Bioethanol production amounts of countries in 2013 (million liter) [2]
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7715",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Pyrolysis",title:"Recent Advances in Pyrolysis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Pyrolysis is an irreversible thermochemical treatment process of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It is basically a carbonisation process where an organic material is decomposed to produce a solid residue with high (or higher) carbon content and some volatile products. The decomposition reactions are accompanied in general with polymerisation and isomerisation reactions. The end products of pyrolysis can be controlled by optimizing pyrolysis parameters such as temperature and residence time. Pyrolysis is used heavily in the chemical industry to produce many forms of carbon and other chemicals from petroleum, coal, wood, oil shale, biomass or organic waste materials, and it is the basis of several methods for producing fuel from biomass. Pyrolysis also is the process of conversion of buried organic matter into fossil fuels.",isbn:"978-1-78984-064-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-063-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-942-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77528",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-advances-in-pyrolysis",numberOfPages:122,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"76f7f501be4b6e4f5d3f97e81bac2c26",bookSignature:"Hassan Al- Haj Ibrahim",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7715.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5435,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:32,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:52,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 11th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"12400",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan Al- Haj",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-al-haj-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Al- Haj Ibrahim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12400/images/system/12400.jpg",biography:"Dr. Al-Haj Ibrahim obtained his B.Sc. in Fuel Engineering (1970) and Ph.D. (1973) at Leeds University, UK. From 1970 until 1974 Dr. Al-Haj Ibrahim was a Research Fellow at British Coke Research Association (Leeds University, England) after which he worked at Homs Oil Refinery, Syria (1974-1975). In 1975 Dr. Al-Haj Ibrahim became a Professor at Al Baath University (Syria) where he still works. He was also a Senior Researcher at Syrian Atomic Energy Commission (2000-2003) and Director of Quality Assurance, Al-Baath University, Syria (2003-2008, 2015-2017). Furthermore, Dr. Al-Haj Ibrahim was a visiting professor at a number of universities: Technical University of Aachen, Germany; University of Pittsburgh, U.S.A. (Fulbright scholar); Alexandria University, Egypt; University of Hadhramout, Yemen; Arab University, Syria.",institutionString:"Al-Baath University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Al-Baath University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Syria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"85",title:"Organic Chemistry",slug:"organic-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"70273",title:"Introductory Chapter: Pyrolysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90366",slug:"introductory-chapter-pyrolysis",totalDownloads:953,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Hassan Al-Haj Ibrahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70273",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70273",authors:[{id:"12400",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan Al- Haj",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-al-haj-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Al- Haj Ibrahim"}],corrections:null},{id:"65392",title:"A Study on Pyrolysis of Lignin over Mesoporous Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83785",slug:"a-study-on-pyrolysis-of-lignin-over-mesoporous-materials",totalDownloads:686,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aromatics have widespread uses across the chemical industries. Where, the monocyclic aromatics (e.g. BTX) and phenolics compounds are important basic raw materials for several industrial petrochemical processes such as synthetic polymers, detergents, biocides, resins, explosives, etc. Traditional production of these valuable chemicals has been dependent on fossil resources for more than half a century. So, it requires strategies for alternative chemical production from renewable sources especially from nonedible biomass. This chapter presents a review of the recent literature on the fast pyrolysis process for the production of aromatic hydrocarbons using mesoporous catalysts. We focus on the factors that can enhance the yield of aromatics and the lifetime of the catalyst used. Background information on catalyst deactivation during the pyrolysis process was described. The role of mesoporous catalyst’s acidity and textural and topological properties of lignin to aromatics conversion was also discussed in detail.",signatures:"Abdelrahman Mohamed Rabie and Marwa Mohamed Abouelela",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65392",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65392",authors:[{id:"278240",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelrahman",surname:"Rabie",slug:"abdelrahman-rabie",fullName:"Abdelrahman Rabie"},{id:"289521",title:"MSc.",name:"Marwa",surname:"Aboelela",slug:"marwa-aboelela",fullName:"Marwa Aboelela"}],corrections:null},{id:"68186",title:"Influence of Process Parameters on Synthesis of Biochar by Pyrolysis of Biomass: An Alternative Source of Energy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88204",slug:"influence-of-process-parameters-on-synthesis-of-biochar-by-pyrolysis-of-biomass-an-alternative-sourc",totalDownloads:1157,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Organic matter derived from plants and animals are known as biomass. It has a great potential to be used as an alternate source of energy by employing thermochemical conversion techniques. Among the available techniques, pyrolysis is considered to be the most efficient technique used for the conversion of biomass-based waste into value-added solid, liquid and gaseous products through heating in an oxygen-limited environment. Biochar (solid fuel) is a carbonaceous material and has multiple applications in various fields such as soil health, climate stability, water resource, energy efficiency and conservation. The yield of biochar depends on organic constituents of biomass and the pyrolytic process parameters such as temperature, time, heating rate, purging gas, particle size, catalyst, flow rate, pressure and types of pyrolysis reactors. Suitable conditions for biochar production were observed to be slow pyrolysis, low carrier gas flow rate, acid-catalysed biomass or biomass mixed with some inorganic salts, low heating rate, large particle size, high pressure, longer residence time, low temperature, feedstocks with high lignin content and pyrolysis reactors with lower bed height. Thermal conversion of biomass could be a possible sustainable alternative to provide economically viable, clean and eco-friendly solid fuel.",signatures:"Krishna Yadav and Sheeja Jagadevan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68186",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68186",authors:[{id:"278864",title:"Mr.",name:"Krishna",surname:"Yadav",slug:"krishna-yadav",fullName:"Krishna Yadav"},{id:"308500",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheeja",surname:"Jagadevan",slug:"sheeja-jagadevan",fullName:"Sheeja Jagadevan"}],corrections:null},{id:"66817",title:"Modeling and Optimization of Product Profiles in Biomass Pyrolysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85581",slug:"modeling-and-optimization-of-product-profiles-in-biomass-pyrolysis",totalDownloads:856,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass feed comes in many varieties, but have common chief constituents of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. As the relative proportions of these constituents may vary, customization of the pyrolysis process conditions is required to produce a desired product profile. By recognizing the sources of variation, the reactor settings may be intelligently controlled, to achieve optimal operation. These considerations include biomass classification, feed rate, moisture content, particle size, and inter-particle thermal gradients (which arise during pyrolysis based on heating rate and temperature distribution). This chapter addresses the optimization of product profiles during biomass pyrolysis from a modeling perspective. Fundamental models for packed bed and fluidized bed pyrolyzers are developed, using kinetics from existing literature. The proposed optimization approach (inclusive of the kinetic and process models) can guide practical achievement of desired product profiles of the biomass pyrolysis process.",signatures:"Udaya Bhaskar Reddy Ragula, Sriram Devanathan and Sindhu Subramanian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66817",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66817",authors:[{id:"285026",title:"Dr.",name:"Udaya",surname:"Ragula",slug:"udaya-ragula",fullName:"Udaya Ragula"},{id:"285596",title:"Dr.",name:"Sriram",surname:"Devanathan",slug:"sriram-devanathan",fullName:"Sriram Devanathan"},{id:"285597",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sindhu",surname:"Subramanian",slug:"sindhu-subramanian",fullName:"Sindhu Subramanian"}],corrections:null},{id:"66047",title:"Waste Plastics Valorization by Fast Pyrolysis and in Line Catalytic Steam Reforming for Hydrogen Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85048",slug:"waste-plastics-valorization-by-fast-pyrolysis-and-in-line-catalytic-steam-reforming-for-hydrogen-pro",totalDownloads:1088,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter summarizes the most recent results obtained in the plastic waste pyrolysis-reforming strategy for hydrogen production. An original two-reactor configuration consisting of a conical spouted bed reactor for the pyrolysis step and a fluidized bed reactor for the pyrolysis volatile reforming is proposed. The fundamental aspects and challenges of this joint process are discussed in detail, and the prospects for the full-scale implementation of this valorization route are assessed. Thus, the influence the main reforming parameters (temperature, space time and steam/plastic ratio) have in the pyrolysis-reforming of HDPE on product yields and catalyst stability are reported. Moreover, the role played by plastic composition on process performance is also described by studying the influence of following polymers: high density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polystyrene (PS). The operating conditions used for the valorization of different plastics have been as follows: pyrolysis temperature of 500°C, reforming temperature of 700°C, space time of 16.7 gcatalyst min gplastic−1and steam/plastic ratio of 4.",signatures:"Itsaso Barbarias, Aitor Arregi, Maite Artetxe, Laura Santamaria, Gartzen Lopez, María Cortazar, Maider Amutio, Javier Bilbao and Martin Olazar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66047",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66047",authors:[{id:"284923",title:"Dr.",name:"Gartzen",surname:"Lopez",slug:"gartzen-lopez",fullName:"Gartzen Lopez"},{id:"284931",title:"Dr.",name:"Itsaso",surname:"Barbarias",slug:"itsaso-barbarias",fullName:"Itsaso Barbarias"},{id:"284932",title:"Dr.",name:"Aitor",surname:"Arregi",slug:"aitor-arregi",fullName:"Aitor Arregi"},{id:"284933",title:"Dr.",name:"Maite",surname:"Artetxe",slug:"maite-artetxe",fullName:"Maite Artetxe"},{id:"284934",title:"Mrs.",name:"Laura",surname:"Santamaría",slug:"laura-santamaria",fullName:"Laura Santamaría"},{id:"284935",title:"Mrs.",name:"Maria",surname:"Cortazar",slug:"maria-cortazar",fullName:"Maria Cortazar"},{id:"284936",title:"Dr.",name:"Maider",surname:"Amutio",slug:"maider-amutio",fullName:"Maider Amutio"},{id:"284937",title:"Prof.",name:"Javier",surname:"Bilbao",slug:"javier-bilbao",fullName:"Javier Bilbao"},{id:"284938",title:"Prof.",name:"Martin",surname:"Olazar",slug:"martin-olazar",fullName:"Martin Olazar"}],corrections:null},{id:"69964",title:"Synthesis and Characterization of Forsterite (Mg2SiO4) Nanomaterials of Dunite from Sumatera",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85082",slug:"synthesis-and-characterization-of-forsterite-mg-sub-2-sub-sio-sub-4-sub-nanomaterials-of-dunite-from",totalDownloads:696,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The topics to be discussed are about the synthesis and characterization of forsterite nanoparticles (Mg2So4) from dunite rocks originating from West Sumatra. This region is a meeting of two Indian and Australian plates that give rise to mineral dunite with unique characteristics. Forsterite synthesis was carried out using calcinations temperature variations namely 700, 800, 900, 1000 and 1100°C. Synthesis of forsterite nanoparticles used the High Energy Milling Ellipse 3D Motion (HEM-E3D) method with variations in milling time, i.e., 5, 10, 20 h. Characterization was carried out using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The synthesis results explain the forsterite concentration in dunite rock, pure forsterite at optimal calcinations temperature, forsterite nanoparticles at optimal grinding time and forsterite nanoparticle structure.",signatures:"Ratnawulan Ratnawulan and Ahmad Fauzi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69964",authors:[{id:"284391",title:"Dr.",name:"Ratnawulan",surname:"Ratnawulan",slug:"ratnawulan-ratnawulan",fullName:"Ratnawulan Ratnawulan"},{id:"294160",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Fauzi",slug:"ahmad-fauzi",fullName:"Ahmad Fauzi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6720",title:"Fractionation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e798d7509b906c1947191552285a628",slug:"fractionation",bookSignature:"Hassan Al- Haj Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6720.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12400",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan Al- Haj",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-al-haj-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Al- Haj Ibrahim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7326",title:"Phosphorus",subtitle:"Recovery and Recycling",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"463481a56cd0f4b649285f54a9e5008c",slug:"phosphorus-recovery-and-recycling",bookSignature:"Tao Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7326.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185487",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tao",surname:"Zhang",slug:"tao-zhang",fullName:"Tao Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8889",title:"Solvents, Ionic Liquids and Solvent Effects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75c7231408f17b5af0ff2952627dd5fa",slug:"solvents-ionic-liquids-and-solvent-effects",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik and Magdalena Maciejewska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8889.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8346",title:"Chirality from Molecular Electronic States",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c8c9c50832625da3dc4cee759352246",slug:"chirality-from-molecular-electronic-states",bookSignature:"Takashiro Akitsu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8346.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7265",title:"Organochlorine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67784ff0ecf9cb18c3667be3c84c3c",slug:"organochlorine",bookSignature:"Aurel Nuro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7265.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14427",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurel",surname:"Nuro",slug:"aurel-nuro",fullName:"Aurel Nuro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",bookSignature:"Farid A. 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In this context, biomass is considered as an important alternative energy source to fossil fuels. Biodiesel and bioethanol produced from biomass sources are one of the best alternatives for petroleum-based fuels and recently, they are commonly used for transportation in many countries. Bioethanol is the most produced biofuel in the world and especially in Brazil and the United States two main producing countries with 62% of the world production. Large scale manufacture of ethanol as fuel is performed from sugar cane in Brazil, while it is produced from corn as a raw material in the United States [1]. Bioethanol production of 2013 in the countries is given in Table 1 [2].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t50,274 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t23,690 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5,182.38 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2,630.88 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2,060.1 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1,976.94 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2,748.06 | \n\t\t
Bioethanol production amounts of countries in 2013 (million liter) [2]
Bioethanol is basically produced from first or second generation feedstocks. First generation bioethanol is produced from some cereals and lugumes such as corn, sugar beet, wheat and barley used for also food sources. Sugars which are obtained from first generation feedstock such as sugar cane, molasses, sugar beet and fruits can be fermented via yeast directly. Advantages of these raw materials are high sugar yields and low conversion cost. Their disadvantage is their production in just certain periods of the year. While 25 gallons of ethanol produced from an average of 1 ton sugar beet, 20 gallons of ethanol is produced from 1 ton of sweet sorghum stalk yearly. However their production is more expensive than that produced from sugar cane due to its energy and chemical inputs [3].
Usage of this first generation feedstock for bioethanol production leads to various discussions about increasing food prices and occupation of agricultural land. These problems are solved partially by using second generation feedstocks lignocellulosic materials such as waste or forest residues. Second generation feedstocks have some advantages over first generation feedstocks due to not being used as food source and less land requirement. However their harvesting, purification and various pre-treatment needs made their production quite challenging and not economical. Algae which are the third generation feedstock for biofuels are an alternative for the first and second generation feedstocks due to their productivity, easily cultivation and convenient harvesting time [4-6]. Recently, they are mostly utilized for biodiesel production because of their high lipid content. On the other hand, they have cellulosic structure and large amounts of carbohydrate embedded in, so they can be also utilized for bioethanol production directly or with the remains which is obtained after oil extraction. Since bioethanol production from conventional feedstock is considered for emitting more greenhouse gases than fossil fuels in consequence of the production steps and applications during the process, algal bioethanol production can overcome these problems. In comparison with conventional feedstocks, algal production areas don’t occupy agricultural lands and they needn’t any fertilizer for cultivation. With these advantages and significant carbohydrate content, higher ethanol yields are obtained from algae. In table 2, ethanol yield values from different feedstocks including first and second generations are given [7].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t112–150 | \n\t\t\t1,050–1,400 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t277 | \n\t\t\t2,590 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t354 | \n\t\t\t3,310 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t326–435 | \n\t\t\t3,050–4,070 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t370–430 | \n\t\t\t3,460–4,020 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t536–714 | \n\t\t\t5,010–6,680 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1,150 | \n\t\t\t10,760 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5,000–15,000 | \n\t\t\t46,760–140,290 | \n\t\t
Ethanol yield values from different feedstocks [7]
Although it depends on the raw material which is used, ethanol production have three main steps: to obtain fermentable sugars, conversion of sugars to ethanol via fermentation process and distillation and purification of produced ethanol. In this chapter, these steps are presented in detail with their alternatives. All literature studies on the subject are reviewed, discussed and also new approach to pre-treatment methods of raw materials to produce bioethanol is presented.
Algae are simple organisms containing chlorophyll and they use light for photosynthesis. Algae can grow phototrophically or heterotrophically. Phototrophic algae convert carbondioxide in atmosphere to nutrients such as carbohydrate. Conversely, heterotrophic algae continue their development by utilizing organic carbon sources [8]. Algae can grow in every season and everywhere such as salty waters, fresh waters, lakes, deserts and marginal fields etc. However for their cultivation, generally open systems like ponds and photobioreactors as closed systems are used. Open ponds are the most used cultivation systems in industry. They are more preferable than other systems due to having low investment and operation costs. On the other hand difficult control of cultivation conditions and contamination risk are the main disadvantages of the open systems. Besides being cheap and low energy need, their cleaning also can be done easily. Although, open tanks have low cost and easy operation, parameters like light intensity, temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen concentration cannot be controlled easily. Most produced algae species in open systems are
Algae are classified as microalgae and macroalgae. Microalgae as their name implies, are prokaryotic or eukaryotic photosynthetic microorganisms. They can survive in hard conditions with their unicellular or simple colony structures [13]. Because of being photosynthetic organism, they can produce high amount of lipid, protein and carbohydrate in a short time. Besides biodiesel and bioethanol there are lots of high value products and sub-products produced from microalgae such as biogas [14, 15], biobutanol, acetone [16], Omega 3 oil [17], eicosapentaenoic acid [18], livestock feed [19], pharmaceuticals and cosmetics [20, 21]. Especially sub-products are preferred for economic support of main process [22]. Chemical composition of microalgae can change according to the cultivation type and cultivation conditions. They can have rich or balanced composition of protein, lipid and carbohydrate amounts. Microalgae especially get attention due to have high lipid content [23]. Many species of microalgae accumulate a significant amount of lipids in their structure and can provide high oil yield. Their average lipid content can change between 1-70%, but this ratio can reach up to 90% of dry weight under certain conditions [13]. Macroalgae or seaweed are plants which are adapted to the marine life, often located in coastal areas. They are classified as brown seaweeds, red seaweeds and green seaweeds according to their pigments [24]. Due to have high photosynthesis capability, they have sufficient carbon source for usage in biorefinery. On the contrary of their appearances, their features of morphologic and physiological and chemical compositions are different from terrestrial plants [24]. Unlike the structure of the lignocellulosic biomass of microalgae, they comprise substances such as carrageenan, laminaran, mannitol, alginate which are used in various sectors [25]. They are separated from microalgae with having low lipid content and different from lignocellulosic material with having less or no lignin in their structure [6].
Microalgae stand out as biodiesel feedstock with the ability of lipid production and high photosynthetic efficiency. As for macroalgae, they are utilized for biogas or bioethanol production with their carbohydrates [26]. First studies as algal biofuels are focused on biodiesel production. However, there is a potential for carbohydrates in the structure of algae which can be utilized for ethanol production after various hydrolysis processes. Algal cells in the water don’t need structural biopolymers such as hemicellulose and lignin which are necessary for terrestrial plants [4]. This simplifies the process of bioethanol production. Marine algae can produce high amount of carbohydrate every year. Also it is expected that algae will meet the demand of biofuel feedstock due to harvest in a short time than other biofuel raw materials [27]. Microalgae which have high amount of starch such as
Ethanol production from algae is based on fermentation of algal polysaccharides which are starch, sugar and cellulose. For microalgae, their carbohydrate content (mostly starch) can be reached to 70% under specific conditions [29]. Microalgal cell walls are divided into inner cell wall layer and outer cell wall layer. Outer cell layer can be trilaminar outer layer and thin outer monolayer. Also there can be no outer layers as well [30]. Outer cell walls of microalgae contain certain polysaccharides such as pectin, agar and alginate. However their composition can be vary from species to species [30]. On the contrary, inner cell walls of microalgae constitute mostly cellulose, hemicellulose and other materials [30]. Due to have cellulose in their cell walls and starch, microalgae are considered as a feedstock for production of bioethanol [31]. Most of their cell wall polysaccharides and starch can be fermented for bioethanol production [32].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t55.0 | \n\t\t\t[33] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t60.0 | \n\t\t\t[34] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t32.5 | \n\t\t\t[35] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t51.8 | \n\t\t\t[36] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t26.0 | \n\t\t\t[37] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t55-60 | \n\t\t\t[38] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t42-70 | \n\t\t\t[39] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t40-76 | \n\t\t\t[40] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t38-74 | \n\t\t\t[41] | \n\t\t
Carbohydrate content of algal species
Similarly, carbohydrate content of macroalgae is found 25-50% in the green algae, 30-60% in the red algae and 30-50% in the brown algae. Macroalgae species which have the highest polysaccharide content are
The most important difficulties encountered in the production of bioethanol are the pre-treatment of biomass. The objectives of an effective pre-treatment are obtaining sugars directly or later by hydrolysis, preventing lost or degradation of obtained sugars, limiting the toxic materials which inhibit the ethanol production, reducing energy requirement for process and minimizing the production cost. There are four pre-treatment techniques including physical, chemical, physicochemical and biological pre-treatments that are applied to biomass [1]. Pre-treatment process is the step that forms the significant part of the cost of ethanol production. Although there is no technique that can be considered as the best option, researches and developments are carried on to reduce cost and improve performance [3].
Chipping, grinding and milling are the most used techniques for mechanical comminution. Comminutions improve the efficiency of the process for the next steps by reducing the polymerization degree and increase the specific surface by reducing cellulose cristallinity. Energy that is need in the process depends on the initial and final dimensions of particles, moisture content and structure of the raw material [1,47]. In order to assist enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials various milling techniques can be used. For instance, pre-treatment of rice straw with wet disk milling gave higher hydrolysis yields than usual dry milling [48].
Pyrolysis is an endothermic process which is a reaction needs low energy input and treats biomass over the temperature of 300°C and degrades cellulose to char and gaseous products like CO and H2. When the char is washed with water or diluted acid, remaining solution contains sufficient amount of carbon source to support microbial growth for the production of bioethanol. Approximately 55% of biomass weight is lost in the washing step [1]. It is reported in a study that Fan et al. [49] have performed 80-85% conversion of cellulose to reducing sugars.
Microwave oven pre-treatment is a simple method with short reaction time, high heating efficiency and low energy input. Thermal and non-thermal effects which are generated by microwaves in a liquid medium are used in this technique. The heat generated in biomass results in a polar bond vibration. This causes an explosion between the particles and degradation of lignocellulosic structure. Asetic acid is released from lignocellulosic material and an acidic medium is occurred for hydrolysis [50]. Ooshima et al. [51] investigated the effect of microwave pre-treatment on rice straw and baggase and it was found that an improvement in total reducing sugar production. In recent years, microwave pre-treatments are carried out with various chemical reagents and their potential are investigated. In the studies of alkali microwave pre-treatment, NaOH provides higher reducing sugar yields on switchgrass and coastal bermudagrass in comparison with other alkaline reagents such as Na2CO3, Ca(OH)2 [52,53]. Also for pre-treatment of rice straw and its hulls, this technique made cellulose more accessible to enzymes.
Steam explosion method is a technique that provides accessibility on the biomass for degradation of cellulose. This method comprise the heating of biomass under high pressure steam (20–50 bar, 160-270 °C) for a few minutes, then reaction is stopped when the pressure conditions arrive to the atmospheric conditions. Diffusion of the steam into the lignocellulosic matrix leads to the dispersion of fibers. No catalyst is used during the applied method. Levulinic acid, xylitol and alcohols are obtained after the degradation of biomass [54,55]. Many types of biomass such as poplar [56], eucalyptus [57], olive residues [58], corn stover [59], wheat straw [60], sugarcane bagasse [61], grasses [62] have been pre-treated with steam explosion method efficiently.
Liquid hot water method treats biomass by using water which is kept in a liquid state under high pressure and temperature for 15 minutes without adding any chemical or catalyst. Instead of steam explosion method, this technique does not need rapid pressure drop or expansion. Pressure is used to prevent evaporation and to stabilize the water in this method [60]. Although it provides the release of hemisellulosic sugars as oligomers, it causes the formation of little amounts of undesirable components which inhibit microbial growth such as carboxylic acid, furfural [63]. Since there is no need for chemicals, it is an environmental and economic method [64]. It is reported that liquid hot water method improves the enzymatic hydrolysis by removing 80% of hemicelluloses when it is pre-treated corn stover, sugarcane bagasse and wheat straw [65].
Ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX) is a method that liquid ammonia and steam explosion are carried out together. In this method, biomass which has 15-30% moisture content is treated with liquid ammonia at a loading ratio of 1–2 kg NH3/kg dry biomass. To acquire appropriate temperature, pressure over 12 atm is required. Whereas being an easy method and have short reaction time, it is not effective on raw materials that contain high lignin content [54]. Ammonia has effects such as shredding biomass fibers, partially decrystallization of cellulose and destroying carbohydrate attachments [65]. Although sugars are not released directly with this method, it enhances polymers (hemicellulose and cellulose) to be attacked enzymatically. Thus, low amount of enzyme is enough for enzymatic hydrolysis after AFEX. In order to improve the process economically, ammonia must be recover after the pre-treatment. Ammonia loading, temperature, high pressure, moisture content of biomass, and residence time are the basic parameters which effect AFEX process. Up to 90% cellulose and hemicelluloses conversions can be acquired with this technique [3].
CO2 explosion is similar to AFEX method. However this method has low process cost due to need low temperature. Also formation of inhibitors in the steam explosion is not occurred in this technique. In addition to that, its conversion yields are very high compared to steam explosion [50,66].
Wet oxidation method is based on the treatment of biomass with water and air or oxygen as a catalyst over the temperature of 120 °C. Although solubility of hemicellulose and lignin are increased with this method, free hemicelluloses molecules do not hydrolyze. Whereas sugar monomers are formed in steam explosion and dilute acid pre-treatment, sugar which released in wet oxidation method are oligomers [67,68]. In a study performed by Pederson [69] et al. 40% glucose yield was obtained for wet oxidation of wheat straw.
Chemical pre-treatments include dilute acid, alkaline, ammonia, organic solvent pre-treatments and methods that use other chemicals. These processes are easy to perform and also good conversion yields are achieved in a short time [1].
Acid pre-treatments are methods that acid is used as catalyst to make cellulose more accessible to the enzymes. These processes are divided into two groups as using concentrated acid or diluted acid. Using concentrated acid is less preferable than dilute acid because of forming high amount of inhibiting components and causing corrosion in the equipments [68]. Generally sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and phosphoric acid are used in these pre-treatments. Dilute acid are applied at moderate temperatures to convert lignocellulosic structures to soluble sugars [54]. Nowadays biomass is pre-treated with dilute sulphuric mostly to hydrolyze hemicelluloses and facilitate enzymatic hydrolysis [70]. Dilute sulphuric acid hydrolyzes biomass to hemicelluloses, and then hydrolyzes to xylose and other sugar and break xylose down to furfural. Furfural which is a toxic component in ethanol production process, is recovered by distillation [54]. Miranda et al. have investigated the effect of acid pre-treatments with the concentrations between 0.05-10 N, and have obtained the highest sugar yield under the condition of 2 N acid pre-treatment. In their experiments, 2 N to 10 N acid pre-treatments, it is reported that a decrease have been observed in sugar yields [71]. Larsson et al. also mentioned that in an experiment about acid pre-treatment of soft wood, a decrease in ethanol yields have been observed with an increasing acid concentration. In addition to this, it is indicated that formic acid which is a toxic molecule, is presented in the media and inhibits the fermentation [72].
These processes are carried out at low temperature and pressure compared to other techniques. Unlike acid pre-treatments, lignin can be removed without major effects on the other components. However there are limitations such as transformation of some alkaline to unrecoverable salts. In addition to that, solubility of hemicelluloses and cellulose are less in this pre-treatment compared to solubility in acid pre-treatment [73]. Alkaline pre-treatment reduces the lignin and hemicelluloses content of biomass and improves the surface area and helps water molecules for breaking bonds between hemicelluloses and lignin [54]. The most used catalysts in this method are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and ammonia [74]. Effects of alkaline pre-treatments are varies according to biomass. In an alkaline pre-treatment of coastal bermudagrass, reducing sugar yields are decrease with an increasing alkaline concentration [75]. However, Wang et al. reported that under the conditions of increasing alkaline concentrations, glucose yields were increased [76]. Like dilute acid pre-treatments, dilute alkaline pre-treatments also can form inhibitory by-products such as furfural, hydroxymethylfurfural and formic acid [77]
Organosolv pre-treatment is a process that uses organic solvents such as methanol, ethanol, acetone, ethylene glycol. Catalysts are also can be added to the process along with solvents. Hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, sodium hydroxide and ammonia are the catalysts used in the process. Besides bonds of lignin and hemicellulose can be broken, pure and high quality lignin can be obtained as a by-product [78]. Removal of lignin improves the surface area and provides accessibility of enzymes to cellulose. After the pre-treatment, cellulosic fibers, solid lignin and liquid solution of hemicellulose sugars are obtained. This method has some disadvantages like oxidation, volatilization and creating high risk in process at high pressure. Also solvents must be recovered due to formation of significant amounts of furfural and soluble phenols and to reduce operation cost [50,67].
Compared to the above methods applied to the production of bioethanol, using fungi in pre-treatments is considered environmentally friendly because of not using chemicals, less energy input, not required reactors that resistant to corrosion and pressure, and minimum inhibitor formation [79]. Fungi which are used in biological pre-treatments are generally brown, white and soft mold. These fungi can be degrade lignin, hemicelluloses and cellulose partially. Despite of its advantages, long process time, large production are and need of control continuously for growth of microorganisms ensue as disadvantages for commercial productions[50].
Enzymatic hydrolysis is the step of hydrolysis of cellulose by specific cellulase enzymes. Obtained products after hydrolysis are reducing sugars that include glucose. Cost of the enzymatic hydrolysis are less than acid or alkaline hydrolysis due to reaction is carried out under mild conditions (4.8 pH, temperature of 45-50 °C) [50]. Cellulase enzymes that are used in hydrolysis can be produced by bacteria and fungi. These microorganisms can be aerobic, anaerobic, mesofilic or thermophilic. Bacteria which produce cellulase can be exemplify as
Hydrolysis rates of biomass depend on the degree of polymerization and crystallinity of cellulose. Degree of polymerization is related to crystallinity. Cellulase enzymes can hydrolyze the crystalline structure of cellulose. Endoglucanase enzymes decrease polymerization degree of cellulosic component by cutting the internal sites of cellulose chains in the enzymatic hydrolysis [80]. Accessibility of the substrate is another main factor effect hydrolysis rate. The rate of hydrolysis increases with increasing substrate accessibility because of being surface area more available for enzymatic attack [80]. Lignin and hemicellulose are complex structures to hydrolyze in lignocellulosic materials. Due to have a role like cement, lignin acts as physical barrier and prevents the digestible parts of cellulose to hydrolyze and it becomes very difficult for enzymes to access cellulose. For this reason, they reduce the efficiency of hydrolysis. Removal of hemicellulose enhances the pore size and provides accessibility to cellulose for enzymes in order to perform hydrolysis efficiently [81,82]. Pore size of the substrate is one of the limiting factors in enzymatic hydrolysis process. In many lignocellulosic material, external area of the biomass is smaller than internal area and this situation causes cellulase enzymes to entrap in the pores of the material. In order to increase hydrolysis rate, porosity of the biomass should be increased [83].
Fermentation is a process that based on disciplines of chemistry, biochemistry and microbiology and which fermentable sugars are converted to ethanol by microorganisms [84]. Process consists of conversion of glucose to alcohol and carbon dioxide:
In this process 0.51 kg bioethanol and 0.49 kg carbon dioxide are obtained from per kg of glucose in theory maximum yield. However practically, microorganisms also use glucose for their growth, the actual yield is less than 100% [85]. Microorganisms used in fermentation are utilized from 6-carbon sugars in ethanol production. Therefore, cellulosic biomass which have high amount of glucose are the materials that have easiest conversion capability. One of the most effective yeast which produces bioethanol is
Enzymatic hydrolysis is performed separately from fermentation in this process. Liquid which comes from hydrolysis reactor first converted to ethanol in a reactor that glucose fermented in, and then ethanol is distilled and remained unconverted ksilose is converted to ethanol in a second reactor. Advantage of the process is performing reactions in optimum conditions. On the other hand, usage of different reactors is increasing the cost. Also glucose and cellulose units that obtained after hydrolysis, inhibit activity of the enzyme and decrease hydrolysis rate [3,54].
In this process, pre-treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis steps are carried out with fermentation step in the same reactor. It is very efficient when dilute acid or hot water at high temperature is applied in the process. High bioethanol yields can be achieved with SSF process. Also inhibiton of enzyme activity is very low due to fermenting glucose and cellulose units in the same media by yeast. Therefore, this process needs low amount of enzyme. In addition to that, process cost is reduced because of the reactions are carried out in one reactor. As a disadvantage, temperatures differences between saccharification and fermentation cause various effects in growth of microorganisms.
Due to their simple structure and being a new raw material for bioethanol production, most of these pre-treatment techniques have not applied to algal biomass yet, and just few studies have been found in literature which is presented in Table 4.
Studies of ethanol production from micro and macroalgae
A distillation process is necessary for separation of ethanol from mixture and purification of ethanol after fermentation process. Process is performed simply with boiling ethanol-water mixture. Because of boiling point of water (100°C) is higher than boiling point of ethanol (78 °C), ethanol vaporized before water [110]. However, due to being an azeotrop mixture, high amount of energy is used for distillation [42]. In order to separate azeotrop mixtures, an agent which changes the azeotrop structure must be added to the mixture. Added substance changes the volatility of mixture by effecting the molecular attractions in the mixture. Various separation agents such as benzene, pentane, cyclohexane, hexane, acetone, and diethyl ether can be used in this process [111]. Distillation column which has two streams as top and bottom, separates most of the bioethanol from the mixture. While top stream is rich in bioethanol, bottom stream is rich in water. 37% bioethanol then concentrated in rectifying column to approach concentration of 95% [78]. Product which is remained in the bottom is fed to stripping column in order to remove excess water [112]. Mostly in plants, recovery of bioethanol in distillation columns is fixed to be 99.6% due to decrease bioethanol loss [54].
Today, demand for fossil fuels cannot be met with current reserves and increasing oil prices with economical and political crisis and effects of global warming are led countries to use renewable energy sources. Algae as third generation feedstock have a great potential because of their characteristics. Different valuable products can be obtained from algae such as biodiesel, bioethanol, biogas, pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. Nowadays algae are mostly utilized for biodiesel production due to their high lipid content. However algae have also high carbohydrate content that cannot be ignored. Thus they can be utilized for bioethanol production directly or with the remains which are obtained after oil extraction. In this study, potential of algae as a bioethanol feedstock, important steps of bioethanol production especially pre-treatment techniques have been mentioned. In production sections, pre-treatment techniques and fermentation processes are explained in details. Recently, bioethanol production from algae is very new technology and open to development. Innovative and efficient fermentation processes and pre-treatment techniques are needed to make ethanol production preferable. In conclusion, algae will with their huge potential will outclass the first and second generation feedstocks and lots of improvements for usage of it will carried out in the future.
Sexual health is part of the human experience, yet it is often ignored, especially regarding students with disabilities [1, 2, 3]. Sexual health education for people with disabilities is important to help and ensure the capacity of each individual to make informed and educated choices regarding personal safety, developing and maintaining healthy relationships, and understanding how to maintain sexual health and hygiene. The application of self-determination skills plays an integral role in the ability of students with disabilities to attain sexual health [4, 5, 6, 7, 8].
Educators are fearful and anxious when they attempt to educate students with disabilities (SWD) about their sexual health [3, 5, 6]. There are numerous and valid reasons for this fear and anxiety. General and special educators report not feeling qualified to teach sexual health education, fear of repercussions from administration, questions over obtaining parental consent and liability, a lack of professional knowledge, concern that they will do more harm than good, and a lack of awareness on how to help a student develop a positive sexual identity [9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. This discomfort originates in cultural taboos, rules, and restrictions embedded in school and state policy, and an overall lack of preparation. Figure 1 outlines critical facts regarding the sexual health of individuals with disabilities (IWD).
Facts regarding sexual health of individuals with disabilities (IWD) [
Over the last decade, there has been growing acknowledgment of the need for sexual health education for SWD, especially in the United States [4, 7, 8, 15, 19]. However, researchers have identified several existing barriers that have made providing this education difficult [10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 19]. First and foremost would be the social and political controversy that exists in the United States over comprehensive sexual health education (CSE) for all students, much less SWD. Funding for school-based sexual health education programs is only provided for programs that are abstinence-based, despite research demonstrating that CSE programs that cover safer sex methods to prevent sexually transmitted infections, issues of consent, and methods of preventing pregnancy are more effective in reducing rates of adolescent sexual activity, pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections [3, 19, 20, 21, 22].
Additional barriers exist specifically in providing sexual health education to SWD. The primary barriers that researchers have identified include—the sexuality of SWD viewed as deviant, the lack of valid and reliable sexual health education materials for students with disabilities, parental anxiety and fear, lack of teacher preparation, and lack of teacher knowledge that leads to fear, concern, and anxiety [19].
A key barrier to providing sexual health education to SWD is the view that IWD is asexual or that sexuality for IWD is abnormal or deviant [8, 23]. IWD finds that they are often portrayed as having libidos that are uncontrollable, particularly those with intellectual disabilities [24, 25]. When sexual health education is provided to IWD, it is primarily focused on preventing abuse or pregnancy, and generally does not discuss relationships or entertain the idea that IWD might enter into sexual relationships for pleasure [26, 27, 28]. Finally, when sexual health education is provided to IWD, it is typically only presented as heterosexual sexual health information. IWD can present as LGBTQ+, just as nondisabled individuals can, and they are entitled to sexual health education on those issues. Caregivers have reported homosexual behaviors as experimentation [29], and individuals with intellectual disabilities reported confusion about what it means to be gay and having questions about LGBTQ+ individuals, indicating a need for clearer education [30].
Materials to provide sexual health education to SWD generally lack reliability and validity, and when used, they are not implemented with fidelity [6, 31]. Materials that are promoted to provide sexual health education for SWD sometimes are more focused on the students’ disabilities than actually providing the needed information regarding sexual health [32]. Other researchers have attempted making adaptations and modifications to existing sexual health curricula using methods, such as Universal Design for Learning principles [33]; however, since most prepared curricula rely heavily on written materials, adapting these for SWD who have limited literacy or are nonverbal will be extremely difficult, and again, will lack validity and reliability.
A key component in providing sexual health education to SWD is parental consent and support. Many parents of SWD either believe their children do not require sexual health education because they view their child as an asexual being or they simply have fears and anxiety about their child engaging in sexual activity [9, 10, 11, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. In discussing their own fears about their child engaging in sexual activity and how to properly educate their child on sexual health matters, parents will often voice views that contradict other views. In some cases, parents state that they do not know enough to be able to properly provide sexual health education to their child with a disability [39], while in other studies, they clearly indicate a preference for being the primary providers of sexual health information to their child [37]. In cases where parents do provide information, IWD often reports that the information is provided in late adolescence or adulthood and is focused on avoiding pregnancy, sexually transmitted infection, or abuse, and that they need more information on how to establish and maintain healthy sexual relationships with others [38]. Parents need to be provided information on how to teach their children with disabilities about sexual health and what the proper information is to teach and when it should be taught [40].
Teachers receive a great deal of training to teach content in a number of areas, but sexual health is typically not one of them. When asked about their comfort levels to provide sexual health education in general, teachers report feeling unprepared and having little to no formal training to do so [6, 8, 41, 42]. This becomes more acute when teachers are asked to provide sexual health education to students with disabilities. Even special educators, trained to provide education to SWD, report feeling unprepared to provide sexual health education to those students while acknowledging the necessity of the material [43].
This lack of preparation leads to low rates of teacher knowledge about the necessary components of comprehensive sexual health education and how to teach it to SWD, as well as anxiety and fear about teaching the content to SWD [44]. Studies have found teachers are afraid to teach sexual health education in the general education setting, fearing parental responses and lack of support from the administration [41, 45]. These fears intensified when examining teaching sexual health education to SWD [11]. Instructors have reported feeling that family members do not want sexual health information provided to their child with a disability until the child acts out in some sexual manner or shows interest in a relationship, then the professionals feel they are responding in only a reactionary way, not educating [46].
These barriers outlined in the sections above are not unique to the United States or the European Union. While some parts of the world may have introduced comprehensive sexual health education earlier than others, the concept is now worldwide. Additionally, recognition of the need to educate IWD about sexual health is also widespread and is being researched in many countries outside of the United States and Europe. Typically, researchers find some of the same barriers in African and Asian countries that have been demonstrated previously, such as the contradiction between parents’ desire to teach children sexual health education themselves and their ability to do so [36, 37]. Researchers in countries as widespread as Canada, Ghana, and China report that sexual health education for IWD is limited in those countries by the typical belief that IWD is asexual and do not need information regarding sexual practices [47, 48, 49]. Additionally, cultural and religious beliefs in many countries make comprehensive sexual health education difficult, as it would not be accepted to discuss sexual intercourse outside of marriage, birth control, or topics related to LBTQ+ relationships, and in some cultures even discussing sex at all is unusual [36, 47, 48]. However, it is encouraging that researchers are examining the need for sexual health education for IWD in countries worldwide and how parents, caregivers, and professionals are addressing the need within their own cultural and religious landscapes.
Sexual health education includes the teaching of issues relating to human sexuality including human sexual anatomy, sexual reproduction, sexual intercourse, or other sexual activity, reproductive health, emotional relations, reproductive rights and responsibilities, abstinence, and birth control [3, 50]. Common avenues for sexual health education are parents or caregivers, formal school programs, and public health campaigns.
Educating IWD about sexual health issues is critical for their own personal health, safety, and because as with any individual, they are entitled to self-agency to make decisions about their own bodies. When working with IWD, we call this concept self-determination. Self-determination is a life goal for persons with disabilities. It is a set of attitudes and skills that allow a person to care for themselves and carve out goals to achieve as much independence as possible. Self-determination is essentially the ability of a person to be responsible for their life. The components of self-determination include: self-awareness and self-awareness; goal setting and attainment skills; independence, risk-taking, and safety skills; self-observation, evaluation, and reinforcement; self-instruction, self-advocacy and leadership skills; internal locus of control; and positive attributions of efficacy [51].
The teaching of sexual health to SWD is not typically included in the curriculum of self-determination. However, learning about sexuality embodies the very core of self-determination. While many of the self-determination components have been incorporated into the curriculum for SWD since the 1990s, sexual health has not been directly included [8, 52]. It is easy to deny SWD opportunity and access to sexual health education if it is assumed that students will generalize their self-determination strategies to include sexual health. Educators understand that the generalization of skills and strategies must often be explicitly taught to students with disabilities [53]. Educators need to connect sexual health with self-determination for SWD.
While early research was focused on spotlighting the need for sexual health education for IWD, more recent areas of research have focused on how this education can be effectively delivered. This area of research is much more recent and still relatively recent. There appear to be two primary methods of delivering this education to IWD: preparing parents/caregivers of IWD to provide sexual health education and preparing educators to provide sexual health education. These do not have to be separate tracks of preparation. Even if educators will be providing sexual health education, it is important to also prepare parents/caregivers, because they need to have a perception and understanding of their child with a disability as an individual who is a sexual being with needs and feelings [8].
It is recognized that the most effective means of proving sexual health education to SWD involve partnerships between parents/caregivers and education professionals [40, 48, 49]. This will be especially true in cultures in which parents prefer to be the main provider of sexual health information to their children, but perhaps are unsure of what information to provide or when [37]. Additionally, collaborating with parents/caregivers on functional life skills that students will need as they transition into adult life is already a recognized evidence-based practice [51, 52], so including sexual health education along with the discussion on job skills and independent living may make it a more comfortable conversation for parents to have with educators.
Several studies have piloted workshops or education programs educators can use to prepare parents/caregivers to provide sexual health education to their children with disabilities [34, 40, 54, 55, 56]. These studies are not limited to the United States and Europe, but worldwide, and all have demonstrated that when parents participate in preparation programs, they gain a greater appreciation of the need to provide sexual health education to their child and gain knowledge on how to provide that education themselves. The modalities of these programs vary (online, booklets, in-person groups), but one study conducted in Iran demonstrated that training conducted with mothers in group settings was more effective than via other modalities [56]. Another set of researchers is currently piloting a full curriculum that can be used to lead in-person trainings with parents to prepare them to comfortably provide sexual health education to their children with disabilities [57]. This research will further support collaboration between parents and professionals.
A significant barrier to teaching sexual health to students with disabilities is the teacher’s discomfort with the topic and a general lack of pre-service and/or in-service preparation [6, 9, 10]. The only way to move through this barrier is to have the teacher become comfortable with the uncomfortable. Below, we will provide an example from our own experience as teacher educators that address this issue.
To start this process, sexual health for students with disabilities was added to special education teacher education coursework. One course within the teacher education program was identified by the program coordinator as appropriate for this project. The course included content on self-determination, transition, and methods for teaching students with disabilities in secondary schools. The course was positioned in the program during the last semester of coursework prior to internship (student teaching) with 25–30 students typically enrolled. Students in the course completed their teacher education program as a soft cohort, meaning most of the students took their courses together. All students took at least one course with the cohort prior to this course. The fact that students were well known to each other was an important consideration in selecting the course. This allowed students to feel safe and comfortable discussing sexuality and expressing their concerns. It is important to note that in this configuration the professor was often the only person in the room that was unknown to the students.
Sexual health is a topic that is presented in the course syllabus, but it is always placed at the end of the semester. This allows time for the professor to create a safe environment and to build rapport with the students. When students are asked to look through the course topics and talk about what excites them and what concerns them, sexual health is consistently mentioned as a concern. It is never a topic the student teachers are excited to learn about. There is anxiety regarding the topic. This informal data point is important in terms of building community and preparing for the topic.
To prepare pre-service teachers for instruction in sexual health, the course included short mini-lectures reviewing adolescent development. Additionally, pre-service teachers completed a series of community and school observations focusing on body language, touching, sexual innuendo, followed by a review of media and music that adolescents find engaging.
The course focused on strategies teachers could use to develop self-determination and student engagement in the individualized education program (IEP) and transition process. This section of the course was essential, as it developed specific skills, and perhaps equally important was the development of a teacher’s disposition to promote self-determination development in all students with disabilities [58, 59].
Observations combined with instruction and skill development in self-determination served as precursors to instruction in sexual health. By this time in the course, pre-service teachers and the professor had formed a strong and comfortable relationship. Further, pre-service teachers had enough practicum and substitute teaching hours to have encountered sexual health situations that they had felt unprepared to address. This confluence of professional experiences reduced the pre-service teachers’ anxiety about sexual health as a course topic.
To provide the sexual health content, the professor of the course collaborated with a health educator, who had training in sexual health and special education. The health educator worked within the College of Education and was familiar with the teacher education program. This model demonstrated to the pre-service teachers that collaboration and partnerships can be an effective approach when teaching topics in which they lacked expertise. Collaboration with the health educator bridged the knowledge between special education and sexual health education. Instruction in sexual health was provided by the health educator during a guest lecture and was divided into two sections. Initially, pre-service teachers were introduced to the topic through a more traditional lecture presentation merging the topic of sexuality in relation to self-determination for students with disabilities. After the lecture section, the pre-service teachers participated in a structured activity that included six real-life dilemmas practicing special education teachers had encountered. This activity was designed to develop teacher confidence in the topic.
A class activity entitled the “Real Life Dilemma” was introduced. The class was divided into six groups with each group receiving one unique dilemma. Each dilemma was an actual situation that had occurred locally or nationally within the past 6 years in the United States. The class was given 30 min to review a dilemma and make a decision (i.e., what action will you take?). Each group shared with the class their dilemma, the key issues discussed, and their decision. After the conclusion of each such discussion, the health educator shared the actual outcome with the class. The actual outcome was then discussed and evaluated in a short debriefing of the dilemmas. The discussions were led by both the health educator and the course professor. The following questions were posed during the debriefing of the activity:
Why is this issue important?
How does this issue and the outcome influence you as a teacher?
What is your position on the issue? Why?
Does your response and the actual outcome promote self-determination?
Pre-service teachers responded to the dilemmas within a positive self-determination framework in 8 out of 12 responses (67% of the responses were positive). In four instances, pre-service teachers’ responded with a solution that did not promote self-determination for students with disabilities. The actual outcomes of the six dilemmas were situations involving practicing special education teachers. Those teachers took action within a positive self-determination framework in 4 out of the 6 dilemmas (67% of the responses were positive). For both groups the responses that did not promote self-determination were ambivalent, or safe responses, perhaps reflecting the anxiety teachers feel when approaching sexual health topics.
Pre-service teacher responses favored solutions promoting self-advocacy, self-awareness, and self-efficacy. These are considered more internally focused components of self-determination. These components are not directly taught, but rather they must be facilitated over a long period of time and in a variety of situations. Teachers whose responses were the actual outcomes in this project used decision-making and goal setting as the favored self-determination components. Interestingly, pre-service teachers in the course focused their responses more on the student-centered components of self-determination, whereas, practicing teachers focused more on student thinking and planning. These components could be directly taught. Most importantly, self-determination components were strongly represented throughout the dilemmas in terms of how teachers and students should solve dilemmas related to sexual health for students with disabilities.
Great advances have been made in the last two decades in teaching sexual health education to individuals with disabilities and this means we are making advances toward recognizing IWD as self-determined individuals with autonomy and rights over their bodies. But while we have done much to illuminate the need for sexual health education for IWD and identify existing barriers, our next steps must be in researching the most effective ways to provide it. Current research indicates that we should take a two-pronged approach: prepare both parents and educators to work together and be able to provide knowledgeable, appropriate sexual health education to students with disabilities.
The authors wish to thank Anna Treacy, Ph.D. for the passion and inspiration she gave us as we were developing this work.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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