Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7304",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Geospatial Analyses of Earth Observation (EO) data",title:"Geospatial Analyses of Earth Observation (EO) data",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Earth Observation and Geospatial Analysis presents current research related to the observation of Earth with sensors operating at various wavelengths. The book describes the use of remote sensing technologies for detecting and monitoring Earth's environmental changes (including surface and atmosphere) and its modifications over time. Chapters cover different research aspects in the framework of remote sensing with a particular emphasis on the use of hyperspectral and optical imageries. The presented experiments concern the study of soil properties, the analysis of land use/land changes, the analysis of bio-aerosols as well as the color of water, the investigation of the scar and samples of a cosmic meteoritic impact, and the theoretical treatment of the operation of spatial coordinate transformation in noisy environments. Overall, this book provides an overview of the adopted methodologies for the accomplishment of geospatial analyses to identify environmental changes due to climate change and natural phenomena.",isbn:"978-1-78984-585-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-584-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-934-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74888",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"geospatial-analyses-of-earth-observation-eo-data",numberOfPages:136,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e90c7cda0e7f94a6620d6ec83db808ae",bookSignature:"Antonio Pepe and Qing Zhao",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7304.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6949,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:55,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 31st 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 14th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 20th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 19th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"99269",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Pepe",slug:"antonio-pepe",fullName:"Antonio Pepe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99269/images/system/99269.png",biography:"Antonio Pepe received the Laurea degree (equivalent Master of Science) in Electronics Engineering and the Ph.D. degree in Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering from the University of Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy, in 2000 and 2007, respectively. In 2001 he joined the IREA-CNR where he is a permanent researcher. He was a Visiting Scientist at the University of Texas, Austin, in 2005, at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Caltech, Pasadena in 2009, and at the East China Normal University, Shanghai from 2014 to 2016 (one monthly visit per year).\r\nDr. Pepe acts as a reviewer for several peer-reviewed international journals. From 2012 to 2016 he was also an Adjunct Professor of Signal Theory at the Università della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy, and in 2017 he was Visiting Professor of Systems of Wireless Communications at the University of Naples, Italy.\r\nHe was the recipient of the 2014 Best Reviewer mention of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters. \r\nHis main research interests include the development of advanced DInSAR algorithms aimed at monitoring surface deformation phenomena induced by subsidence, volcano activities, and earthquakes, with a particular interest toward the phase unwrapping problems. More recently, he has developed research activities for the generation of DInSAR products through the new generation SAR instruments, for the generation of hybrid scanSAR-to-stripmap DInSAR analyses, and for the integration of SAR and optical images.",institutionString:"Institute for the Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"288460",title:"Dr.",name:"Qing",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"qing-zhao",fullName:"Qing Zhao",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/288460/images/system/288460.png",biography:"Qing Zhao received the Bachelor’s degree in Surveying and Mapping from Central South University, Changsha, China, in 2004, the M.Sc. degree in remote sensing and cartography from Wuhan University, Wuhan, China, in 2006, and the Ph.D. degree in Geo-information Science from the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China, in 2010.\nShe joined the Key Laboratory of Geographical Information Science, Ministry of Education, East China Normal University, in June 2010. Since January 2014, she has held a position as an Associate Professor in the College of Geography Science at East China Normal University, where she teaches two courses. She is also a course instructor in New York University Shanghai in 2015. Her research interests include Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry, ocean remote sensing, and air quality monitoring and forecasting.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"East China Normal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"637",title:"Spatial Analysis",slug:"spatial-analysis"}],chapters:[{id:"67619",title:"Application of Topographic Analyses for Mapping Spatial Patterns of Soil Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86109",slug:"application-of-topographic-analyses-for-mapping-spatial-patterns-of-soil-properties",totalDownloads:1364,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Landscape topography is a key parameter impacting soil properties on the earth surface. Strong topographic controls on soil morphological, chemical, and physical properties have been reported. This chapter addressed applications of topographical information for mapping spatial patterns of soil properties in recent years. Objectives of this chapter are to provide an overview of (1) impacts of topographic heterogeneity on the spatial variability in soil properties and (2) commonly used topography-based models in soil science. A case study was provided to demonstrate the feasibility of applying topography-based models developed in field sites to predict soil property over a watershed scale. A large-scale soil property map can be obtained based on topographic information derived from high-resolution remotely sensed data, which would benefit studies in areas with limited data accesses or needed to extrapolate findings from representative sites to larger regions.",signatures:"Xia Li and Gregory W. McCarty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67619",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67619",authors:[{id:"55106",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",surname:"McCarty",slug:"gregory-mccarty",fullName:"Gregory McCarty"},{id:"286359",title:"Dr.",name:"Xia",surname:"Li",slug:"xia-li",fullName:"Xia Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"66995",title:"Clay Minerals Mapping from Imaging Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86149",slug:"clay-minerals-mapping-from-imaging-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:907,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mapping subsurface clay minerals is an important issue because they have particular behaviors in terms of mechanics and hydrology that directly affects assets laid at the surface such as buildings, houses, etc. They have a direct impact in ground stability due to their swelling capacities, constraining infiltration processes during flooding, especially when moisture is important. So detecting and characterizing clay mineral in soils serve urban planning issues and improve the risk reduction by predicting impacts of subsidence on houses and infrastructures. High-resolution clay maps are thus needed with accurate indications on mineral species and abundances. Clay minerals, known as phyllosilicates, are divided in three main species: smectite, illite, and kaolinite. The smectite group highly contributes to the swelling behavior of soils, and because geotechnical soil analyses are expensive and time-consuming, it is urgent to develop new approaches for mapping clays’ spatial distribution by using new technologies, e.g., ground spectrometer or remote hyperspectral cameras [0.4–2.5 μm]. These technics constitute efficient alternatives to conventional methods. We present in this chapter some recent results we got for characterizing clay species and their abundances from spectrometry, used either from a ground spectrometer or from hyperspectral cameras.",signatures:"Gilles Grandjean, Xavier Briottet, Karine Adeline, Anne Bourguignon and Audrey Hohmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66995",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66995",authors:[{id:"292084",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilles",surname:"Grandjean",slug:"gilles-grandjean",fullName:"Gilles Grandjean"},{id:"298653",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",surname:"Briotet",slug:"xavier-briotet",fullName:"Xavier Briotet"},{id:"298654",title:"Dr.",name:"Karine",surname:"Adeline",slug:"karine-adeline",fullName:"Karine Adeline"},{id:"298655",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",surname:"Bourguignon",slug:"anne-bourguignon",fullName:"Anne Bourguignon"},{id:"298656",title:"MSc.",name:"Audrey",surname:"Hohmann",slug:"audrey-hohmann",fullName:"Audrey Hohmann"}],corrections:null},{id:"67895",title:"The Impact of Land Use and Land Cover Changes on the Nkula Dam in the Middle Shire River Catchment, Malawi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86452",slug:"the-impact-of-land-use-and-land-cover-changes-on-the-nkula-dam-in-the-middle-shire-river-catchment-m",totalDownloads:1502,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Land use and land cover changes over a 26-year period for the middle Shire River catchment, Malawi, in southern Africa, were assessed using geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing techniques. The catchment area under study was divided into two sections, western and eastern sides of the Shire River. High rate of deforestation averaging 4.3% per annum was observed and more pronounced in the western side of the river. Rapid population growth and increase in gross domestic product (GDP) are identified as the major drivers of deforestation and forest degradation due to clearing of vast fields for agriculture, land expansion for urban settlement, and cutting down of trees for wood fuel energy. Deforestation in the middle Shire River catchment has resulted into increased soil loss through erosion causing huge accumulation of sediment at the Nkula B Hydroelectric Power Dam downstream and, consequently, causing serious problems with generation of hydroelectricity. Frequent droughts and floods in the area have drastically affected crop production forcing people into cutting down of trees for charcoal as a livelihood strategy. Combined techniques such as GIS, remote sensing, and socioeconomic factors used in this study could be applied in other places where similar challenges occur.",signatures:"Maureen Kapute Mzuza, Weiguo Zhang, Fanuel Kapute and Xiaodao Wei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67895",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67895",authors:[{id:"286469",title:"Dr.",name:"Maureen",surname:"Kapute Mzuza",slug:"maureen-kapute-mzuza",fullName:"Maureen Kapute Mzuza"},{id:"288469",title:"Prof.",name:"Weiguo",surname:"Zhang",slug:"weiguo-zhang",fullName:"Weiguo Zhang"},{id:"288470",title:"Prof.",name:"Fanuel",surname:"Kapute",slug:"fanuel-kapute",fullName:"Fanuel Kapute"},{id:"288471",title:"Mr.",name:"Xiaodao",surname:"Wei",slug:"xiaodao-wei",fullName:"Xiaodao Wei"}],corrections:null},{id:"66990",title:"Advanced Methods for Spatial Analysis of Bioaerosol Long-Range Transport Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86132",slug:"advanced-methods-for-spatial-analysis-of-bioaerosol-long-range-transport-processes",totalDownloads:765,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Research on bioaerosol is still in its infancy. The dynamics and, therefore, the effects on atmospheric processes and the biosphere are often underestimated, or have not yet been sufficiently investigated. Atmospheric models such as FLEXPART and HYSPLIT enable researchers to simulate the transport of particles in the atmosphere and provide information on where air-parcels originate from. In the following, we present two methods for combining results of these models with spatial information, e.g., about vegetation. The first method shows how spatial CORINE land cover distribution can be analyzed within the boundaries of HYSPLIT trajectories. In a second method, FLEXPART simulations are used in combination with COSMO rain data and tree maps to generate maps that indicate the potential origin of bioaerosol for selected periods of time.",signatures:"Daniel A. Pickersgill, Hartmut Müller and Viviane R. Després",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66990",authors:[{id:"291792",title:"Prof.",name:"Hartmut",surname:"Müller",slug:"hartmut-muller",fullName:"Hartmut Müller"},{id:"291795",title:"Dr.",name:"Viviane",surname:"Després",slug:"viviane-despres",fullName:"Viviane Després"},{id:"291796",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Pickersgill",slug:"daniel-pickersgill",fullName:"Daniel Pickersgill"}],corrections:null},{id:"67603",title:"The Color of Water from Space: A Case Study for Italian Lakes from Sentinel-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86596",slug:"the-color-of-water-from-space-a-case-study-for-italian-lakes-from-sentinel-2",totalDownloads:1173,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lakes are inestimable renewable natural resources that are under significant pressure by human activities. Monitoring lakes regularly is necessary to understand their dynamics and the drivers of these dynamics to support effective management. Remote sensing by satellite sensors offers a significant opportunity to increase the spatiotemporal coverage of environmental monitoring programs for inland waters. Lake color is a water quality attribute that can be remotely sensed and is independent of the sensor specifications and water type. In this study we used the Multispectral Imager (MSI) on two Sentinel-2 satellites to determine the color of water of 170 Italian lakes during two periods in 2017. Overall, most of the lakes appeared blue in spring and green-yellow in late summer, and in particular, we confirm a blue-water status of the largest lakes in the subalpine ecoregion. The color and its seasonality are consistent with characteristics determined by geomorphology and primary drivers of water quality. This suggests that information about the color of the lakes can contribute to synoptic assessments of the trophic status of lakes. Further ongoing research efforts are focused to extend the mapping over multiple years.",signatures:"Claudia Giardino, Kerttu-Liis Kõks, Rossano Bolpagni, Giulia Luciani, Gabriele Candiani, Moritz K. Lehmann, Hendrik Jan Van der Woerd and Mariano Bresciani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67603",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67603",authors:[{id:"292340",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Giardino",slug:"claudia-giardino",fullName:"Claudia Giardino"},{id:"300416",title:"Ms.",name:"Kerttu-Liis",surname:"Kõks",slug:"kerttu-liis-koks",fullName:"Kerttu-Liis Kõks"},{id:"300418",title:"Dr.",name:"Rossano",surname:"Bolpagni",slug:"rossano-bolpagni",fullName:"Rossano Bolpagni"},{id:"300419",title:"Dr.",name:"Giulia",surname:"Luciani",slug:"giulia-luciani",fullName:"Giulia Luciani"},{id:"300420",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriele",surname:"Candiani",slug:"gabriele-candiani",fullName:"Gabriele Candiani"},{id:"300421",title:"Dr.",name:"Moritz K.",surname:"Lehmann",slug:"moritz-k.-lehmann",fullName:"Moritz K. Lehmann"},{id:"300423",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariano",surname:"Bresciani",slug:"mariano-bresciani",fullName:"Mariano Bresciani"},{id:"305861",title:"Dr.",name:"Hendrik",surname:"Van Der Woerd",slug:"hendrik-van-der-woerd",fullName:"Hendrik Van Der Woerd"}],corrections:null},{id:"69662",title:"Bacubirito: An Outstanding Cosmic Sample on Earth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88831",slug:"bacubirito-an-outstanding-cosmic-sample-on-earth",totalDownloads:632,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Bacubirito meteorite, although largely forgotten by the scientific community after its excavation in 1902, remains an incredible artifact and inspired generations of Mexican scientists. It is the fifth largest meteorite in the world and the longest with a length of 4.16 m. Using the Monte Carlo method, an innovative geometrical model and scanner, we have been the first to calculate the precise dimensions and mass (21 tons) of Bacubirito meteorite’s complex structure. Moreover, we are advocating that it be added to the list of world heritage sites due to its scientific, cultural, and historical significance in Mexico and the world.",signatures:"Emiliano Terán",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69662",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69662",authors:[{id:"289088",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Emiliano",surname:"Teran",slug:"emiliano-teran",fullName:"Emiliano Teran"}],corrections:null},{id:"68744",title:"Spatial Coordinate Transformations with Noisy Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87846",slug:"spatial-coordinate-transformations-with-noisy-data",totalDownloads:611,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The parametric transformation of spatial coordinates between different reference frames is traditionally dealt with a stepwise approach which imposes a suboptimal treatment in the presence of noisy data. The chapter explains briefly the drawbacks of this approach and then presents an alternative scheme for spatial coordinate transformations that improves the classic stepwise solution when using noisy coordinates of known stochastic structure. The proposed methodology is simple in principle, although its numerical implementation with nonlinear parametric models is a bit more involved and it relies on the joint least squares adjustment of the observed coordinates using their full stochastic model over all points of interest. The mathematical framework and the related properties of this “stacking” approach are presented in detail, along with a numerical example that demonstrates its feasibility for practical problems in geospatial applications.",signatures:"Christopher Kotsakis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68744",authors:[{id:"210527",title:"Prof.",name:"Christopher",surname:"Kotsakis",slug:"christopher-kotsakis",fullName:"Christopher Kotsakis"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5241",title:"Applications of Spatial Statistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"acc5941907640ecc7a3e350c5fe3df19",slug:"applications-of-spatial-statistics",bookSignature:"Ming-Chih Hung",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5241.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184413",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming",surname:"Hung",slug:"ming-hung",fullName:"Ming Hung"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7262",title:"Spatial Analysis, Modelling and Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed7c7f4193e3951e715569ca454f7077",slug:"spatial-analysis-modelling-and-planning",bookSignature:"Jorge Rocha and José António Tenedório",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7262.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145918",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Rocha",slug:"jorge-rocha",fullName:"Jorge Rocha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9246",title:"Satellites Missions and Technologies for Geosciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f23d04613b089dae40f81342c3e7c7f4",slug:"satellites-missions-and-technologies-for-geosciences",bookSignature:"Vladislav Demyanov and Jonathan Becedas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9246.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"154597",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladislav",surname:"Demyanov",slug:"vladislav-demyanov",fullName:"Vladislav Demyanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9846",title:"Spatial Variability in Environmental Science",subtitle:"Patterns, Processes, and Analyses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cfa4fa7b982bbff46ffbe6fbdbffbdf1",slug:"spatial-variability-in-environmental-science-patterns-processes-and-analyses",bookSignature:"John P. Tiefenbacher and Davod Poreh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9846.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. 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\r\n\tPeacebuilding entails rebuilding people's social, economic, political, and cultural lives during or after a violent conflict. To achieve these objectives, states and local communities must build infrastructures that contribute to the creation of an enabling environment for peace and security activities to thrive. Peace infrastructures can be both formal and informal. To ensure peace and security, both national and local governments must mobilize their resources to mitigate the effects of conflict-related factors such as climate change, social crime, poverty, unemployment, and hunger. The role of political leadership in promoting peace initiatives is examined through case studies from around the world. It also investigates the critical role of traditional leadership in maintaining community peace. These initiatives and actors are examined within the broader framework of global peace and security. Micro-macro peace infrastructures for peace are explored.
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1. Introduction
Methylation at the C5 positions of cytosine (i.e., 5mC) in the CpG context (hereafter called DNA methylation) plays a major role in the transcriptional regulation of gene expression, the silencing of transposable elements (TEs), and genome integrity. The enzymatic activities catalyzing DNA methylation can be classified into two types. One is de novo DNA methylation, which is an activity by which methyl groups are added to cytosine at unmethylated DNA; de novo DNA methyltransferases DNMT3A and DNMT3B, together with their coactivator DNMT3L, are known to catalyze this reaction [1]. The other DNA methylation type is maintenance of DNA methylation, an activity by which unmethylated cytosine residues of hemi-methylated DNA (cytosine methylation on only one strand of the CG dyad) are methylated after DNA replication; DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and its cofactor, ubiquitin-like, containing PHD and RING finger domains 1 (UHRF1), are responsible for this function [2]. In this chapter, the current status of knowledge of the two types of DNA methylation, including recent findings from our group, is summarized. In addition, possible mechanisms underlying the control of region-specific methylation by de novo DNMTs as well as possible maintenance of DNA methylation mechanisms, with or without chromatin remodeling, are discussed.
2. De novo DNA methylation
2.1 Timing of physiological de novo DNA methylation
De novo DNA methylation is a process by which methyl groups are added to unmethylated DNA at specific CpG sites, catalyzed by DNMT3A and DNMT3B [1]. In most differentiated cells, de novo DNA methylation is basically undesirable, since precise maintenance of the DNA methylation pattern, once established, is essential to sustain the appropriate functions of each cell type. Under physiological conditions, DNA methylation is widely erased, and then cell-type specific DNA methylation patterns are established during gametogenesis and embryogenesis [3] (Figure 1). During oogenesis and spermatogenesis, de novo DNA methylation occurs to establish oocyte- and sperm-specific DNA methylation patterns, following its elimination in primordial germ cells (PGCs). During post-implantation embryogenesis, which can extend to early childhood, de novo DNA methylation occurs to establish DNA methylation patterns specific to each cell type after they are erased in preimplantation embryos.
Figure 1.
Known factors involved in dynamic physiological demethylation and de novo DNA methylation during mouse gametogenesis and embryogenesis. DNA methylation is widely erased, and then sex-specific or cell type-specific DNA methylation patterns are established during gametogenesis and embryogenesis. Levels of DNA methylation of imprinting control regions (ICRs) and some transposable elements (TEs) are maintained in the face of genome-wide demethylation in preimplantation embryos. DOHaD, developmental origins of health and disease; SCMC, subcortical maternal complex; E6.5, embryonic day 6.5; E10.5, embryonic day10.5; E12.5, embryonic day 12.5.
The erasure of DNA methylation in PGCs is probably the result of a defect in maintenance of DNA methylation, caused by the diminished expression of UHRF1 in the cells [4]. After the demethylation, DNMT3A establishes the methylation pattern in combination with DNMT3L, which itself does not possess enzymatic activity but is indispensable for the activity of DNMT3A [5, 6, 7] in oocytes arrested at an early stage of the first meiotic division or in prospermatogonia arrested at the G1 phase [8]. Although the major role of UHRF1 is in the maintenance of DNA methylation (Section 2.2), our group has recently found that UHRF1 is involved in 25% of the genome-wide de novo DNA methylation in oocytes [9]. The absence of the UHRF1 protein preferentially decreased DNA methylation levels at transcriptionally inactive regions without histone H3 trimethylation at lysine 36 (H3K36me3) mark. Given that only a small percentage decrease in DNA methylation was observed in DNMT1 KO oocytes [10] and that UHRF1 has the potential to interact with de novo DNMTs [11], UHRF1 may cooperate with DNMT3A for the establishment of methylation patterns. Despite the involvement of UHRF1 in de novo DNA methylation in oocytes, our group found that the localization of UHRF1 in oocytes is mainly in the cytoplasm [9]. Recently, cytoplasmic Stella (also known as DPPA3 and PGC7), which is localized in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus, is reported to contribute to the cytoplasmic localization of UHRF1 in oocytes to prevent aberrantly excessive de novo DNA methylation by the UHRF1 protein complex [12]. Nuclear Stella is also reported to inhibit the association of UHRF1 with chromatin, resulting in a possible double-layer mechanism to prevent aberrant de novo DNA methylation by the complex [13].
During post-implantation embryogenesis and early childhood, not only DNMT3A but also DNMT3B proves to be essential for establishing the characteristic methylation pattern [14]. These enzymes may work together or independently to establish specific DNA methylation patterns in each cell type. However, it still has to be determined when the establishment of the methylation pattern is completed, although it probably depends on the cell type. The “developmental origins of health and disease” (DOHaD) is a concept that has emerged over the past three decades, linking the risk of diseases in later childhood and adult life with the environmental conditions of the early life, including nutrient availability to the mothers. Accumulating evidence suggests that the environment can change the epigenetic state, including DNA methylation of the fetus and infant, with the state being maintained throughout the lifetime of the individual [15]. A well-known experiment showed that early experience in childhood permanently alters behavior and physiology; interactions between rat mothers and their offspring, including the licking and grooming of the pups by their mother in the first week of life, altered the DNA methylation status of the glucocorticoid receptor promoter in the hippocampus of the offspring, resulting in differential stress tolerance among the offspring [16]. This indicates that the establishment of DNA methylation is not complete by the first week after birth, at least in the hippocampal neurons of the rat.
2.2 Specification of de novo DNA methylation sites
The mechanisms underlying the specification of the genomic regions targeted by de novo DNMTs have remained largely elusive. In oocytes, a significant positive correlation between transcription and highly methylated regions has been reported [17]. It is known that transcriptionally active regions are marked with H3K36me3 and that the histone methyltransferase SET domain containing 2 (SETD2) is responsible for the histone methylation in oocytes [18]. Since SETD2 is reported to interact with the phosphorylated C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II (RNA pol II) [19], SETD2 appears to methylate histones at regions actively transcribed by the polymerase. On the other hand, the PWWP domain of DNMT3A recognizes H3K36me3 [20], and mutations in this domain, which disrupt this recognition, cause microcephalic dwarfism with aberrant DNA methylation in humans and in a mouse model [21, 22]. Oocyte-specific SETD2 KO also causes aberrant DNA methylation [23]. Taken together, it appears that SETD2 methylates H3K36 accompanied by transcription by RNA pol II and DNMT3A recognizes the histone mark and methylates the DNA, resulting in the establishment of DNA methylation patterns specific to oocytes (Figure 2). However, there are exceptions. For example, as described above, UHRF1 is involved in 25% of the genome-wide de novo DNA methylation, mostly at transcriptionally inactive regions lacking the H3K36me3 mark [9]. It is still unknown which factors trigger transcription in oocytes, although transcription from long terminal repeat (LTR)-retrotransposons, whose methylation is erased in PGCs, could be one such trigger [24].
Figure 2.
A model for transcription-coupled and transcription-uncoupled de novo DNA methylation in oocytes. SETD2 methylates H3K36 accompanied with transcription by RNA polymerase II, and DNMT3A recognizes the histone mark and methylates DNA, resulting in the establishment of DNA methylation pattern specific to oocytes. Long terminal repeat (LTR)-retrotransposons activated in PGCs may be partially involved in triggering the transcription. Although UHRF1 is involved in the de novo DNA methylation of regions without the H3K36me3 mark, there could be additional mechanisms for transcription-uncoupled de novo DNA methylation.
During embryogenesis, transcription factors probably define certain transcribed regions in each cell type as only four transcriptional factors (OCT3/4, SOX2, KLF4, and MYC), together known as OSKM or Yamanaka factors, can drive drastic transcriptional change and define epigenetically active regions in differentiated cells, resulting in induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells [25]. DNMTs can access regions, where the transcription factors are absent, to passively specify regions for DNA methylation (Figure 3). Noncoding RNAs, such as PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), can also contribute to the specification of regions for DNA methylation (Figure 3). piRNAs are the largest class (26–31 nucleotides) of small noncoding RNA expressed in animal cells, which were first discovered in Drosophila as RNAs interacting with the PIWI protein; human and mouse homologs are HIWI and MIWI, respectively. In most cases, precursor piRNAs are derived from piRNA clusters in the genome composed of mutated TEs. The precursor piRNAs are processed by several steps and matured by the addition of a methyl group at their 3′ ends [26]. Then, the maturated piRNAs interact with Argonaute (AGO) family proteins and cleave the TEs, which are undesirably transcribed by the erasure of DNA methylation in PGCs [26]. Although the underlying mechanisms are unknown, piRNAs silence these TEs by epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation, especially during spermatogenesis [27]. In addition, lncRNAs can specify de novo DNA methylation-acquired regions. X-inactive specific transcript (XIST) is one of the best-studied lncRNAs. XIST RNA is randomly expressed from one of two X-chromosomes in mammalian female cells during embryogenesis and covers the X-chromosome in cis to trigger silencing of most genes on it by several layers of epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation, to achieve dosage compensation [28, 29].
Figure 3.
A model for formation of transcriptionally active and silenced regions during embryogenesis. Transcription factors (TFs) could define transcriptionally active regions, while small RNAs and lncRNAs could define transcriptionally silenced regions in addition to transcription-coupled de novo DNA methylation. After transcriptionally active and silenced regions could be actively determined, suppressive mark modifiers, such as de novo DNMTs, may add suppressive epigenetic marks to accessible regions, which transcriptional machineries do not occupy, resulting in the passive formation of transcriptionally silenced regions.
3. Maintenance of DNA methylation
3.1 Maintenance of DNA methylation by the DNMT1/UHRF1 complex
Once DNA methylation patterns specific to each cell type are established, the pattern is maintained by the DNMT1/UHRF1 complex throughout the individual’s lifetime [2]. UHRF1 (also known as Np95 or ICBP90) is a multidomain protein, which contains a ubiquitin-like (UBL) domain, a tandem Tudor domain (TTD), a plant homeodomain (PHD) finger, a SET and RING-associated (SRA) domain, and a really interesting new gene (RING) domain. The TTD recognizes di−/tri-methylated H3K9 (H3K9me2/me3) and also LIG1 (LIG1K126me2/me3) [30, 31], the PHD recognizes the unmethylated N-terminus of histone H3 and LIG1 [32], the SRA domain recognizes hemi-methylated DNA at the replication fork [33, 34, 35], and the RING domain mono-ubiquitylates multiple lysines of histone H3 at K14, K18, and K23 and those of the PCNA-associated factor 15 (PAF15) at K15 and K24 [36, 37, 38, 39]. The UBL domain facilitates both the RING-mediated ubiquitylation and the SRA-mediated recognition of hemi-methylated DNA [40, 41].
Current consensus has it that the process of maintenance of DNA methylation operates as follows. After DNA replication, UHRF1 directly recognizes hemi-methylated DNA and mono-ubiquitylates histone H3K14, K18, and K23, to recruit DNMT1 to the hemi-methylation sites. Then, DNMT1 recognizes two of the three ubiquitylated histone lysine residues through the replication foci targeting sequence (RFTS) domain and methylates the nascent strand in hemi-methylated DNA, resulting in the maintenance of the methylation patterns (Figure 4). Immediately prior to the methylation of hemi-methylated DNA by DNMT1, it has been reported that the deubiquitylation of histones by ubiquitin specific peptidase 7 (USP7) is required [42]. DNA ligase 1 (LIG1), which is critical for the joining together of Okazaki fragments [43], is also involved in this process [31]. Euchromatic histone lysine methyltransferase 2 (EHMT2, also called G9a) and EHMT1 (also called GLP) methylate K126 of LIG1. UHRF1 recognizes the methylated LIG1, and this interaction facilitates the recruitment of UHRF1 to DNA replication sites. Since LIG1 is indispensable for completing the lagging strand synthesis, the interaction between UHRF1 and LIG1 may be especially important for maintenance of DNA methylation of the strand (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
A model of maintenance of DNA methylation where the CDCA7/HELLS complex is unrequired or required. After DNA replication, UHRF1 directly recognizes hemi-methylated DNA, and mono-ubiquitylates multiple histone lysines, H3K14, K18, and K23, to recruit DNMT1 to the hemi-methylation sites. Consequently, DNMT1 recognizes two of the three ubiquitylated lysine residues through the replication foci targeting sequence (RFTS) domain and methylates the nascent strand in hemi-methylated DNA, resulting in the maintenance of the methylation pattern. LIG1 methylated by G9a/GLP helps UHRF1 to maintain DNA methylation. In addition, the CDCA7/HELLS complex is required for maintaining the DNA methylation of centromeric and pericentromeric regions. The complex may also be required for maintaining regions that are heterochromatic, late replicating, and histone H1 rich, all these regions being nucleosome dense.
3.2 Maintenance of DNA methylation by the CDCA7/HELLS chromatin remodeling complex
The cell division cycle-associated 7 (CDCA7)/helicase lymphoid-specific (HELLS) chromatin remodeling complex is also involved in maintenance of DNA methylation. Recently, an international group including us identified CDCA7 and HELLS (also known as LSH) to be causative genes of the immunodeficiency, centromeric instability, facial anomalies (ICF) syndrome type-3 and type-4 (hereafter ICF3 and ICF4), respectively [44]. The syndrome is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by reduced immunoglobulin levels in the serum and recurrent infection [45]. Centromeric instability manifests as stretched heterochromatin, chromosome breaks, and multiradial configurations involving the centromeric/pericentromeric regions of chromosomes 1, 9, and 16 in activated lymphocytes [46], and the cytological defects are accompanied by DNA hypomethylation in pericentromeric satellite-2 and -3 repeats of these chromosomes.
Patients with the ICF syndrome are classified into two groups [47]. One group includes ICF syndrome type-1 (ICF1), which shows DNA hypomethylation only at the pericentromeric repeats. A causative gene for this group is DNMT3B [1, 48, 49]. The second group includes ICF syndrome type-2, type-3, and type-4 (ICF2, ICF3, and ICF4, respectively), which shows DNA hypomethylation at centromeric α-satellite repeats in addition to the pericentromeric repeats. As described above, causative genes for ICF3 and ICF4 are CDCA7 and HELLS, respectively [44]. The causative gene for ICF2 is zinc finger and BTB domain containing 24 (ZBTB24) [50]. As ZBTB24 is a transcriptional activator of CDCA7 [51, 52], and CDCA7 and HELLS constitute a chromatin remodeling complex, in which CDCA7 stimulates the nucleosome remodeling activity of HELLS [53], the same pathway seems to be disrupted in ICF2, ICF3, and ICF4.
A recent study revealed that, in addition to centromeric and pericentromeric repeats, DNA methylation levels of other heterochromatic late-replicating regions are affected in ICF2, ICF3, and ICF4 patients, though not in ICF1 patients [54]. As UHRF1 KO and DNMT1 KO cause hypomethylation of the entire genome, including centromeric and pericentromeric repeats [2], the DNMT1/UHRF1 complex is surely essential for maintaining these regions. However, the CDCA7/HELLS complex seems to be required for assisting the DNMT1/UHRF1 complex to methylate hemi-methylated DNA, possibly by sliding nucleosomes in a region-specific manner [53]. Supporting this idea, our group detected an interaction between CDCA7 and UHRF1 [55]. Late-replicating regions tend to be heterochromatic regions, where the nucleosome density is high. Therefore, the CDCA7/HELLS chromatin remodeling complex may be required for such regions (Figure 4).
Using human embryonic kidney 293 cells, our group reported that DNMT3B KO caused a slight decrease in DNA methylation of pericentromeric repeats after 4 months of KO by the CRISPR/Cas9 system, while CDCA7 KO and HELLS KO caused drastic decreases in DNA methylation even after only 2 months [55], indicating that the CDCA7/HELLS chromatin remodeling complex is essential for maintaining the DNA methylation of the repeats, whereas the requirement of DNMT3B for the maintenance is limited in differentiated cells. In the CDCA7 KO and HELLS KO cells, DNA methylation levels of centromeric repeats were also decreased, but the level of decrease was much less than that of pericentromeric repeats. This indicates that the CDCA7/HELLS complex is less essential for maintenance of DNA methylation of centromeric repeats. Because the chromatin structure, density of nucleosomes, and histone variants are different between centromeric and pericentromeric regions, these differences may determine the levels of requirement for the chromatin remodeling complex. In addition, it has been reported that nucleosomes and the linker histone H1 are barriers to access of DNMTs to DNA and that HELLS and deficient in DNA methylation 1 (DDM1), a plant homolog of HELLS, are required for the methylation of DNA wrapped around nucleosomes [56, 57]. Consistent with these reports, the most abundant proteins co-immunoprecipitated with human CDCA7 were histone H1 and core histones in our group’s report [55]. The interaction between the CDCA7/HELLS complex and histone H1 may also be a cue to identify regions where the complex is required for maintenance of DNA methylation (Figure 4).
3.3 Maintenance of DNA methylation by the proteins associated with multi-locus imprint disorder
It is reported that mutations in genes encoding zinc finger protein 57 (ZFP57) and components of subcortical maternal complex (SCMC), including NLRP2, NLRP5, NLRP7, PADI6, OOEP, and TLE6, cause the multi-locus imprint disorder, which exhibits DNA hypomethylation at multiple imprinting control regions (ICRs) [58, 59, 60, 61]. Since the hypomethylation is observed in both paternally and maternally methylated ICRs, these factors are thought to be involved in maintenance of DNA methylation against genome-wide DNA demethylation in preimplantation embryos (Figure 1). Mutations in ZFP57 cause transient neonatal diabetes mellitus [61]. As ZFP57 is a nuclear protein, which recognizes the methylated TGCCGC hexanucleotide found in almost all ICRs and which acts together with ZNF445, KRAB-associated protein-1 (KAP1), DNMTs, SET domain bifurcated histone lysine methyltransferase 1 (SETDB1), and heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) [62, 63], ZFP57 is considered to maintain DNA methylation by directly binding to ICRs with such proteins. However, the mechanism by which SCMC components, which are localized adjacent to the oocyte membrane, can maintain DNA methylation at ICRs remains elusive [59]. Among the multi-locus imprint disorder cases, just one case, who has a heterozygous mutation (V159 M in isoform 1, V172 M in isoform 2) in the TTD of UHRF1, has been reported [60].
4. Conclusions
I identified UHRF1 as a novel methyl-CpG binding protein in 2004 by biotin-avidin pulldown assay using biotin-labeled methylated DNA mixed with nuclear extracts and subsequent mass spectrometric analysis [64, 65]. Since then, an understanding of the mechanism by which maintenance of DNA methylation is achieved has quickly expanded and deepened, progress that I would never have imagined at that time. When the involvement of UHRF1 in maintenance of DNA methylation was reported [2], the recognition of hemi-methylated DNA by UHRF1 was reported [32, 34, 35], and the ubiquitylation of histone H3 by UHRF1 was reported [36], each time I felt that the mechanism of maintenance of DNA methylation had been resolved. However, the mechanism is more complicated than expected, and more factors could still be involved to assist the DNMT1/UHRF1 complex, depending on context such as replication timing, replication strand, and higher-order chromatin structure. We still cannot take our eyes off advances in this field.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant number JP18K06961. I would like to thank Enago (www.enago.jp) for the English language review.
Conflict of interest
The author has declared that no conflict of interest exists.
Thanks
I would like to thank Drs. Kyohei Arita (Yokohama City University), Jafar Sharif (RIKEN), and Atsuya Nishiyama (the University of Tokyo) for involving me in the UHRF1 community and discussing many interesting topics. I would like to thank Dr. Hisato Kobayashi (Nara Medical University) for notifying me of a possible role of LTR-retrotransposons in oocytes. I also would like to thank Profs. Hiroyuki Sasaki (Kyushu University) and Hironori Funabiki (Rockefeller University) for deepening my insights into epigenetics and chromatins. Finally, I would like to thank Prof. Yusuke Nakamura (Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research) for encouraging me with challenging experiments, which resulted in the identification of UHRF1, when I was a PhD student.
\n',keywords:"de novo DNA methylation, maintenance of DNA methylation, embryogenesis, gametogenesis, oocyte, PGC, ubiquitylation, UHRF1, DNMT1, DNMT3A, DNMT3B, DNMT3L, ICF syndrome, CDCA7, HELLS, chromatin remodeling",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69095.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69095.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69095",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69095",totalDownloads:1096,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:45,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 2nd 2019",dateReviewed:"August 19th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 20th 2019",datePublished:"July 1st 2020",dateFinished:"September 16th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"DNA methylation is one of the key epigenetic mechanisms essential for transcriptional regulation, silencing of transposable elements, and genome stabilization. Under physiological conditions, DNA methylation is erased and then established genome-wide during gametogenesis and embryogenesis. De novo DNA methylation by the enzymatic reaction of the de novo DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), DNMT3A and DNMT3B, occurs during the establishment of DNA methylation patterns specific to each germ cell type or somatic cell type after the erasure. Once cell type-specific DNA methylation patterns are established during embryogenesis, which can extend to early childhood, the maintenance of DNA methyltransferase DNMT1 and its cofactor UHRF1 cooperatively maintain the pattern throughout the individual’s lifetime. Recently, our group found that UHRF1 is also involved in de novo DNA methylation during oogenesis. Moreover, our group has identified two genes, CDCA7 and HELLS, to be the causative genes of ICF syndrome, characterized by hypomethylation of centromeric and pericentromeric repetitive sequences. Because CDCA7/HELLS comprise a chromatin remodeling complex, there are evidently certain regions where chromatin remodeling is required to achieve maintenance of DNA methylation. In this chapter, the current situation with respect to our understanding of de novo and maintenance of DNA methylation mechanisms under physiological conditions in mammals is summarized.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69095",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69095",book:{id:"8176",slug:"dna-methylation-mechanism"},signatures:"Motoko Unoki",authors:[{id:"68260",title:"Dr.",name:"Motoko",middleName:null,surname:"Unoki",fullName:"Motoko Unoki",slug:"motoko-unoki",email:"unokim@bioreg.kyushu-u.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68260/images/60_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. De novo DNA methylation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Timing of physiological de novo DNA methylation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Specification of de novo DNA methylation sites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Maintenance of DNA methylation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Maintenance of DNA methylation by the DNMT1/UHRF1 complex",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Maintenance of DNA methylation by the CDCA7/HELLS chromatin remodeling complex",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 Maintenance of DNA methylation by the proteins associated with multi-locus imprint disorder",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Thanks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Okano M, Bell DW, Haber DA, Li E. DNA methyltransferases Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b are essential for de novo methylation and mammalian development. Cell. 1999;99:247-257. 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ICBP90, an E2F-1 target, recruits HDAC1 and binds to methyl-CpG through its SRA domain. Oncogene. 2004;23:7601-7610. DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208053'},{id:"B65",body:'Unoki M, Nakamura Y. Methylation at CpG islands in intron 1 of EGR2 confers enhancer-like activity. FEBS Letters. 2003;554:67-72. DOI: 10.1016/S0014-5793(03)01092-5'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Motoko Unoki",address:"unokim@bioreg.kyushu-u.ac.jp",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
A hernia occurs when there is an abnormal protrusion of an organ or tissue through a natural orifice or weakness point. Abdominal wall hernias are quite frequent, with approximately 700,000 hernia repair surgeries currently performed in the United States every year [1]. There are several types of abdominal wall hernias depending on their location (Figure 1), with inguinal hernias being the most common, accounting for 75% of all abdominal wall hernias [1].
Figure 1.
Different types of abdominal wall hernias.
Spigelian hernias (SH) are defined as a protrusion of preperitoneal fat, peritoneum or an organ through a defect that can be acquired or congenital, located laterally to the rectus abdominis in the anterior abdominal wall [2, 3]. This type of hernia is rare and has been estimated to account for <2% of all abdominal wall hernias [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. Pain is the most common symptom reported by patients [4, 7], but there are no pathognomonic signs and symptoms, making clinical diagnosis difficult. Complementary diagnostic tests such as ultrasonography (US) and computed tomography (CT) can play an essential role in its diagnosis. Due to the high risk of incarceration (25%) [4, 6, 7], this type of hernia is indicated for surgery [4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12]. The surgery can be performed openly or laparoscopically, with or without mesh placement [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Currently, the laparoscopic approach is increasingly used as it is associated with low morbidity rates [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 14]. The laparoscopic approaches described include trans-abdominal approaches such as the intraperitoneal onlay mesh (IPOM), transabdominal pre-peritoneal (TAPP) and totally extra-peritoneal (TEP) techniques [2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 11, 14].
2. Anatomy
Spigelian hernia owes its name to the Belgian anatomist Adrian van den Spiegel who first described the semilunar line in 1645 [6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15].
Spiegel described a lateral, convex line extending from the cartilage of the ninth rib to the pubis, lateral to the rectus abdominis and where the transversus abdominis muscle transition to its aponeurosis is found [7, 11]. This line became known as the semilunar line or Spiegel’s line (Figure 2) [7].
Figure 2.
Anatomy of Spigelian fascia.
The transversus abdominis muscle aponeurosis that lies between the lateral border of the rectus abdominis muscle medially and the semilunar line laterally is called the Spigelian’s fascia or aponeurosis [2, 4, 5, 6, 7].
It was not until 1764, more than a century after the description of the semilunar line, that a Spigelian hernia was described for the first time, reported by the Belgian anatomist Josef Klinkosch [3, 6, 8].
This way, SH is defined as a protrusion of preperitoneal fat, peritoneum or an organ through a defect located in the Spigelian fascia [6, 7].
Throughout history, SH has also been called “spontaneous lateral ventral hernia,” “semilunar line hernia” and “hernia through the conjoint tendon” [3, 6].
Although SH can occur anywhere on the Spigelian fascia, around 90% occur below the umbilicus, more specifically below the arcuate line [2, 5, 6, 7, 8]. This zone is known as the “Spigelian hernia belt” and is defined medially by the lateral border of the rectus abdominis muscle, superiorly by the arcuate line and inferiorly by the inferior epigastric vessels [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Spigelien’s belt is an area about 6 cm wide above a transverse line that passes through the anterior superior iliac spines [5, 6, 7].
The higher incidence of hernias in this location is associated with the fact that in this location the posterior sheath of the rectus abdominis is absent and the fibers of the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscle are in cross-parallel, making it a weakness point [5, 6, 7, 8, 15]. This does not happen above the umbilicus where there is the posterior sheath of the rectus abdominis and the fibers of the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles cross perpendicularly [6, 7]. A SH above this area is extremely rare [7].
SH can also occur below and medially to the epigastric vessels and extend to the pubic tubercle, being called “low Spigelian hernia” [7].
The SH sac usually contains extraperitoneal fat, peritoneum, small intestine or omentum, but it may contain other organs such as the stomach, gallbladder, ovaries, testes and bladder [6, 16].
The hernia defect is usually narrow (0.5–2 cm), with rigid margins and covered by the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle, thus presenting a high risk of incarceration and strangulation [2, 3, 5, 9]. Some studies report that these hernias have a 25% risk of incarceration and 40% of strangulation, making surgical repair a recommendation [4, 6, 7]. Due to the rectus abdominis position, the hernia sac generally expands laterally and caudally along the intraparietal plane between the internal and external oblique muscle [7, 9].
3. Incidence
SH is a rare type of ventral hernia, accounting for about 0.12 to 2% of all hernias [1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 16]. SH is most commonly diagnosed between age 40 and 70 and is slightly more common in women (male/female ratio 1:1.6) and on the right side of the abdomen (right/left ratio 2:1) [2, 7, 9, 12].
Patients with comorbidities that lead to increased intra-abdominal pressure or weakness of the abdominal wall have the greatest risk of herniation.
4. Pathophysiology and risk factors
SH results from congenital or acquired defects, with a peak incidence in the fifth decade of life [6, 7].
Congenital defects are related to a weak area at the junction of the aponeurosis of the abdominal muscles as they develop separately in the mesenchyme of somatopleure [6, 7]. However, SH rarely occurs in children [7].
Concerning acquired defects, these can be associated with situations that increase intra-abdominal pressure, trauma or degeneration of the abdominal wall aponeurosis [6, 7, 8, 15].
The increased intra-abdominal pressure may be caused by situations like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic cough, obesity, cirrhosis, chronic constipation and pregnancy [6, 7, 8, 10, 15]. History of previous abdominal surgery (open or laparoscopic) and abdominal trauma can also predispose to the appearance of SH as it can weaken the semilunar line [6, 7, 8, 17].
Some authors have also suggested that the neurovascular opening in Spigelian’s aponeurosis may be a susceptible point of herniation; however, this factor is currently considered of little importance [17].
Collagen disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome or the aging process can also increase the risk of developing these hernias [6, 7, 8].
Therefore, the development of SH is likely to be multifactorial.
5. Clinical presentation
The diagnosis of SH is difficult as there are no characteristic signs or symptoms of this pathology [2, 6, 7, 17].
Unlike other types of hernias, the most common symptom associated with a Spigelian hernia is pain and not a palpable protrusion/mass [2, 4, 5, 7, 17]. SH is often only diagnosed when it becomes symptomatic with incarceration, strangulation or occlusion, and before these events, patients are asymptomatic [7].
Pain varies in type, severity and location depending on the contents of the hernia sac [7, 18]. Typically, the pain is aggravated with standing or any other factor that causes an increase in intra-abdominal pressure, and it improves with rest and with the supine position [3, 7, 18].
In addition to pain, patients may present a palpable mass that may be located far from the hernia orifice [2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 14, 17]. This mass can appear when the patient is standing and disappear spontaneously when lying down [10, 17]. Large SH is easily palpable; however, the diagnosis of hernias with a small hernia sac and orifice is quite challenging [3, 4, 17].
During the physical examination, a tender spot over the hernia defect may be palpated when the abdominal muscles are tense [7, 17]. The sensitivity of the physical examination can be increased by asking the patient to relax and contract the abdomen (Valsalva maneuvers) [7, 18].
The diagnosis is made when a mass and hernia defect is palpated over the Spigelian aponeurosis [3]. However, this clinical presentation is not common since the orifice and hernia sac are rarely detected as it is covered by subcutaneous fat, especially in obese patients, and by the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle [2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 17, 18].
These facts make the clinical diagnosis based only on the physical examination quite difficult, and some studies report that only in 50% of cases, a SH can be detected with only the physical examination [6, 18]. It is therefore essential to complement with diagnostic exams when the patient is in pain but without any palpable mass.
The diagnosis of SH is challenging and requires a high level of suspicion [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 17, 18].
6. Complementary diagnostic exams
As previously mentioned, the diagnosis of SH can be challenging and imaging exams are often necessary to help diagnose or assess the correct diagnosis. These exams are intended to show the presence of a hernia orifice and obtain information about the contents of the hernia sac [3, 4, 8, 14, 17]. Imaging exams also allow us to exclude differential diagnoses, which based only on the clinical presentation can be challenging.
6.1 Abdominal X-ray
In order to be able to make the diagnosis of SH through radiography, the hernia sac must have a subcutaneous location and contain an intestine with air, gas or oral contrast [17]. The use of oral contrast also allows diagnosing occlusion conditions [17]. However, this exam does not allow the diagnosis of SH if the hernia sac contains omentum or if the hernia sac has no content [17]. In these cases, radiography is usually an inconclusive exam [17].
6.2 Ultrasonography (US)
Ultrasonography is recommended as the first-line imaging test to investigate the existence of SH [14, 18], presenting diagnostic utilities on palpable and non-palpable SH [17, 18]. Diagnosis is made when the presence of a hernial orifice in Spigelian aponeurosis is demonstrated [17]. The hernia orifice is visualized as a defect in the echographic line of the aponeurosis (Figure 3) [17]. There may also be interruptions in the lines that represent the preperitoneal and peritoneum fat [17]. US has a diagnostic sensitivity of 90% for SH and a positive predictive value of 100% [2]. Thus, US is a highly sensitive and low-cost test, ideal for an initial approach to the diagnosis of SH, but it has the disadvantage of being operator-dependent [15, 18].
Figure 3.
Ultrasonography of Spigelian hernia (shown by the yellow arrow).
6.3 Computed tomography (CT)
Some studies suggest that the CT scan has a diagnostic sensitivity of SH of close to 100% [2, 14] and a positive predictive value of 100% [2], making the CT the most reliable exam to perform the diagnosis and delimit the anatomy in uncertain cases (Figures 4 and 5) [2, 4, 8, 18].
Figure 4.
CT scan of SH orifice (SH shown by the yellow arrow).
Figure 5.
CT scan of incarcerated SH (SH shown by the yellow arrow).
6.4 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
With the increasing availability, MRI can bring benefits in the preoperative evaluation of doubtful cases [18]. However, more studies are needed to understand its use.
6.5 Laparoscopy
Although US and CT scans are useful tests to make a diagnosis, sometimes SH is not diagnosed by these exams. Thus, when the mass caused by SH is not palpable and is not visible by any imaging exam, exploratory laparoscopy may be indicated [4].
7. Differential diagnosis
SH can have a presentation with several non-specific symptoms, making this pathology easily confused with other intra-abdominal pathologies or lesions of the anterior abdominal wall [7, 17, 18]. The presence of other types of hernias, namely ventral or incisional, the presence of soft tissue or abdominal wall tumors, abscesses or adenopathies should be excluded [7, 17].
Other causes of abdominal pain such as appendicitis, appendicular abscesses and diverticulitis should be excluded [18].
Besides, a hernia can dissect the sheath of the rectus abdominis, making SH to be confused with a spontaneous rupture of the rectum or a hematoma [7].
8. Treatment
As previously mentioned, SH must be treated surgically due to their risk of incarceration and strangulation [2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 17], and up to 1/3 of SH are urgently operated due to these complications [10].
Traditionally, SH was corrected by open surgery; however, with the advances in laparoscopic surgery, it started to play an increasingly important role [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. This approach still allows for a diagnostic acuity of almost 100% [12].
Several studies have shown that laparoscopic surgery has less morbidity, with less pain, fewer operative wound complications and a shorter hospital stay (1–1.4 days vs. 5.2 open days) [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
8.1 Open approach
This procedure is usually performed through a transverse or paramedian incision over the protrusion site [7, 10, 18]. A dissection of the subcutaneous tissue is carried out up to the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle and its opening with a cut in the direction of the muscle fibers [5, 7, 10, 18, 19]. After reduction of the hernia sac, the hernia orifice can be closed with a non-absorbable suture or with the placement of a synthetic mesh (in a sublay or inlay position) anchored with separate stitches [4, 5, 7, 18, 19].
Some authors advocate that the open route should be chosen if the hernia orifice is larger than 5 cm and if the abdominal wall is visibly damaged [15].
8.2 Laparoscopic approach
In 1992, Carter and Mizes performed the first laparoscopic repair of an SH, having performed a primary suture repair with extracorporeal knotting [5, 11, 12, 14, 18, 19].
The laparoscopic approach allows for an easy location of the defect, requiring less tissue dissection [2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 13]. The use of synthetic mesh is recommended, as it guarantees better results when compared with suture of the hernia defect [4, 11].
Currently, there are three types of laparoscopic approaches with mesh placement described, two through an intra-abdominal approach (IPOM and TAPP) and one through an extraperitoneal approach (TEP). The IPOM approach is the most popular, being performed in about 46.2% of cases, followed by TAPP (35.5%) and TEP (18.3%) [2, 5, 11, 14].
The International Endohernia Society Guidelines Update 2019 recommends that in the laparoscopic treatment of ventral and incisional hernias, an “at least four time the radius of the defect” mesh should be used [4]. Other authors suggest that the mesh should exceed the limits of the hernia defect by 4–5 cm [17, 18].
Laparoscopic approach with the mesh placement is safe, has few complications and allows a faster recovery [2, 5, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18]. However, if we are facing an intra-abdominal infection or signs of strangulation of the contents of the hernia sac, the synthetic mesh should not be used [7].
Given the rarity of this pathology, no study has been able to demonstrate superior outcomes between these three laparoscopic approaches [2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
Most studies do not report the existence of SH recurrence after laparoscopic correction regardless of the chosen surgical approach [5, 8, 19].
8.2.1 Intraperitoneal onlay mesh
The IPOM approach is the most commonly used and reported in the literature as it is a technically less demanding approach and fast technique and requires a shorter learning curve compared with others [2, 5, 11, 14]. The IPOM does not require a peritoneal flap and surgeons are more familiar with the intra-abdominal anatomy [5, 14, 17, 18, 19].
Brief description of the surgical technique [14, 17, 18]: The patient is positioned supine with both arms along the body. Pneumoperitoneum is performed. Three trocars are introduced: 1 trocar of 10 mm in the mid-clavicular line contralateral to the hernia at the level of the umbilicus or at the umbilicus; 1 trocar of 10 or 5 mm on the midclavicular line in a position superior to the first trocar and the last trocar of 5 mm inferior to the first trocar on the midclavicular line. The content is bluntly reduced and the mesh is placed.
In this technique, a composite or expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) mesh is placed to cover the defect, covering at least 5 cm from the circumferential margin of the orifice, and it is anchored with tacks or transabdominal suture [7, 14, 17, 18].
Some studies have shown that intestinal adhesions or erosion of loops can occur due to tacks and the mesh; however, this event has not yet been reported in any clinical case [5, 12, 14]. Another disadvantage of this technique is that it violates the integrity of the abdominal cavity [4, 14].
The IPOM approach has been shown to be safe, with less operative time (mean duration 39 minutes), shorter hospital stay and few complications [5, 14, 17, 18].
8.2.2 Transabdominal preperitoneal approach
The initial approach of TAPP technique is similar to the IPOM [2, 7]; however, unlike the IPOM, the mesh is located anterior to the peritoneum [2, 7, 14, 18]. In this technique, it is necessary to create a peritoneal flap to cover the mesh used making this technique more technically challenging [2, 14, 18]. This flap is then closed with tacks or continuous sutures [18].
As with the IPOM, TAPP also makes it possible to precisely locate the hernia defect and observe the viability of the intestine incarcerated [7, 14, 19].
The TAPP procedure takes an average of 45 minutes [14].
8.2.3 Total extraperitoneal
In 2002 Morena-Egeas described for the first time the correction of SH via the TEP technique [13].
Brief description of the surgical technique [2, 5, 7, 10, 11, 18]: Patient in supine position with both arms adducted. Infraumbilical ipsilateral incision and introduction of a 30° optic into a 10-mm port. Creation of a preperitoneal space with carbon dioxide insufflation at a pressure of 10 mmHg or with the inflation of a balloon, followed by telescopic dissection at the midline. Introduction of 2.5-mm working ports in midline, 8 and 3 cm from the pubic symphysis, under a direct view. Dissection and development of a preperitoneal plane. Identification of the hernia sac and mesh placement.
Studies have revealed that patients undergoing correction for TEP require fewer doses of narcotics and less time to resume daily activities when compared with TAPP [11].
TEP has advantages over TAPP since it avoids complications due to the dissection necessary to perform the peritoneal flap and reduces the operative time by avoiding its closure [5, 11, 13]. In addition to these factors, TEP allows the use of a Prolene mesh and does not require the use of tacks to close the peritoneal flap, which reduces the cost of surgery [5, 13]. This technique also makes it possible to reduce possible complications such as iatrogenic lesions of intestine or intestinal obstruction, as there is no violation of the abdominal cavity [5, 11].
However, the disadvantage of TEPP is the inability to do an exploration of the contents of the intestinal sac, making this approach indicated only for elective patients [5, 11].
This approach has an average duration of 59 minutes [14].
TEP is the least used surgical approach as it is the most technically challenging and has a longer learning curve, in addition to requiring a longer hospital stay when compared with IPOM [2, 5].
8.3 Robotic surgery
With the advancement of the availability of robotic surgery, it is expectable that this route of surgical correction will become more and more frequent [7, 20, 21]. SH repair using robotic techniques was described similar to the IPOM laparoscopic approach [7]. Due to the limited number of procedures performed this way, studies have not yet been carried out to determine the effectiveness and safety of robot vs. laparoscopic repairs [20, 21].
A major disadvantage of robotic surgery is the longer surgical time as well as the higher cost [20, 21].
9. Conclusion
Spigelian hernia (SH) is a rare type of abdominal wall hernia and results from protrusion through a defect in the Spigelian aponeurosis. Diagnosis may be difficult, and sometimes, this hernia goes unnoticed on physical examination. It is essential that the physician has a high level of clinical suspicion and often this diagnosis is only possible with the aid of imaging tests (US and CT). This type of hernia has surgical indication due to its risk of incarceration and strangulation. Since it is a rare and underdiagnosed type of hernia, currently there is no surgical technique defined as the ideal one for its correction. The surgical approach chosen must be adjusted to the patient, characteristics of the hernia, the available technical means and the surgeon’s experience. Currently, the laparoscopic approach is gradually becoming the preferred surgical approach; however, the open approach remains the most widely used. IPOM approach is the most commonly used, as it is a simple, faster and easily reproducible approach.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank all members of the General Surgery department at Centro Hospitalar Tondela-Viseu for their support and demand for improvement. We highlight the collaboration of Dr. Raquel Pereira, Dr. José Carlos Pereira and Dr. Tiago Pavão.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Spigelian hernia, open surgery, intraperitoneal repair laparoscopic surgery, total extraperitoneal repair",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80141.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80141.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80141",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80141",totalDownloads:96,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 15th 2021",dateReviewed:"December 16th 2021",datePrePublished:"January 21st 2022",datePublished:"June 1st 2022",dateFinished:"January 20th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Spigelian hernia (SH) is uncommon and accounts for only 0.12–2% of all abdominal hernias. Spigelian hernia is a protrusion through a defect in the aponeurosis of the transversus abdominis muscle (Spigelian fascia) that is limited by the semilunar line and the lateral edge of the rectus abdominis muscle. It is more common in women 50–60 years and it is twice as common on the right side. Patients may present with non-specific abdominal pain. Clinical diagnosis may be difficult, especially in obese patients, and radiologic exams are essential to obtain the correct diagnoses. This type of hernia has a mandatory indication to surgical repair due to the risk of incarceration that can occur in about 25% and strangulation that can occur in about 40%. Traditionally, open surgical repair is most commonly used. However, laparoscopic approach is becoming increasingly popular since it allows faster recovery, shorter hospital stay, and less pain, with no commitment to recurrence. Currently, there are no studies that demonstrate the superiority of a laparoscopic technique (intraperitoneal onlay mesh (IPOM), transabdominal pre-peritoneal (TAPP) or extraperitoneal approach (TEP)). The intraperitoneal route is a simple, faster, and easily reproducible approach.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80141",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80141",signatures:"Bruno Barbosa, Maria João Diogo, César Prudente and Carlos Casimiro",book:{id:"11238",type:"book",title:"Hernia Surgery",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Hernia Surgery",slug:"hernia-surgery",publishedDate:"June 1st 2022",bookSignature:"Selim Sözen and Hasan Erdem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11238.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-80355-520-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-519-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-521-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"90616",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Sözen",slug:"selim-sozen",fullName:"Selim Sözen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"440502",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Barbosa",fullName:"Bruno Barbosa",slug:"bruno-barbosa",email:"brunobarbosamd@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"449670",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"João Diogo",fullName:"Maria João Diogo",slug:"maria-joao-diogo",email:"maria.joao.obrist@sapo.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Centro Hospitalar Tondela-Viseu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"449673",title:"M.D.",name:"César",middleName:null,surname:"Prudente",fullName:"César Prudente",slug:"cesar-prudente",email:"cesar-prudente@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"449982",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Casimiro",fullName:"Carlos Casimiro",slug:"carlos-casimiro",email:"docoliveira@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Centro Hospitalar Tondela-Viseu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Anatomy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Incidence",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Pathophysiology and risk factors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Clinical presentation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Complementary diagnostic exams",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1 Abdominal X-ray",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.2 Ultrasonography (US)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.3 Computed tomography (CT)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.4 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.5 Laparoscopy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. Differential diagnosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"8. Treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"8.1 Open approach",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"8.2 Laparoscopic approach",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"8.2.1 Intraperitoneal onlay mesh",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"8.2.2 Transabdominal preperitoneal approach",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"8.2.3 Total extraperitoneal",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"8.3 Robotic surgery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"9. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Dabbas N, Adams K, Pearson K, Royle G. Frequency of abdominal wall hernias: Is classical teaching out of date? JRSM Short Reports. 2011;2(1):5. DOI: 10.1258/shorts.2010.010071'},{id:"B2",body:'Cui TY, Law TT, Ng L, Wong KY. Spigelian hernia: Our total extraperitoneal approach and a systematic review of the literature. Asian Journal of Endoscopic Surgery. 2021;14(3):529-539. 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DOI: 10.1007/s10029-004-0280-z'},{id:"B8",body:'Yoshida D, Itoh S, Kinjo N, Harimoto N, Maruyama S, Kawanaka H, et al. Laparoscopic intraperitoneal mesh repair of Spigelian hernia: A case report. Asian Journal of Endoscopic Surgery. 2015;8(4):477-479. DOI: 10.1111/ases.12205'},{id:"B9",body:'Filip S, Dragomirescu C, Copăescu C. Laparoscopic treatment of Spiegel hernia by total extraperitoneal (TEP) approach. Chirurgia. 2014;109(3):325-329'},{id:"B10",body:'Kelly ME, Courtney D, McDermott FD, Heeney A, Maguire D, Geoghegan JG, et al. Laparoscopic Spigelian hernia repair: A series of 40 patients. Surgical Laparoscopy, Endoscopy & Percutaneous Techniques. 2015;25(3):e86-e89. DOI: 10.1097/SLE.0000000000000112'},{id:"B11",body:'Donovan K, Denham M, Kuchta K, Carbray J, Ujiki M, Linn J, et al. Laparoscopic totally extraperitoneal and transabdominal preperitoneal approaches are equally effective for spigelian hernia repair. Surgical Endoscopy. 2021;35(4):1827-1833. 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DOI: 10.1186/s12893-018-0449-5'},{id:"B16",body:'Chaib PS, Coltri RP, de Castro MMO. Hérnia de Spiegel bilateral volumosa. Relatos de Casos. 1900;0(4):1-5'},{id:"B17",body:'Spangen L. Spigelian hernia. World Journal of Surgery. 1989;13(5):573-580. DOI: 10.1007/BF01658873'},{id:"B18",body:'Mittal T, Kumar V, Khullar R, Sharma A, Soni V, Baijal M, et al. Diagnosis and management of Spigelian hernia: A review of literature and our experience. Journal of Minimal Access Surgery. 2008;4(4):95-98. DOI: 10.4103/0972-9941.45204'},{id:"B19",body:'Barnes TG, McWhinnie DL. Laparoscopic Spigelian hernia repair: A systematic review. Surgical Laparoscopy, Endoscopy & Percutaneous Techniques. 2016;26(4):265-270. DOI: 10.1097/SLE.0000000000000286'},{id:"B20",body:'Jamshidian M, Stanek S, Sferra J, Jamil T. Robotic repair of symptomatic Spigelian hernias: A series of three cases and surgical technique review. Journal of Robotic Surgery. 2018;12(3):557-560. DOI: 10.1007/s11701-017-0742-9'},{id:"B21",body:'Gonzalez A, Escobar E, Romero R, Walker G, Mejias J, Gallas M, et al. Robotic-assisted ventral hernia repair: A multicenter evaluation of clinical outcomes. Surgical Endoscopy. 2017;31(3):1342-1349. DOI: 10.1007/s00464-016-5118-0'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bruno Barbosa",address:"brunobarbosamd@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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All IntechOpen published chapters and articles are available OPEN ACCESS and can be read without the requirement for registration of any kind, immediately upon publication, without any barrier.
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The HTML version, as well as the PDF version of publications dated before 2012 that are accessible through a reader, are available to readers with no restriction.
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The full content of chapters and articles can be read, copied and printed from the link location of the chapter/article and these actions are not limited or restricted in any way.
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Registration is requested only to download the PDF of the chapter/article. There are no subscription fees and there is no charge to user groups.
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IntechOpen chapters and articles are distributed under CC BY 3.0 licences allowing users to “copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship...” and there is no non-commercial restriction.
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Authors may post published works to any repository or website with no delay, and Authors and Editors of IntechOpen books have direct access to the PDF of the full book.
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In order to meet the requirement of high reliability for a machine, it is of great importance for designers to seek the weak links in the system and learn the state of the key subsystems, carrying out the remedial measures when necessary. Hence, behavior modeling and failure analysis are the two aspects seriously concerned in the reliability evaluation in mechanical systems. This chapter will introduce new methodologies that use the fuzzy reasoning Petri net (FRPN) models to evaluate the reliability of mechanical systems in reliability prediction, reliability apportionment and reliability analysis. Cases are proposed by analyzing a spacecraft solar array system using the proposed method. Results indicate that the Petri nets models can contribute to a higher accuracy in reliability evaluation for mechanical systems.",book:{id:"6715",slug:"petri-nets-in-science-and-engineering",title:"Petri Nets in Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Petri Nets in Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Jianing Wu and Shaoze Yan",authors:[{id:"238979",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianing",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"jianing-wu",fullName:"Jianing Wu"}]},{id:"54600",title:"Textile Forms’ Computer Simulation Techniques",slug:"textile-forms-computer-simulation-techniques",totalDownloads:1645,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Computer simulation techniques of textile forms already represent an important tool for textile and garment designers, since they offer numerous advantages, such as quick and simple introduction of changes while developing a model in comparison with conventional techniques. Therefore, the modeling and simulation of textile forms will always be an important issue and challenge for the researchers, since close‐to‐reality models are essential for understanding the performance and behavior of textile materials. This chapter deals with computer simulation of different textile forms. In the introductory part, it reviews the development of complex modeling and simulation techniques related to different textile forms. The main part of the chapter focuses on study of the fabric and fused panel drape by using the finite element method and on development of some representative textile forms, above all, on functional and protective clothing for persons who are sitting during performing different activities. Computer simulation techniques and scanned 3D body models in a sitting posture are used for this purpose. Engineering approaches to textile forms’ design for particular purposes, presented in this chapter, show benefits and limitations of specific 3D body scanning and computer simulation techniques and outline the future research challenges.",book:{id:"5707",slug:"computer-simulation",title:"Computer Simulation",fullTitle:"Computer Simulation"},signatures:"Andreja Rudolf, Slavica Bogović, Beti Rogina Car, Andrej Cupar,\nZoran Stjepanovič and Simona Jevšnik",authors:[{id:"180695",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Jevšnik",slug:"simona-jevsnik",fullName:"Simona Jevšnik"},{id:"181508",title:"Prof.",name:"Zoran",middleName:null,surname:"Stjepanovič",slug:"zoran-stjepanovic",fullName:"Zoran Stjepanovič"},{id:"195721",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreja",middleName:null,surname:"Rudolf",slug:"andreja-rudolf",fullName:"Andreja Rudolf"},{id:"196110",title:"Dr.",name:"Slavica",middleName:null,surname:"Bogović",slug:"slavica-bogovic",fullName:"Slavica Bogović"},{id:"196111",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Beti",middleName:null,surname:"Rogina-Car",slug:"beti-rogina-car",fullName:"Beti Rogina-Car"},{id:"196113",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrej",middleName:null,surname:"Cupar",slug:"andrej-cupar",fullName:"Andrej Cupar"}]},{id:"59877",title:"Petri Networks in the Planning of Discrete Manufacturing Processes",slug:"petri-networks-in-the-planning-of-discrete-manufacturing-processes",totalDownloads:1063,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter puts forward characteristics of selected issues of manufacturing processes planning using the Petri networks technique. It includes references to the extensive literature concerning the use of Petri networks in computer aided planning of discrete production processes. Diversity of these problems is high as it refers both to the methods of modeling and simulation of the course of manufacturing processes, the issue of optimizing these processes and production systems, representation of knowledge on production parts of equipment and integration of planning and production activities in general. The work puts forward example use of a temporary, priority Petri network for modeling and optimizing production systems and manufacturing operations as well as an example of fuzzy interference using the Petri network mechanism.",book:{id:"6715",slug:"petri-nets-in-science-and-engineering",title:"Petri Nets in Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Petri Nets in Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Roman Stryczek",authors:[{id:"238376",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Roman",middleName:null,surname:"Stryczek",slug:"roman-stryczek",fullName:"Roman Stryczek"}]},{id:"60326",title:"Performance Analysis of Shared-Memory Bus-Based Multiprocessors Using Timed Petri Nets",slug:"performance-analysis-of-shared-memory-bus-based-multiprocessors-using-timed-petri-nets",totalDownloads:973,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In shared-memory bus-based multiprocessors, the number of processors is often limited by the (shared) bus; when the utilization of the bus approaches 100%, processors spend an increasing amount of time waiting to get access to the bus (and shared memory) and this degrades their performance. The limitations imposed by the bus depend upon many parameters, and different parameters affect the performance in different ways. This chapter uses timed Petri nets to model shared-memory bus-based multiprocessors at the instruction execution level and shows how the performance of processors and the system are affected by different modeling parameters. Discrete-event simulation of the developed net models is used to get performance results.",book:{id:"6715",slug:"petri-nets-in-science-and-engineering",title:"Petri Nets in Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Petri Nets in Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Wlodek M. 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In this chapter, modeling and computer simulation of microbial growth and metabolism kinetics, bioreactor dynamics, bioreactor feedback control will be made to show the application methods and the usefulness of modeling and computer simulation methods in optimization of the bioprocess technology.",book:{id:"5707",slug:"computer-simulation",title:"Computer Simulation",fullTitle:"Computer Simulation"},signatures:"Jianqun Lin, Ling Gao, Huibin Lin, Yilin Ren, Yutian Lin and\nJianqiang Lin",authors:[{id:"16729",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianqun",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"jianqun-lin",fullName:"Jianqun Lin"},{id:"16857",title:"Prof.",name:"Ling",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",slug:"ling-gao",fullName:"Ling Gao"},{id:"16859",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianqiang",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"jianqiang-lin",fullName:"Jianqiang Lin"},{id:"205062",title:"Mrs.",name:"Yutian",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"yutian-lin",fullName:"Yutian Lin"},{id:"205111",title:"Prof.",name:"Yilin",middleName:null,surname:"Ren",slug:"yilin-ren",fullName:"Yilin Ren"},{id:"205113",title:"Prof.",name:"Huibin",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"huibin-lin",fullName:"Huibin Lin"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"559",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. 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She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. 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He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. 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Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. 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He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. 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He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. 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She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. 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He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. 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Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. 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International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},subseries:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",annualVolume:11418,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. This topic is dedicated to biologically plausible descriptions and computational models - at various abstraction levels - of neurons and neural systems. This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",annualVolume:11419,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",annualVolume:11420,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"220565",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Jucheng Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220565/images/5988_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tianjin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"29299",title:"Prof.",name:"Serestina",middleName:null,surname:"Viriri",fullName:"Serestina Viriri",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOalQAG/Profile_Picture_1620817405517",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of KwaZulu-Natal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315933",title:"Dr.",name:"Yalın",middleName:null,surname:"Baştanlar",fullName:"Yalın Baştanlar",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qpr7hQAA/Profile_Picture_1621430127547",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",annualVolume:11421,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111683/images/system/111683.jpg",institutionString:"De La Salle University",institution:{name:"De La Salle University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}},{id:"106873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",fullName:"Hongwei Ge",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"171056",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:null,surname:"Goudos",fullName:"Sotirios Goudos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9IuQAK/Profile_Picture_1622623673666",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"15895",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuremoto",fullName:"Takashi Kuremoto",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLrqQAG/Profile_Picture_1625656196038",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"125844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wellington",middleName:"Pinheiro Dos",surname:"Santos",fullName:"Wellington Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125844/images/4878_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",annualVolume:11422,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. David",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",fullName:"W. David Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEI9QAO/Profile_Picture_1623656213532",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama in Huntsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72920/images/system/72920.jpeg",institutionString:"Dalarna University, Faculty of Data and Information Sciences",institution:{name:"Dalarna University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"bookSubject",path:"/subjects/559",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"559"},fullPath:"/subjects/559",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()