby making the country more vulnerable for any uneventful happening. Sustainable forest management practices, alternatives for shifting cultivation, promotion of plantation outside the forest and the usage of certified forest products, etc. are some of the measures that can be adopted to curb the rate of deforestation.",book:{id:"7629",slug:"forest-degradation-around-the-world",title:"Forest Degradation Around the World",fullTitle:"Forest Degradation Around the World"},signatures:"Rima Kumari, Ayan Banerjee, Rahul Kumar, Amit Kumar, Purabi Saikia and Mohammed Latif Khan",authors:[{id:"276688",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mohammed-latif-khan",fullName:"Mohammed Latif Khan"},{id:"279797",title:"Dr.",name:"Purabi",middleName:null,surname:"Saikia",slug:"purabi-saikia",fullName:"Purabi Saikia"},{id:"279806",title:"MSc.",name:"Rima",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"rima-kumari",fullName:"Rima Kumari"},{id:"279807",title:"BSc.",name:"Ayan",middleName:null,surname:"Banerjee",slug:"ayan-banerjee",fullName:"Ayan Banerjee"},{id:"285660",title:"Dr.",name:"Amit",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"amit-kumar",fullName:"Amit Kumar"},{id:"285661",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"rahul-kumar",fullName:"Rahul Kumar"}]},{id:"45219",doi:"10.5772/56279",title:"Potential Future Ranges of Tree Species in the Alps",slug:"potential-future-ranges-of-tree-species-in-the-alps",totalDownloads:4893,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"3403",slug:"management-strategies-to-adapt-alpine-space-forests-to-climate-change-risks",title:"Management Strategies to Adapt Alpine Space Forests to Climate Change Risks",fullTitle:"Management Strategies to Adapt Alpine Space Forests to Climate Change Risks"},signatures:"Niklaus E. Zimmermann, Robert Jandl, Marc Hanewinkel, Georges\nKunstler, Christian Kölling, Patrizia Gasparini, Andrej Breznikar,\nEliane S. Meier, Signe Normand, Ulrich Ulmer, Thomas\nGschwandtner, Holger Veit, Maria Naumann, Wolfgang Falk, Karl\nMellert, Maria Rizzo, Mitja Skudnik and Achilleas Psomas",authors:[{id:"165202",title:"Prof.",name:"Niklaus",middleName:"E.",surname:"Zimmermann",slug:"niklaus-zimmermann",fullName:"Niklaus Zimmermann"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"31959",title:"Structure, Diversity, Threats and Conservation of Tropical Forests",slug:"structure-diversity-threats-and-conservation-of-tropical-forests",totalDownloads:8024,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"902",slug:"tropical-forests",title:"Tropical Forests",fullTitle:"Tropical Forests"},signatures:"Madhugiri Nageswara-Rao, Jaya R. Soneji and Padmini Sudarshana",authors:[{id:"79318",title:"Dr.",name:"Padmini",middleName:null,surname:"Sudarshana",slug:"padmini-sudarshana",fullName:"Padmini Sudarshana"},{id:"120847",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhugiri",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara-Rao",slug:"madhugiri-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Madhugiri Nageswara-Rao"},{id:"120848",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya",middleName:null,surname:"Soneji",slug:"jaya-soneji",fullName:"Jaya Soneji"}]},{id:"66710",title:"Deforestation in India: Consequences and Sustainable Solutions",slug:"deforestation-in-india-consequences-and-sustainable-solutions",totalDownloads:2012,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Deforestation is one of the most pressing environmental issues that the world is facing currently. It is the conversion of forested land to non-forested land by humans. Deforestation occurs when a land dominated by naturally occurring trees is converted to provide certain services in response to the human demand. The indiscriminate felling of trees has resulted in a reduction of 3.16% in the global forest cover from 1990 to 2015. Although India has seen an increment in the total forest cover of ca. 1%, still there are certain regions in the country that have sought a decrease in the forest cover. The main reasons attributed to the reduction in forest cover are shifting cultivation, rotational felling, other biotic pressures, diversion of forest lands for developmental activities, etc. Continuous illicit cutting of trees has impacted the microclimatic conditions, hydrological cycle, soil quality, biodiversity, etc. of the country, thereby making the country more vulnerable for any uneventful happening. Sustainable forest management practices, alternatives for shifting cultivation, promotion of plantation outside the forest and the usage of certified forest products, etc. are some of the measures that can be adopted to curb the rate of deforestation.",book:{id:"7629",slug:"forest-degradation-around-the-world",title:"Forest Degradation Around the World",fullTitle:"Forest Degradation Around the World"},signatures:"Rima Kumari, Ayan Banerjee, Rahul Kumar, Amit Kumar, Purabi Saikia and Mohammed Latif Khan",authors:[{id:"276688",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mohammed-latif-khan",fullName:"Mohammed Latif Khan"},{id:"279797",title:"Dr.",name:"Purabi",middleName:null,surname:"Saikia",slug:"purabi-saikia",fullName:"Purabi Saikia"},{id:"279806",title:"MSc.",name:"Rima",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"rima-kumari",fullName:"Rima Kumari"},{id:"279807",title:"BSc.",name:"Ayan",middleName:null,surname:"Banerjee",slug:"ayan-banerjee",fullName:"Ayan Banerjee"},{id:"285660",title:"Dr.",name:"Amit",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"amit-kumar",fullName:"Amit Kumar"},{id:"285661",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"rahul-kumar",fullName:"Rahul Kumar"}]},{id:"68528",title:"Forest Biodiversity and Deforestation in Bangladesh: The Latest Update",slug:"forest-biodiversity-and-deforestation-in-bangladesh-the-latest-update",totalDownloads:1507,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Located in the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, Bangladesh is a tropical country in Southeast Asia and a transitional point for flora and fauna between the Indo-Himalayan and Indo-Chinese subregions. About 11% land area (1,429,000 hectares) of the country is covered with four major forest types: mixed-evergreen forests, deciduous forests, mangrove forests, and freshwater swamp forests. Though Bangladesh is a small and densely populated country, it is the home of 1952 species of invertebrates, 653 fish, 50 amphibians, 147 reptiles, 566 birds, and 127 mammalian species of which many of them are globally threatened. We have discussed the latest status of all the major vertebrate groups in this chapter. Thirty-one species of vertebrates have gone extinct from Bangladesh over the last century. Many of the species are facing continuous threat of extinction due to deforestation and degradation of habitat caused by various anthropogenic activities. In this chapter, we are going to discuss about the current management and conservation practices and issues related to the forests and wildlife of Bangladesh.",book:{id:"7629",slug:"forest-degradation-around-the-world",title:"Forest Degradation Around the World",fullTitle:"Forest Degradation Around the World"},signatures:"Ahm Ali Reza and Md. Kamrul Hasan",authors:[{id:"281012",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Kamrul",middleName:null,surname:"Hasan",slug:"md.-kamrul-hasan",fullName:"Md. 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Some physical properties; such as pH, specific gravity, dissolved tar content are, respectively, within the range of 2–4, 1.005–1.016 g/mL, 0.23–0.89% wt, and color, odor and transparency have been reported. In addition, the degree of oBrix was ranged between 1.7 and 6.6. Besides water, the chemical compositions of wood vinegars consisted of acetic acid with the largest component (30.45–70.60 mg.mL−1). A high number of phenol derivatives have been found and those in higher concentrations were 4-propyl-2-methoxyphenol (5–11 mg.mL−1) followed by 2-methylphenol (2–4 mg.mL−1). Wood vinegar has been regarded as a natural product, which claimed to be capable in several fields of application. In agriculture, wood vinegar has been used in vegetable cropping in order to combat disease, pest control, improve growth and fruit quality, seed germination accelerator as well as herbicide. In pharmaceutical and medical applications, it is used for the preparation of detoxification pad while in veterinary and animal production, incorporation of the wood vinegar in feed could promote acidity in large intestine to inhibit growth of enteropathogenic microbes. In food processing, wood vinegar has a characteristic smoke flavor, and also exhibits microbial growth inhibition. In addition, several investigators reported that bio-oil and wood vinegar obtained from fast pyrolysis and carbonization showed a high potential on organic wood preservative. In summary, the wood vinegar prepared from the tropical wood and/or biomass waste is widely beneficial. 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Quantifying these effects would allow crucial improvement in biogeochemical budgets and modeling, predicting response of land use and disturbance, and could be applied to bioremediation efforts. Effective methods of manipulating earthworm communities in the field are needed to accompany laboratory microcosm studies to calculate their net function in natural systems and to isolate specific mechanisms. This chapter reviews laboratory and field methods for enumerating and manipulating earthworm populations, as well as approaches toward quantifying their influences on soil processes and biogeochemical cycling.",book:{id:"5539",slug:"forest-ecology-and-conservation",title:"Forest Ecology and Conservation",fullTitle:"Forest Ecology and Conservation"},signatures:"Dylan Rhea-Fournier and Grizelle González",authors:[{id:"82355",title:"Dr.",name:"Grizelle",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"grizelle-gonzalez",fullName:"Grizelle Gonzalez"},{id:"194800",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Dylan",middleName:null,surname:"Rhea-Fournier",slug:"dylan-rhea-fournier",fullName:"Dylan Rhea-Fournier"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"138",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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