Meteorological parameters monitored in Kaohsiung City during the atmospheric mercury sampling periods for wet and dry seasons.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7515",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Photonic Crystals - A Glimpse of the Current Research Trends",title:"Photonic Crystals",subtitle:"A Glimpse of the Current Research Trends",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The role of dielectric mirrors is very important in optics. These are used for several purposes like imaging, fabricating laser cavities, and so on. The basis for the propagation of photons in dielectric mediums is the same as electrons in solid crystals. If the electrons can be diffracted by a periodic potential well, photons could also be equally well diffracted by a periodic modulation of the refractive index of the medium. This idea led to the development of many new artificial photonic materials and optical micro- and nanostructures. Since the mechanism of light guidance is essentially due to the microstructural features of the medium, a wide variety of photonic structures, e.g., photonic band-gap fibers in 1D and photonic band-gap crystals in 2D and 3D, can be realized. Photonic Crystals - A Glimpse of the Current Research Trends essentially highlights the recent developments in the arena of photonic crystal research. It is expected to be useful for expert as well as novice researchers; the former group of readers would be abreast of recent research advancements, whereas the latter group would benefit from grasping knowledge delivered by expert scientists.",isbn:"978-1-83962-267-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-266-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-268-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76491",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"photonic-crystals-a-glimpse-of-the-current-research-trends",numberOfPages:120,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1dcab6021cb88bdb66e9588e2fc24d19",bookSignature:"Pankaj Kumar Choudhury",publishedDate:"October 9th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7515.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5770,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 21st 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 8th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 7th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 25th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 24th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"205744",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Choudhury",slug:"pankaj-kumar-choudhury",fullName:"Pankaj Kumar Choudhury",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205744/images/system/205744.jpg",biography:"Pankaj K. Choudhury has held academic positions in India, Canada, Japan, and Malaysia. From 2003 to 2009, he was a professor at the Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Malaysia. Thereafter, he served as a professor at the Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. His research interests lie in complex mediums, fiber optic devices, optical sensors, and metamaterials. He has published more than 260 research papers and 22 book chapters and has edited and co-edited 9 books. He is the section editor of Optik and the editor in chief of the Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications. He is a fellow of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) and Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) and a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and Optica.",institutionString:"Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"National University of Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1228",title:"Photonics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-photonics"}],chapters:[{id:"66535",title:"Introductory Chapter: Photonic Crystals–Revisited",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85246",slug:"introductory-chapter-photonic-crystals-revisited",totalDownloads:717,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Pankaj Kumar Choudhury",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66535",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66535",authors:[{id:"205744",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",surname:"Kumar Choudhury",slug:"pankaj-kumar-choudhury",fullName:"Pankaj Kumar Choudhury"}],corrections:null},{id:"66736",title:"Phononic Crystals and Thermal Effects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82068",slug:"phononic-crystals-and-thermal-effects",totalDownloads:1011,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this work, we demonstrate a comprehensive theoretical study of one-dimensional perfect and defect phononic crystals. In our study, we investigate the elastic and shear waves with the influences of thermal effects. The numerical calculations based on the transfer matrix method (TMM) and Bloch theory are presented, where the TMM is obtained by applying the continuity conditions between two consecutive sub-cells. Also, we show that by introducing a defect layer in the perfect periodic structures (defect phononic crystals), we obtain localization modes within the band structure. These localized modes can be implemented in many applications such as impedance matching, collimation, and focusing in acoustic imaging applications. Then, we investigate the influences of the incident angle and material types on the number and intensity of the localized modes in both cases of perfect/defect crystals. In addition, we have observed that the temperature has a great effect on the wave localization phenomena in phononic band gap structures. Such effects can change the thermal properties of the PnCs structure such as thermal conductivity, and it can also control the thermal emission, which is contributed by phonons in many engineering structures.",signatures:"Arafa H. Aly and Ahmed Mehaney",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66736",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66736",authors:[{id:"187698",title:"Prof.",name:"Arafa",surname:"Aly",slug:"arafa-aly",fullName:"Arafa Aly"}],corrections:null},{id:"63533",title:"Metal-Matrix Embedded Phononic Crystals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80790",slug:"metal-matrix-embedded-phononic-crystals",totalDownloads:853,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Metal-matrix embedded phononic crystals (MMEPCs) can be applied for noise and vibration reduction. Metal-matrix embedded phononic crystals (MMEPCs) consisting of double-sided stubs (single “hard” stubs/composite stubs) were introduced. The introduced MMEPCs are deposited on a two-dimensional locally resonant phononic crystal plate that consists of an array of rubber fillers embedded in a steel plate. The lower frequency complete bandgap will be produced in the MMEPCs with composite stubs by decoupling the spring-mass system of the resonator by means of the rubber filler. Then, the out-of-plane bandgap and the in-plane bandgap can be adjusted into the same lowest frequency range by the composite stubs. The broad complete bandgap will be produced in the metal-matrix embedded phononic crystals with single “hard” stubs by producing new kinds of resonance modes (in-plane and out-of-plane analogous-rigid modes) by introducing the single “hard” stubs, and then the out-of-plane bandgap and the in-plane bandgap can be broadened into the same frequency range by the single “hard” stubs. The proposed MMEPCs can be used for noise and vibration reduction.",signatures:"Suobin Li, Yihua Dou and Linkai Niu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63533",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63533",authors:[{id:"260656",title:"Dr.",name:"Suobin",surname:"Li",slug:"suobin-li",fullName:"Suobin Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"65799",title:"Hybrid Liquid-Crystal/Photonic-Crystal Devices: Current Research and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82833",slug:"hybrid-liquid-crystal-photonic-crystal-devices-current-research-and-applications",totalDownloads:1023,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, the current research and development of the liquid crystal-based photonic crystals is introduced. This chapter will present the essential knowledge of the new photonic crystal technology and applications in simple language. In the recent year, liquid crystal-enabled photonic crystal technologies have attracted broad attentions from scientists. Based on special optical properties of liquid crystal-enabled photonic crystal device, many applications, such as tunable optical filters, tunable optical modulators, optical pulse compressors, laser device, and applications in multiphoton microscopy, have been developed in recent years. In addition, the detailed optical properties, operation principles, and prospects are discussed in this chapter.",signatures:"Yu-Cheng Hsiao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65799",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65799",authors:[{id:"251673",title:"Prof.",name:"Yu-Cheng",surname:"Hsiao",slug:"yu-cheng-hsiao",fullName:"Yu-Cheng Hsiao"}],corrections:null},{id:"63238",title:"The Mid-Infrared Photonic Crystals for Gas Sensing Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80042",slug:"the-mid-infrared-photonic-crystals-for-gas-sensing-applications",totalDownloads:1252,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Mid-infrared spectrum is known as the “molecular fingerprint” region, where most of the trace gases have their identical absorption patterns. Photonic crystals allow the control of light-matter interactions within micro/nanoscales, offering unique advantages for gas analyzing applications. Therefore, investigating mid-infrared photonic crystal based gas sensing methods is of significant importance for the gas sensing systems with high sensitivity and portable footprint features. In recent various photonic crystal gas sensing techniques have been developing rapidly in the mid-infrared region. They operate either by detecting the optical spectrum behavior or by measuring the material properties, such as the gas absorption patterns, the refractive index, as well as the electrical conductivities. Here, we will brief the progress, and review the above-listed photonic crystal approaches in the mid-infrared range. Their uniqueness and weakness will both be presented. Although the technical level for them has not been ready for commercialization yet, their small size, weight, power consumption and cost (SWaP-C) features offer great values and indicate their enormous application potentials in future, especially under the stimulation of the newly emerging technology “Internet of Things” which heavily relies on modern SWaP-C sensor devices.",signatures:"Tahere Hemati and Binbin Weng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63238",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63238",authors:[{id:"96449",title:"Dr.",name:"Binbin",surname:"Weng",slug:"binbin-weng",fullName:"Binbin Weng"},{id:"261393",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Tahere",surname:"Hemati",slug:"tahere-hemati",fullName:"Tahere Hemati"}],corrections:null},{id:"68139",title:"Modelling of Photonic Crystal (PhC) Cavities: Theory and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84961",slug:"modelling-of-photonic-crystal-phc-cavities-theory-and-applications",totalDownloads:914,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, many researchers have shown their interest in producing a compact high-performance optical chip that is useful for most telecommunication applications. One of the solutions is by realising photonic crystal (PhC) structures that exhibit high-quality factors in a small mode volume, V. Silicon on insulator (SOI) is one of the main contenders due to its high-index contrast between the silicon (Si) core waveguide with silica (SiO2) cladding surrounding it. The maturity of silicon photonic can also be incorporated with CMOS chips making it a desired material. A strong optical confinement provided by PhC structures makes it possible to realise the compact device on a single chip. In this chapter, we will discuss a fundamental background of photonic crystal cavities mainly on one-dimensional (1D) structures, which are the simplest as compared to their counterparts, 2D and 3D PhC device structures. We have modelled a photonic crystal cavity using finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) approach. This approach uses time-dependent Maxwell equation to cover wide frequency range in a single simulation. The results are then compared with the actual measured results showing a significant agreement between them. The design will be used as basic building block for designing a more complex PhC structures that exhibit high-quality factors for applications such as filtering, DWDM and sensors.",signatures:"Ahmad Rifqi Md Zain and Richard M. De La Rue",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68139",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68139",authors:[{id:"251360",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Rifqi",surname:"Md Zain",slug:"ahmad-rifqi-md-zain",fullName:"Ahmad Rifqi Md Zain"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6070",title:"Liquid Crystals",subtitle:"Recent Advancements in Fundamental and Device Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e3e8add5e8692b9786d3afd973c760d1",slug:"liquid-crystals-recent-advancements-in-fundamental-and-device-technologies",bookSignature:"Pankaj Kumar Choudhury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6070.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"205744",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",surname:"Kumar Choudhury",slug:"pankaj-kumar-choudhury",fullName:"Pankaj Kumar Choudhury"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6467",title:"Optical Amplifiers",subtitle:"A Few Different Dimensions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86c6992b53c2bbf8f9021210a0edeb2d",slug:"optical-amplifiers-a-few-different-dimensions",bookSignature:"Pankaj Kumar Choudhury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6467.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"205744",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",surname:"Kumar Choudhury",slug:"pankaj-kumar-choudhury",fullName:"Pankaj Kumar Choudhury"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"38",title:"Advances in Optical Amplifiers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"advances-in-optical-amplifiers",bookSignature:"Paul Urquhart",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/38.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15642",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Urquhart",slug:"paul-urquhart",fullName:"Paul Urquhart"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6283",title:"Theoretical Foundations and Application of Photonic Crystals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"39e6706f3958cd3e468f8b540a7af63d",slug:"theoretical-foundations-and-application-of-photonic-crystals",bookSignature:"Alexander Vakhrushev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6283.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"140718",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander V.",surname:"Vakhrushev",slug:"alexander-v.-vakhrushev",fullName:"Alexander V. 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The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"16c273757cb454841b7c9c573df255ba",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12198.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 28th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Among them, 11 are the toxic heavy metals As, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Hg, Ni, Mn, Pb, Sb, and Se. In 2005, the U.S.A. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) became the first agency to amend the Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) standards into growth control quotas for mercury emissions in order to increase the original goal of a 30% reduction in mercury emissions to 70% by 2018 [2]. This was also done to encourage countries around the world to revise their own reduction goals for mercury emissions. Till now, the pollutants of mercury still cannot be completely removed by using chemical method, and continue to endanger the health of humans and other organisms.
\nMercury (Hg) is a persistent, toxic, and bio-accumulative heavy metal, and is currently regulated by the USEPA and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10], and atmospheric mercury has been claimed by UNEP as another global environmental issue followed greenhouse gases (GHGs) [1, 2]. Because of its unique physicochemical properties and potential for long-range transportation via the atmospheric dispersion pathway, it could be deposited worldwide [4, 5]. Due to its characteristics of persistence and bioaccumulation through food chain, mercury could damage the brain and nervous systems in human body. Thus, many countries are becoming increasingly concerned about atmospheric mercury pollution recently.
\nAccordingly, this chapter aimed to investigate the tempospatial variation and partition of atmospheric mercury at an industrial metropolitan area, and to explore the long-range transportation path at the marine boundary layer (MBL), and to compare the atmospheric mercury concentration level with other major cities all over the world.
\nThe mercury emission was mainly generated from combustion sources and metallurgy smelting processes in Taiwan. Among them, the combustion sources include coal-fired boilers, municipal and industrial waste incinerators, petrochemical refineries, cremators, etc., while the metallurgy smelting processes include integrated steel plants, electric arc furnace plants, secondary metal smelters, etc. The economic development of metro Kaohsiung mainly relied on heavy industries located adjacent to the metropolitan area. Coupled with heavy traffics, it causes poor ambient air quality of Kao-Ping Air Quality Zone in Taiwan. Moreover, metro Kaohsiung is the largest and most intensive industrial city in Taiwan, accounting for about 70% of the stationary emission sources, where has two large-scale coal-fired power plants, an integrated steel plant, several metallurgy smelters, and three petrochemical refineries. It would cause quite high emissions of mercury in metro Kaohsiung, Taiwan. In this chapter, the field measurement of atmospheric mercury was designated to investigate the tempospatial variation and partition of gaseous and particulate mercury during the wet and dry seasons, and further correlated atmospheric mercury with meteorological parameters and criteria air pollutants measured in Kaohsiung City, located at the coastal region of southern Taiwan.
\nField measurement of atmospheric mercury speciation and concentration was conducted at a coastal background site and six sensitivity sites in Kaohsiung City, including Nan-zhi (22°44′00″ North latitude, 120°19′41″ East longitude, S1), Ren-wu (22°41′20″ North latitude, 120°19′57″ East longitude, S2), Zuoying (22°40′29″ North latitude, 120°17′34″ East longitude, S3), Cia-jin (23°37′56″ North latitude, 120°17′16″ East longitude, S4), Cianjhen (22°36′18″ North latitude, 120°18′30″ East longitude, S5), and Hsiao-kang (22°33′57″ North latitude, 120°20′15″ East longitude, S6). The coastal background site along coastline far away from the emission sources is located at the campus of National Sun Yat-Sen University (22°37′38″ North latitude, 120°16′01″ East longitude). The location of the coastal background site and six sensitivity sites for sampling total gaseous mercury (TGM) and particulate mercury (Hgp) in Kaohsiung City is shown in Figure 1.
\nThe location of six sensitivity sites and the coastal background site for TGM and Hgp sampling in Kaohsiung City.
These sensitivity sites were mainly located at the ambient air quality monitoring stations in Kaohsiung City. Among them, sites S5–S6 were nearby a steel industrial complex in southern Kaohsiung, sites S1 and S2 were close to a petrochemical industrial complex in northern Kaohsiung. Active sampling of TGM and Hgp were conducted consecutively for 24 h at each site in the wet and dry seasons from June to December of 2010 in Kaohsiung City. Among them, wet season started from June to September, while dry season started from October to December. This study intended to investigate the seasonal variation, the spatial distribution, and the partition of TGM and Hgp at a coastal background site and six sensitivity sites in an industrial city.
\nFigure 2 illustrates the seasonal variation of TGM and Hgp concentrations at the northern and southern Kaohsiung as well as the coastal background site during the wet and dry seasons. The field measured meteorological data are listed in Table 1, and the field measurement data with mean, standard deviation (SD), and partition of TGM and Hgp are summarized in Table 2.
\nTempospatial variation of TGM and Hgp concentrations during the wet and dry seasons in the northern and southern Kaohsiung sites and the coastal site.
Seasons | \nTemp. (°C) | \nRH (%) | \nRainfall (mm) | \nRainy days | \nUVB (UVI) | \nWS (m/s) | \nWD | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Wet | \n28.9 ± 0.7 | \n78.3 ± 1.7 | \n427.9 ± 305.1 | \n50 | \n3.4 ± 0.5 | \n2.2 ± 0.2 | \nSW, NE | \n
Dry | \n23.7 ± 3.4 | \n73.3 ± 3.1 | \n63.0 ± 97.6 | \n12 | \n2.1 ± 0.3 | \n1.9 ± 0.1 | \nNW, NE | \n
Meteorological parameters monitored in Kaohsiung City during the atmospheric mercury sampling periods for wet and dry seasons.
Temp.: ambient temperature; RH: relative humidity; Rainy days: days with rainfall ≧ 0.01 mm; WS: wind speed; WD: wind direction; UVB: ultra-violet radiation.
Seasons | \nTypes of Hg | \nNorthern Kaohsiung sites | \nSouthern Kaohsiung sites | \nCoastal background site | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S1 | \nS2 | \nS3 | \nS4 | \nS5 | \nS6 | \nSb | \n||
Wet season (n = 12) | \nTGM (ng/m3) | \n5.72 | \n6.37 | \n5.20 | \n4.04 | \n7.42 | \n8.60 | \n2.38 | \n
Hgp (ng/m3) | \n0.20 | \n0.24 | \n0.06 | \n0.05 | \n0.35 | \n0.50 | \n0.02 | \n|
Mean ± SD (ng/m3) | \nTGM | \n6.23 ± 1.62 | \n\n | |||||
Hgp | \n0.23 ± 0.17 | \n\n | ||||||
Dry season (n = 12) | \nTGM (ng/m3) | \n5.95 | \n8.06 | \n6.59 | \n5.03 | \n7.50 | \n9.41 | \n2.44 | \n
Hgp (ng/m3) | \n0.23 | \n0.39 | \n0.12 | \n0.08 | \n0.59 | \n0.68 | \n0.03 | \n|
Mean ± SD (ng/m3) | \nTGM | \n7.09 ± 1.57 | \n\n | |||||
Hgp | \n0.35 ± 0.25 | \n\n | ||||||
Mean ± SD of atmospheric mercury (ng/m3) | \nTGM | \n6.66 ± 1.42 | \n2.41 ± 0.04 | \n|||||
Hgp | \n0.29 ± 0.21 | \n0.03 ± 0.01 | \n
Seasonal variation of TGM and Hgp concentrations at six sensitivity sites and the coastal background site in Kaohsiung City.
S1: Nan-zhi site; S2: Ren-wu site; S3: Zuo-ying site; S4: Cia-jin site; S5: Cian-jhen site; S6: Hsiao-kang site; Sb: coastal site.
During the wet season, ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and UVB were 28.9 ± 0.7°C, 78.3 ± 1.7%, 2.2 ± 0.2 m/s, and 3.4 ± 0.5 UVI, respectively, which were mostly higher than those during the dry season (Table 2). The prevailing wind blew from southwest and northeast during the dry season, and the prevailing wind blew from northwest and northeast during the wet season were reported. It was mainly attributed to the fact that sea-land breezes blew frequently in Kaohsiung City. However, the wet season is the heat convection season (i.e., hurricane season), in which the rainfall was about 427.9 ± 305.1 mm and the rainy days (rainfall ≧ 0.01 mm) were about 50 days. The dry season commonly blew the northeast monsoon, in which the rainfall and rainy days were much less than those during the wet season. Therefore, the aforementioned meteorological condition is considered as the differential between the dry and wet seasons in Kaohsiung City.
\nField measurement data showed that the concentrations of TGM and Hgp were 6.23 ± 1.62 ng/m3 and 0.23 ± 0.17 ng/m3, respectively, during the wet season, while the concentrations of TGM and Hgp were 7.09 ± 1.57 ng/m3 and 0.35 ± 0.25 ng/m3, respectively, during the dry season in Kaohsiung City. The concentrations of atmospheric mercury during the dry season was obviously higher than those during the wet season. It showed that meteorological condition and atmospheric dispersion played a critical role on the seasonal variation of atmospheric mercury concentration. However, the seasonal concentrations of TGM and Hgp did not vary much at the coastal background site, thus the seasonal variation has insignificant influences on regions where atmospheric mercury concentrations were high.
\nThe atmospheric mercury concentrations at southern Kaohsiung were mostly higher than those at northern Kaohsiung during the wet and dry seasons, and their average concentrations were respectively 1.12 and 1.79 times of those at northern Kaohsiung. As a whole, the average concentrations of TGM and Hgp in Kaohsiung City were about 2.94 and 11.7 times, respectively, higher than those at the coastal background site during the wet season, and were about 2.6 and 11.5 times, respectively, during the dry season. Overall, the average TGM and Hgp concentrations were 6.66 ± 1.42 and 0.29 ± 0.21 ng/m3, respectively, in Kaohsiung City. The TGM concentration in Kaohsiung City was about 4.2 times and 2.8 times higher than the background TGM concentration of the North Hemisphere (1.6 ng/m3) and at the coastal background site in Kaohsiung City (2.4 ng/m3), respectively. It showed that Kaohsiung City as a heavy industrial city was highly polluted by atmospheric mercury.
\nFigure 3 illustrates the partition of Hgp during the wet and dry seasons in Kaohsiung City. The results showed that TGM was the main mercury species, accounting for 94.56–99.59% of atmospheric mercury during the wet season, and 92.71–99.37% of atmospheric mercury during the dry season. Furthermore, Hgp concentration had a tendency to increase with the distance from the emission sources. The maximum partition of Hgp were up to 20–40% of total atmospheric mercury (TAM) in the ambient air [11, 12, 13]. The partition of Hgp was generally lower than 1% of TAM in the rural areas, about 1–3% in the metropolitan areas, and beyond 5% in the industrial areas [14, 15, 16]. Figure 1 shows that site Sb is in the rural area, sites S3 and S4 are in the metropolitan areas, and other four sites are in the industrial areas in Kaohsiung City. Moreover, the partition of Hgp during the dry season was higher than that during the wet season. It implied that the amount of rainfall, the number of rainy days, and relative humidity might correlate to the partition of Hgp.
\nPartition of Hgp during the wet and dry seasons at six sensitivity sites (S1–S6) and the coastal site (Sb).
The concentrations of TGM and Hgp measured at each site are summarized in Table 2. As far as the spatial distribution of atmospheric mercury during the wet and dry seasons in Kaohsiung City was concerned, the atmospheric mercury concentrations (TGM of 6.37 ng/m3; Hgp of 0.24 ng/m3) at site S2 was the highest and followed by sites S1 and S3 in northern Kaohsiung, while those (TGM of 8.60 ng/m3; Hgp of 0.50 ng/m3) at site S6 was the highest and followed by sites S5 and S4 in southern Kaohsiung. During the dry season, the atmospheric mercury concentrations (TGM of 8.06 ng/m3; Hgp of 0.39 ng/m3) at site S2 was also the highest and followed by sites S3 and S1 in northern Kaohsiung, while those (TGM of 9.41 ng/m3; Hgp of 0.50 ng/m3) at site S6 was the highest and followed by sites S5 and S4 in the southern Kaohsiung.
\nThe mapping software (SURFER) was further used for plotting the concentration contour of atmospheric mercury in Kaohsiung City. This software uses the grid difference as the calculation basis, and interpolarates the data of atmospheric mercury concentration obtained from each sampling site into the map of Kaohsiung City. This study aimed to explore the spatial distribution of atmospheric mercury concentration in Kaohsiung City. As shown inFigure 4, the atmospheric mercury concentrations of northern and southern Kaohsiung were obviously affected by the mercury emission sources. Two major high mercury concentration regions concurred with the petrochemical industrial district in northern Kaohsiung and the steel manufacturing complex in southern Kaohsiung. The main emission sources in northern Kaohsiung were petrochemical manufacturing complex, municipal and industrial waste incinerators, cremators, etc. In southern Kaohsiung, mercury was mainly emitted from steel smelters, electric arc furnaces, cement plants, petroleum refineries, coal-fired power plants, municipal waste incinerators, etc. Consequently, the atmospheric mercury concentration in southern Kaohsiung was higher than that in northern Kaohsiung, which was attributed to higher mercury emission in southern Kaohsiung than that in northern Kaohsiung. As a whole, the ambient air quality of Kaohsiung City was highly affected by the heavily densed industries, thus the concentration of atmospheric mercury in the metropolitan area was much higher than the background level during the wet and dry seasons. Both numbers of the emission sources and the consumption of fossil fuels in southern Kaohsiung were higher than those in northern Kaohsiung.
\nSpatial distribution of atmospheric mercury in Kaohsiung City. (A) TGM concentration during the dry season, (B) TGM concentration during the wet season, (C) Hgp concentration during the dry season, and (D) Hgp concentration during the wet season.
Figure 5 compares the concentrations of TGM and Hgp at different mercury emission sources in southern Taiwan [12, 13]. The highest TGM concentrations were observed at a steel plant, which was approximately 2.6 times higher than those at Tainan Scientific Complex, even up to 15 times for Hgp concentration. Similarly, other stationary sources were also higher than those observed at Tainan Scientific Complex for both TGM and Hgp concentrations. Figure 6 illustrates the partition of TGM and Hgp for various mercury emission sources in southern Kaohsiung. The partition of Hgp at Tainan Scientific Complex was only 1.7%, which was similar to those observed at most urban areas (1–3%), and was much lower than other stationary sources (e.g., coal fired power plants, waste incinerators, and steel plants). Their partition of Hgp ranged from 7.3 to 9.5%, which contributed much more Hgp to the ambient air [6, 15, 17, 18]. Overall speaking, TGM was the dominant species of atmospheric mercury in southern Taiwan.
\nComparison of TGM and Hgp concentrations with various mercury emission sources in southern Kaohsiung (A: the semi-conductor complex, B: the petroleum refinery, C: the steel plant, D: the coal-fired power plant, E: the electric arc furnace, F: the municipal waste incinerator).
Location of the TGM monitoring site (★) at the Penghu Islands.
Penghu Islands are located at the middle of the Taiwan Strait between the southeastern China and Taiwan. The islands are dominated by subtropical weather and mainly influenced by East Asian monsoons. Previous studies reported that, during the seasons of spring and winter, the biomass and fossil fuel burning frequently occurring in Southeast Asia and Southwest China increase the levels of atmospheric mercury in Taiwan owning to long-range transportation [11, 18]. Since there are no significant mercury sources at the Penghu Islands, it can be treated as the background site in the region.
\nIn this chapter, a one-year field monitoring protocol was conducted to investigate the seasonal and daily variations of TAM concentration at the Penghu Islands, as the correlation of TGM concentration with the meteorological parameters and several criteria air pollutants being further examined and discussed. More importantly, a backward trajectory simulation model was further applied to explore the transportation of TGM to the Penghu Islands with respect to the transportation routes for those observed at 500 m above the sea level during the monitoring seasons. While the TGM has been a continuing issue of great concern worldwide, the results of this study would help development more effective management strategies to control the adverse influences associated with the effect of TGM on the environment and human health as well in the Penghu Islands and the areas possibly affected by the long-range transportation of TGM.
\nAccording to the meteorological data obtained from 1985 to 2011, dry season with the rainfall of about 800 mm started from April to September. Table 3 summarizes the meteorological data measured at the Penghu Islands during the TGM monitoring seasons, indicating that the prevailing winds were blown from the east, northeast, northwest, and south, with the ambient temperatures of 13.4–31.2°C, the relative humidity of 53.2–91.3%, and the wind speeds of 0.5–9.7 m/s. The TGM monitoring site was located on the roof of a four-floor building, which was approximately 12 m above the ground and 50 m and 500 m far from the coastline and the major roads, respectively. Overall, the TGM monitoring site was located at the marine boundary layer (MBL), reducing the possible interferences resulted by Hg emission sources. The atmospheric TGM was continuously monitored at the Hsiaomen site (23°38′471″ North latitude, 119°30′316″ East longitude) located at the northwestern coastline of the Penghu Islands (see Figure 7) for 15 continuous days in each season from March of 2011 to February of 2012.
\nSeasons | \nn | \nTemp. (°C) | \nRH (%) | \nWS (m/s) | \nWD | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spring | \n360 | \n19.9 ± 2.1 | \n72.5 ± 7.5 | \n4.5 ± 2.2 | \nENE | \n
Summer | \n360 | \n29.8 ± 0.6 | \n79.3 ± 2.7 | \n2.2 ± 0.6 | \nS | \n
Fall | \n360 | \n24.8 ± 0.6 | \n75.1 ± 4.9 | \n6.1 ± 1.5 | \nENE | \n
Winter | \n360 | \n16.1 ± 1.5 | \n82.2 ± 4.7 | \n6.2 ± 1.3 | \nENE | \n
Mean ± SD | \n22.7 ± 5.9 | \n77.3 ± 4.3 | \n4.8 ± 1.9 | \n— | \n|
Max | \n33.2 | \n91.3 | \n9.7 | \n— | \n|
Min | \n13.4 | \n53.2 | \n0.5 | \n— | \n
Meteorological data recorded at the Penghu Islands during the TGM sampling periods.
Temp.: ambient temperature; RH: relative humidity; WS: wind speed; WD: wind direction; SD: standard deviation.
Variation of TGM concentration during four monitoring seasons at the Penghu Islands.
This chapter collected the meteorological data and the criteria air pollutant concentrations from the Makung Air Quality Station during the TGM monitoring periods, and discussed the correlation coefficients derived from the TGM concentrations with the meteorological parameters and the criteria air pollutants. Among them, the correlation coefficient (R) was used to describe the correlation between TGM concentration, meteorological data, and criteria air pollutant concentrations. The meteorological parameters included the ambient temperature (Temp.), relative humidity (RH), wind speed (WS), and wind direction (WD), while the criteria air pollutants of interest included SO2, NOX, CO, O3, PM10, and PM2.5. Four seasons are defined as March to May (spring), June to August (summer), September to November (fall), and December to February (winter), respectively. 72-h backward trajectories were simulated by using a NOAA HYSPLIT model with the National Centers for Environmental Prediction’s Global Data Assimilation System (NCEP-GDAS) meteorological dataset used as the model input in this study. All backward trajectories started with an arrival height of 500 m above the sea level. By using the NOAA-HYSPLIT model, the dates of the highest TGM concentration at the Penghu Islands in different seasons were determined and the transportation routes of air masses toward the Penghu Islands during the monitoring periods were then simulated.
\nThis information was further applied to examine the possible transportation routes conveying TGM from the upwind sources to the Penghu Islands. Additionally, we used the local fire map to identify the possible sources of TGM drawn by the FIRMS web (http://firms.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/firemap/) with the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) data from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which could illustrate the region and status of biomass burning during the monitoring periods.
\nTable 4 summarizes the average and standard deviation of TGM and criteria air pollutant concentrations measured at the Penghu Islands. The highest concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 observed in spring were 54.60 ± 15.56 and 31.07 ± 10.59 μg/m3, respectively, while the lowest concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 occurred in summer were 36.63 ± 8.69 and 17.70 ± 6.48 μg/m3, respectively. Spring and winter are two major seasons frequently blowing Asian dusts from the northern China to the Penghu Islands [19], which significantly increased the concentrations of PM10. Overall speaking, the concentrations of SO2 and NOx measured at the Penghu Islands were much lower than other cities in Taiwan, indicating no significant local sources in the Penghu Islands. Moreover, O3 concentration was relatively higher compared to other criteria air pollutants at the Penghu Islands.
\nSeasons | \nn | \nTGM (ng/m3) | \nPM10 (μg/m3) | \nPM2.5 (μg/m3) | \nSO2 (ppb) | \nNOx (ppb) | \nO3 (ppb) | \nCO (ppm) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spring | \n360 | \n4.31 ± 1.87 | \n54.60 ± 15.56 | \n31.07 ± 10.59 | \n1.70 ± 0.72 | \n5.61 ± 0.08 | \n61.58 ± 5.00 | \n0.27 ± 0.06 | \n
Summer | \n360 | \n1.81 ± 0.15 | \n36.63 ± 8.69 | \n17.70 ± 6.48 | \n2.21 ± 0.63 | \n6.15 ± 1.23 | \n33.17 ± 7.70 | \n0.15 ± 0.03 | \n
Fall | \n360 | \n3.03 ± 0.40 | \n45.24 ± 18.49 | \n21.40 ± 6.08 | \n1.68 ± 0.52 | \n3.48 ± 0.46 | \n51.86 ± 5.99 | \n0.18 ± 0.04 | \n
Winter | \n360 | \n3.51 ± 0.67 | \n48.65 ± 9.79 | \n23.81 ± 12.18 | \n2.00 ± 0.08 | \n5.48 ± 1.63 | \n38.59 ± 5.87 | \n0.28 ± 0.08 | \n
P-value | \n3.32 × 10−55 | \n6.94 × 10−3 | \n1.93 × 10−3 | \n1.91 × 10−1 | \n1.36 × 10−7 | \n4.00 × 10−18 | \n3.04 × 10−10 | \n|
Mean ± SD | \n3.17 ± 1.06 | \n46.28 ± 7.51 | \n23.50 ± 5.64 | \n1.90 ± 0.25 | \n5.18 ± 1.17 | \n46.30 ± 12.86 | \n0.22 ± 0.06 | \n|
Range | \n1.17–8.63 | \n17.18–77.68 | \n1.32–63.07 | \n1.02–8.63 | \n2.43–14.09 | \n11.35–88.08 | \n0.16–0.57 | \n
Continuous monitoring data of TGM concentrations and their mean, standard deviation (SD), range, and the concentrations of criteria air pollutants.
The concentrations observed among the seasons were significantly different by the analysis of ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) at the confidence level of 95%.
Field monitoring of TGM at the Penghu Islands showed that the average concentration of TGM was 3.17 ± 1.06 ng/m3 with the range of 1.17–8.63 ng/m3. The concentration of TGM in four monitoring seasons were ordered as: spring (4.34 ± 1.87 ng/m3) > winter (3.51 ± 0.67 ng/m3) > fall (3.03 ± 0.40 ng/m3) > summer (1.81 ± 0.15 ng/m3). Moreover, the average TGM concentration (3.17 ng/m3) at the Penghu Islands was approximately two times of the background TGM concentration of North Hemisphere (1.6 ng/m3). The Penghu Islands are likely to be influenced by long-range transportation of TGM in spring and winter, causing higher TGM concentrations in spring and winter than those in summer and fall. The lowest seasonal average TGM concentration of 1.81 ± 0.15 ng/m3 was observed in summer, which was slightly close to the background TGM concentration of North Hemisphere, suggesting that air masses blown from the South China Sea were relatively clean.
\nFigure 8 illustrates the variation of TGM concentrations during the four monitoring seasons at the Penghu Islands. The daily concentration of TGM in spring increased significantly from April 2nd to the peak TGM concentration (8.63 ng/m3) observed on April 10th. The lowest TGM concentration ranging from 1.50 to 2.70 ng/m3 was compatibly observed in summer. Moreover, the concentrations of criteria air pollutants were also the lowest in summer compared to other seasons (Table 4), suggesting that the ambient air quality in summer was relatively better than other seasons at the Penghu Islands, and the TGM concentrations was 1.7–2.8 times lower than other seasons.
\nHourly variation of TGM concentrations during four monitoring seasons at the Penghu Islands.
Unlike other seasons, the TGM concentrations fluctuated frequently in fall and winter. In winter, it increased rapidly from 3.74 to 5.08 ng/m3 on December 28th, and then decreased to 3.38 ng/m3 on December 30th. The highest peak concentration (4.35 ng/m3) occurred on December 29th and then leveled off on January 5th. Long-term TGM monitoring at Mt. Lulin background air quality monitoring station showed that Taiwan was highly influenced by atmospheric mercury and gaseous pollutants from China and Southeast Asia in spring and winter [11]. Backward trajectory simulation results indicated that the atmospheric mercury detected in Taiwan significantly increased due to frequent biomass burning originated from the Southeast Asia and industrial emissions from the North China in spring and winter. It suggested that the TGM concentrations at the Penghu Islands might be also influenced by the atmospheric mercury emitting and transporting from these regions. While, air masses blown from the Pacific Ocean had relatively low contribution to the TGM concentration.
\nFigure 9 illustrates the hourly variation of TGM concentrations during four seasons at the Penghu Islands. It showed that the variation of hourly TGM concentrations were relatively steady in summer. The TGM concentration increased from 6:00 am, gradually reached its concentration peak at 11:00 am, and then decreased after noontime. The increase of TGM concentration resulted probably from the following two processes: (a) UV radiation could temporally transform Hg+, Hg2+, and Hgp to volatile Hg0, and subsequently entered to the atmosphere [6]); (b) the downward mixing from the enhanced TGM aloft may increase the levels of TGM concentration as the destroying of nocturnal inversion layer [20]. Except for the morning time, the TGM concentration was less variable through the whole day. The average TGM concentrations in the daytime (6:00 am–6:00 pm) were typically higher than those at nighttime (6:00 pm–next 6:00 am). These findings are attributed to the effects from the variation of the height of atmospheric boundary layer. Additionally, it might be influenced by local anthropogenic activities, such as open burning, mobile sources of fishing boats, vehicles, etc.
\nFrequency distribution of TGM concentration covering the four monitoring seasons.
The magnitude of hourly variation (differentia between the maximum and the minimum TGM concentrations) was lower in summer and winter with the relative percent differences (RPD) of 61.9 and 88.1%, respectively, and higher in spring and fall with the RPD of 130.7 and 107.8%, respectively. However, previous studies showed that the monitored TGM concentration varies at low altitudes in the typical rural areas [11, 21, 22]. This study revealed that the concentration of TGM monitored at the Penghu Islands was mainly influenced by both local biomass burning and long-range transportation.
\nFigure 10 illustrates the frequency distribution of TGM detected during four monitoring seasons. It showed that the TGM concentrations followed a lognormal distribution pattern in the range of 2.0–4.5 and 6.0–7.5 ng/m3, accounting for approximately 80.0% of total frequency in spring. The values ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 ng/m3 accounted for approximately 89.4% of total frequency in summer. Similarly, the values in the range of 2.0–4.5 and 3.5–5.5 ng/m3 accounted for 93.3 and 61.7% of total frequency in fall and winter, respectively. However, the episodes with high TGM concentrations (>9.0 ng/m3) were frequently observed in spring, fall, and winter. It is worth noting that the frequency distribution of TGM appeared to follow two different trends, as shown in Figure 10. The frequency distributions of TGM levels in summer and fall were unimodal distribution, while those in spring and winter followed a multi-modal distribution.
\nPollution rose of TGM in four seasons at the Penghu Islands.
Figure 11 illustrates the pollution rose of TGM for four monitoring seasons at the Penghu Islands. High TGM concentrations were observed mainly in the wind directions of 0–90° and followed by 270–360° in spring, and 60–120° in fall and winter. There were no significant mercury emission sources at the northwestern or southwestern Penghu Islands, suggesting that the high concentrations of TGM were transported remotely from China. An increasing number of studies have shown that biomass burning, industrial combustion, and ocean evaporation are three major emission sources of TGM in the regional scale [10, 23, 24, 25]. Figure 12 illustrates the backward trajectories and the TGM concentration percentage of air masses toward the Penghu Islands in four seasons.
\nBackward trajectories of air masses and TGM concentration percentage for different pathways during the monitoring seasons at the Penghu Islands.
The percentage of the TGM concentration attributed from long-range transportation at the Penghu Islands.
In spring, the TGM concentrations for air masses transported conveying from routes (1) and (2) ranged from 3.55–7.12 ng/m3, accounting for approximately 89% of TGM data, which was possibly dominated by those transported from local stationary sources and open burning with air masses toward the Penghu Islands. Thus, the southern China were another possible sources contributing to the TGM levels at the Penghu Islands.
\nIn summer, the TGM concentrations for air masses conveying from routes (4) and (5) ranged from 1.48–2.39 ng/m3, accounting for approximately 97% of TGM data, which were transported from the South and the East China Sea to the Penghu Islands, dramatically increasing the TGM concentrations at the Penghu Islands during the summer monitoring period. Consequently, the TGM concentrations in summer were relatively lower than other seasons, and the average concentration of TGM was close to the background TGM concentration of North Hemisphere (approximately 1.6 ng/m3).
\nIn fall, the TGM concentrations for the air masses conveying from routes (7) and (8) ranged from 3.02 to 3.73 ng/m3, accounting for approximately 96% of TGM data, which seemed to be mainly transported from the northern China, Korea, and Japan with air masses toward the Penghu Islands, resulting in approximately 1.67 times higher TGM concentration in fall than those in summer.
\nIn winter, the TGM concentrations for the air masses conveying from routes (11) and (12) ranged from 3.67 to 3.84 ng/m3, accounting for approximately 85% of TGM data. The potential sources conveying the TGM toward the Penghu Islands in winter were from the southern Asia, northern China, and Mongolia, increasing the TGM concentrations up to 1.94 times of those in summer.
\nIn this study, the minimum TGM value of 1.5 ng/m3 in the summer monitoring period, can be treated as the background concentration of TGM at the Penghu Islands. Therefore, the TGM concentration attributed from long-range transportation can be obtained by Eq. (1), and illustrated in Figure 13:
\nFire maps air mass during four monitoring seasons in the East Asia in (a) spring, (b) summer, (c) fall, and (d) winter.
where contribution percentage is the TGM concentration attributed from cross-boundary transportation (%); VMH is the monitored TGM concentrations (ng/m3); BC is the background concentration of Hg (i.e., 1.5 ng/m3). The contribution percentage of TGM concentration attributed from cross-boundary transportation at the Penghu Islands were further compared. The percentages of cross-boundary transportation were ordered as: spring (59.6 ± 15.0%) > winter (55.9 ± 7.6%) > fall (49.7 ± 6.2%) > summer (16.8 ± 6.9%). In addition, the maximum percentage of 79.1% was observed in spring. It showed that the TGM concentrations in spring at the Penghu Islands were highly influential, which were mainly affected by the long-range transportation.
\nHigh humidity and rainfall frequency at the Penghu Islands could also explain relatively lower TGM concentrations measured in winter. Previous study reported that the occurrence of biomass burning such as forest fires from February to April in the Southeast Asia and the Indochina Peninsula emitting a large amount of mercury-containing pollutants to the atmosphere [26]. Figure 14 illustrates the fire maps obtained from the FIRMS web fire maps and air mass transportation routes in four seasons. These fire maps explained why high TGM concentration occurred in spring at the Penghu Islands. During the monitoring periods, the hot spot of fires occurred densely in spring than other seasons could emit a large amount of TGM to the atmosphere, and then transported toward the Penghu Islands.
\nFThe concentration map of TGM at islands and seas in East Asia. (a) An-Myun Island (Nguyen et al., 2007); (b) Yellow Sea (Ci et al., 2011); (c) Jeju Island (Nguyen et al., 2010); (d) Okinawa Island (Chand et al., 2008); (e) Penghu Islands (This study); and (f) South China Sea (Fu et al., 2010).
As illustrated in Figure 15, the TGM concentrations monitored at the Penghu Islands were compared to those observed at islands and seas in East Asia. The TGM concentrations in the ambient air were ordered as: An-Myun (4.61 ± 2.21 ng/m3) > Jeju (3.85 ± 1.68 ng/m3) > Penghu (3.17 ± 1.06 ng/m3) > Yellow Sea (2.61 ± 0.50 ng/m3) > South China Sea (2.32 ± 2.62 ng/m3) > Okinawa Islands (2.04 ± 0.38 ng/m3) [10, 22, 25, 26, 27]. The results showed that the TGM concentrations decreased continuously from the northern islands to the southern islands. The TGM concentrations observed at the offshore islands were generally lower than those close to the continent or main island (except Yellow Sea). It further explained why the high levels of TGM concentration at the offshore islands were much easily influenced by Hg emission sources from the anthropogenic sources in the continent or main island.
\nThe concentration map of TGM at islands and seas in East Asia. (a) An-Myun Island; (b) Yellow Sea; (c) Jeju Island; (d) Okinawa Island; (e) Penghu Islands; and (f) South China Sea.
In summary, in addition to the local sources and open burning, the concentration of TGM at the Penghu Islands was mainly influenced by the long-range transportation of air masses, as the prevailing wind direction and air mass transportation routes potentially playing the critical roles on the variation of TGM concentration in the atmosphere.
\nThis chapter investigated the atmospheric mercury by using the modified sampling and analytical methods from two cases of small-scale regions to large-scale regions, respectively, which further investigated the tempospatial variation of atmospheric mercury, gas-particulate partition, transportation routes of mercury, and comparison of mercury concentration in urban areas and stationary sources. According to the results of this field study, several major conclusions are summarized as follows.
\nThe tempospatial variation and the partition of TGM and Hgp in Kaohsiung City were 6.66 ± 1.42 ng/m3 and 0.29 ± 0.21 ng/m3, respectively. The TGM concentration was approximately 4.1 times higher than the background concentration of 1.6 ng/m3 in North Hemisphere. Two high mercury concentration regions in Kaohsiung City concurred with the petrochemical complex in Northern Kaohsiung, and the steel manufacturing complex in Southern Kaohsiung.
\nThe TGM and Hgp concentrations in Kaohsiung City were generally higher than those of other Taiwanese cities during the wet and dry seasons. The concentrations of TGM measured in the cities of Taiwan were generally higher than Tokyo and Seoul, however, lower than other cities in China. The burning of coal for space heating in wintertime makes China the main mercury emission source in the world. Moreover, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan are under the leeward of China, which are also in the major atmospheric mercury transportation routes. When the northeastern monsoon prevails, it resulted in the increase of TGM and Hgp concentrations in the cities of East Asia.
\nTGM concentration monitored at the Penghu Islands was 3.17 ± 1.06 ng/m3 with the range of 1.17–8.63 ng/m3, and were ordered as: spring > winter > fall > summer. Summer is the only season close to the background TGM concentration of Northern Hemisphere at the Penghu Islands. While the hourly variation, TGM concentration typically increased in the morning (8:00 am–1:00 pm), reached its peak concentration, and then decreased in the late afternoon (after 2:00 pm).
\nAir masses transported from the southern and northern China, the southern Asia, Korea, Japan, and Mongolia might affect the Hg levels at the Penghu Islands during the monitoring seasons. The concentrations of TGM might be influenced by the mercury-polluted air masses to be transported remotely from areas or local stationary combustion and mobile sources. While air masses transported toward the Penghu Islands was dominated by that transported from South China Sea in summer, the TGM concentration levels at the Penghu Islands appeared to be lower than other seasons.
\nHigh TGM concentration observed at the Penghu Islands in spring might be attributed to the following three reasons: (a) local emissions from field open burning, local stationary combustion, and mobile sources; (b) long-range transportation from biomass burning in Southeast Asia or neighboring Chinese coastal cities, and (c) long-range transportation through Asian dusts from North China.
\nThe authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support and kind assistance from National Sun Yat-Sen University of Air Pollution Control Laboratory (APCL). The authors would like to express their sincere appreciation for its financial support to accomplish this study.
\nThe gallstones (Figure 1) are hard, pebble-like pieces of material, usually made of cholesterol or bilirubin, that develop in the gallbladder [1]. These stones are formed due to various disorders. Five defects primarily play critical role in pathogenesis of cholesterol stones Viz lithogenes and genetic factors; hepatic hypersecretion of cholesterol; rapid phase transition of cholesterol in bile; impaired gallbladder motility; intestinal factors involving absorption of cholesterol, slow intestinal motility and altered gut microbiota.
Cholesterol gallstones and gallbladder after cholecystectomy.
Gallstones affect about 15% of United States population. About 10–20% of the United States population will get gallstones at some point in their life time and females are more affected than men [2].
Gallstones can cause biliary colic, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, empyema Gallbladder, perforation of gallbladder, cholangitis, bile duct obstruction [3], and cancers (gallbladder [4], colorectal [5, 6], pancreatic [7]). In 85% of patients with gallbladder cancer, gall stones are present [8]. Gallbladder cancer is a very fatal cancer with average survival of 6 months [9] and 5-year survival rate of 5% [8]. This bad prognosis is because of silent features. An increased mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer was found to be associated with gallstones by an 18 year national study [10]. Asymptomatic cholelithiasis are present in 80% of cases and most of these are incidentally found when the patients are under investigation for other ailments [11]. In general, 10–25% of asymptomatic cases may develop symptoms during the patient’s lifetime [12]. The estimated cost for gallbladder diseases was 6.5 billion dollar annually in United States only in 2002 [13].
There are three types of gallstones; first and most common type is cholesterol stone. Black and brown pigmented stones are the other two types of gallstones. The prevalence of various types of gallstones in the western world is: 75% of gallstones are cholesterol stones, 20% are black pigment stones, and 5% or less are brown pigment stones. Cholesterol and black pigment stones are formed exclusively in gallbladder in a sterile medium, while as brown pigment stones are formed everywhere in the biliary tree owing to the anaerobic bacterial infection. Stasis of bile is an essential component in the formation of gallstone or bile duct stone formation [14]. In underdeveloped countries parasitic infection of biliary tree is associated with brown pigment stones [15].
Physical-chemical origin is the basis of pathogenesis of sterile stones (cholesterol and black pigment stones) [16]. There is an alteration in lipid and lipo-pigment composition which results in the formation of stones. In cholesterol and black pigment stones the major component is cholesterol monohydrate crystals and calcium hydrogen bilirubinate respectively. During the long stay in gallbladder, the black pigment gets degraded and polymerized by free radicals and helps in the formation of black pigment stones while as in the brown pigment stones the main mechanism is infectious where the enzymatic hydrolysis of biliary lipids by anaerobic bacterial enzymes produces supersaturated long chain fatty and deconjugated bile acids [14, 17].
Gallstone formation occurs as a result of interaction between genetic and environmental factors in which few are unmodifiable and unaltered as age and genetic makeup. The traditional risk factors for gallstones are four “F” female, fertile, fat, forty and some have added fifth “F” for fair skin [18].
Various intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors for the causation of different types of gallstones are genetic factors, advanced age, female gender, parity, ethnicity, rapid weight loss, different medications (oestrogen replacement therapy, oral contraceptive pills), total parenteral nutrition [19], obesity, westernized diet, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome [20], dyslipidaemia, hyperinsulinemia [21], increased enterohepatic circulation of bilirubin [22], defective gall bladder motility [23] as shown in Table 1.
Risk factors for gallstone diseases | |
---|---|
Intrinsic factor | Extrinsic factor |
Age | Lipid profile |
Gender | Diet |
Ethnicity | Obesity |
Defective gallbladder motility | Weight loss |
Physical activity | |
Genetics | Diseases |
Medication |
Risk factors for gallbladder stone diseases.
Age is an important factor for the stone formation, with increase in age enzyme 7 α hydroxylase (Limiting enzyme for bile acid synthesis) activity decreases which increases the saturation of cholesterol in bile and hence increasing the chances of stone formation [24].
Various genes are linked with increased susceptibility of gallstones like Lith genes identified in mouse models [25]. Two variants of ATP binding Cassette transporters ABCG5-R50C and ABCG8-D19H [26]; 3 variants of Farnesoid X Receptor gene (FXR) (rs 35724, rs 11110358, rs 11110386) [27]; polymorphism of apolipoprotein E4 allele [28]; mucin genes [29]; fibroblast growth factor receptor 4 (FGFR4) [30], polymorphism in CCK 1-R gene [31] are linked with cholelithiasis. The genetic factors are responsible for 25–30% of symptomatic gallstones as inferred from twin studies [32]. Gene expressions are affected by environmental factors and gene-environmental interactions through epigenetic mechanisms [33] also involving fat storage and insulin resistance [34]. These factors primarily include micro RNAs [35] Viz. 114 miRNA [36], miR-122 [37].
Females are having a higher risk factors due to various reasons for cholelithiasis such as higher oestrogen levels naturally [38], multiparity [39] and ingestion of oral contraceptives containing oestrogens [38]. Females also tend to undergo cholecystectomy procedure more than males [40].
Ethnicity plays an important non-modifiable role in cholelithiasis as few ethnic groups are having higher incidence of having gall stones as in North American Indians (73% among women more than 30 years old within Prima Tribe) [14], American Indians (men 29.5%, women 64.1%) [41]. Prevalence of Gallstone and Gallbladder Cancer are co-related and effects certain indigenous population like South America & North India, especially younger population [42].
Risk of deaths from gallbladder cancer and other malignancies has been observed to be seven times more in tribal members with gallstones [43].
The co-relation between lipids and cholesterol stone formation is complex, multi factorial and is dependent on other factors also as few studies are in favour and few showing inverse relationship [14]. Few studies show high LDL [44], high cholesterol [45], low HDL [46] are associated with higher gall stone formation which seems to be evident but other studies show there are having inverse relationship with gallstone formation like low HDL, high cholesterol and high LDL [14].
Cholesterol gallstones are associated with western diet [47]. Multiple studies have shown high carbohydrate intake couples with high glycemic load [48], chronic hypernutrition [49] fibre depleted diet [50] are associated with higher risk for cholelithiasis in process which are associated with decreased risk are intake of in saturated fat [51], coffee [52], fibre [53], fish oil [54], calcium [55], ascorbic acid [56], fresh fruits and vegetables [57] and nuts [51].
Obesity is itself risk factor for cholelithiasis. It has been shown that an obese women (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) has two fold and morbidly obese women (BMI ≥ 45 kg/m2) has seven fold higher risk for cholelithiasis as compared to lean women (BMI < 25 kg/m2) [58].
Rapid weight loss i.e., >1.5 kg/week and or loss of body weight >25% [59] are risk factors for cholelithiasis which usually occur after bariatric surgery. Weight loss has also been found to reduce risk of gallstones except when rapid loss occurs.
Physical activity decreases risk for cholelithiasis [60] as it improves hepatobiliary funtions, gut motility [61], increasing HDL [62], improves insulin release and plasma triglyceride levels [63]. An endurance exercise (cycling and running) 5 times per week for 30 minutes daily decreases risk by 34% for cholelithiasis [64] or 2–3 h/week of recreational exercise decrease risk by 20% for cholecystectomy [60]. While as reduced physical activity increases risk for cholelithiasis [64].
Various diseases increase the risk for cholelithiasis as these work by different mechanisms like causing abnormal gallbladder motility, malabsorption of bile salts, decreased bile salt synthesis [65], increasing bile cholesterol saturation [66], supersaturation of bile and increased hepatic cholesterol secretion [67]. Different diseases increasing risk for cholelithiasis viz. metabolic syndrome, dyslipidaemia, diabetes (2–3 fold [68]), insulin resistance or hyperinsulinemia [69], chronic hepatitis C virus [66], liver cirrhosis (25–30% increased risk [65] and Chron’s disease [70].
Both these habits have controversial results from various studies some favouring and others refuting association with cholelithiasis.
Men consuming alcohol 0–20 g per day have higher risk than those who consume 20–60 g per day [24]. But few studies show severe alcohol abuse in itself and also led to chronic cirrhosis (pigment stones), which is an independent risk factor for cholelithiasis [71].
Cigarette smoking is another risk factor for gallstones among woman [72], while as few studies refute these claims show no association with gallstones [73].
An imbalance between absorption and synthesis of cholesterol i.e., increased biliary cholesterol secretion from high dietary cholesterol and decreased bile acid synthesis and pool, all driving bile supersaturation [22]. High cholesterol diet and high intestinal cholesterol absorption are two independent risk factors for gallstones [74], regulated by many factors like expression of sterol transport protein [75].
In patients with cholelithiasis there is evidence of altered gut microbiota with increment of intestinal bacterial phylum proteobacteria decrement of
Defective gallbladder motility is another risk factor for cholesterol stones [78]. About one-third of patients with cholesterol gallstones display enlarged fasting and post prandial residual gallbladder volume with delayed emptying which antedates gallstone formation [79]. Sufficient time for cholesterol nucleation and gallstone growth is provided by dysfunctional gallbladder motility [80]. Various conditions are associated with dysfunctional gallbladder motility like insulin resistance, diabetes, irritable bowel syndrome, liver cirrhosis, and so on [81]. There is increase in lithogenic bile secretion to small intestine directly from liver in fasting motility defect, leading to faster recycling of bile acids and increasing bile acid pool hydrophobicity [82]. This is another predisposing factor for cholesterol crystallization and cholelithiasis [83].
Various defects occur simultaneously for the nucleation and crystallization of cholesterol monohydrate viz unphysiological supersaturation with cholesterol, accelerated nucleation and gallbladder hypomotility [16]. The mucin glycoprotein hypersecretion follows and lead to the stone formation [84].
Excessive secretion of cholesterol into bile leads to cholesterol supersaturation [85] owing to multiple biochemical defects either from increased input (de novo synthesis, lipoprotein uptake) or decreased disposition (de novo bile salt and cholesteryl ester synthesis) [84]. However single defects in hepatocellular processing of cholesterol are known viz
Increased number of apolipoprotein B/E and E receptors (constitutional/oestrogens/rapid weight loss/diet)
Increased activity of hydroxy-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase (obesity/hypertriglyceridemia/fibric acids)
Diminished activity of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (constitutional/fibric acids)
Diminished activity of Acyl CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase (constitutional/progestogens) [86]
These changes resulting in the increased levels of cholesterol in microsomes [87] and cytosol [88] of hepatocytes in patients with gallstones. Sterol carrier protein 2 concentration also increases simultaneously [89].
At puberty hypersecretion of cholesterol into bile begins [90]. In liver excess cholesterol is delivered to bile by a relay station [91]. Postprandially the cholesterol is completely micellized by bile salts and lecithin during healthy condition [92]. Cholesterol molecules are absorbed by gallbladder mucosa efficiently from micelles of supersaturated bile [93] where the activity of acyl coenzyme A: cholesterol acyl transferase esterifies the sterol [87]. But the molecules that remain free are dissolved in plasma and intercellular membranes where they become intercalated with and stiffen the phospholipid molecules [86]. Reverse diffusion when gallbladder bile become unsaturated or esterification is the only means of escape of membrane cholesterol as gallbladder mucosa does not produce cholesterol [92].
The abnormity in diurnal variation of gallbladder bile due to hypersecretion of cholesterol lead to the further trapping of excess free cholesterol molecules into gallbladder mucosa and muscle membranes [94]. There occurs the divergence of hepatic bile into gastrointestinal tract due to impaired motor and mucosal functions of gallbladder [95]. This in turn lead to increased bacterial catabolism and turnover of primary bile salts [92], which ultimately increase the production of secondary bile salts (hydrophobic bile salts) and suppress de novo bile salt synthesis [96].
Rapid recirculation and hydrophobicity are harmful for the stability of bile as these lead to the augmentation of secretion of cholesterol and hydrophobic lecithin molecules, which in turn shorten the time of nucleation of supersaturated bile [91]. The hydrophobicity of bile salt pool also increases secretion of total proteins into bile [97] and also altering the ratio of pro and anti-nucleating activities for cholesterol crystallization [97]. Multiple stimuli trigger mucin glycoprotein hypersecretion like cholesterol in itself [87], ‘cytotoxic’ filamentous cholesterol crystals [98], prostanoids [99], and hydrophobic bile salts e. g Deoxycholate and lithocholate conjugates [100]. This lead to the development of mucin gel on gallbladder wall and then as a crescent in gallbladder lumen, setting stage for accelerated nucleation. This together with hypomotility lead to its accumulation as biliary sludge, failure of complete evacuation of which lead to gallstone formation [84]. However, the end result may become inevitable by an environmental perturbation that inauspiciously tips the delicate pathophysiological and physical-chemical balance of supersaturated bile towards nucleation and stone growth [86].
Black stones occur in sterile environment [101] with increased frequency in patients of chronic haemolysis. A shift in ratio of bilirubin diconjugates to the favour of monoconjugates especially monoglucuronides occur due to hypersecretion of bilirubin conjugates in bile [102]. Bile pigment output increases by 10-fold with haemolysis [102] and predominantly becomes monoconjugates that are more hydrolysed by endogenous β glucuronidase [101]. This gives rise to very high levels of unconjugated pigment exceeding biliary solubility [101]. The insoluble acid calcium salt [Ca (HUCB)2] forms at pH values typical of gallbladder bile [103]. Unphysiological supersaturation occurs with an elevation in the ion product of calcium and monoacid species of unconjugated bilirubin [101] facilitating factors like in cholesterol stones are important for stone formation. The prevalence of pigment stones increases with age and is gender dependent; and all haemolytic patients does not develop pigment stones [101]. In experimental studies it was shown that there is no gallbladder motility defect in black pigment stone formation [104]. However, mucin hypersecretion occurs [105] in response to the high levels of unconjugated bilirubin [106] or mucosal cell cytotoxicity of earliest precipitates [107]. Nucleation is initiated at glandular crypts of gallbladder mucosa where mucin gel accumulates first [107]. Biliary supersaturation (owing to defective acidification of hepatic bile [101] with organic salts occur which is indicated by presence of crystalline calcium carbonate and phosphates in black pigment stones [101]. 3–20% of black pigment stones are composed of mucin glycoprotein [108]. Various factors came into play and through different mechanisms give rise to pigment stone formation in alcoholic cirrhosis, ileal dysfunction and in aging Viz bile salt hyposecretion, defective solubilization of unconjugated bilirubin, impaired calcium ion binding, haemolysis, defective bilirubin conjugation [101], enteric hyperbilirubinobilia [86].
Chronic anaerobic infection with functional stasis of bile ducts is necessary for brown pigment stones. Stasis in bile duct occur due to secondary stones from gallbladder, or due to sphincter of Oddi dysfunction or parasitic infections (mostly underdeveloped countries) [84]. Commencing with stasis of bile and then followed by anaerobic bacterial infection lead to accumulation of both mucin gel and bacterial cytoskeleton in bile ducts. Bacterial enzymes (phospholipase A, β glucuronidase) hydrolyse the biliary lipids that contain amide or ester linkages which results in the nucleation of cholesterol monohydrate crystals A trap is laid down in the form of culture medium for anaerobic bacteria by mucin gel and solid components making their exit difficult. This is a vicious cycle formed between growing stone, stasis of bile and bacterial infection [84, 109].
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
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\\n\\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\\n\\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
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\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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These updated fuzzifier values are used to calculated the new membership values. Determining these updated values improve not only the clustering accuracy rate of the measured sensor data, but also can be used without additional procedure such as data labeling. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. 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