Bibliography of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin, 5-HT): from discovery to physiological characterization.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6693",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Essentials on Dark Matter",title:"Essentials on Dark Matter",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The modern roots on the dark matter problem were basically launched in the 30s, with Zwicky's observations on a notorious discrepancy of mass in coma cluster that presented 500 times the mass than expected using the Newtonian theory (Virial theorem). Curiously, almost 90 years have passed, and the dark matter problem persists and is one of the most common challenges in both observational and theoretical physics. The Dark Matter is a rapid communication on the status-quo of the dark matter phenomenology as well as a presentation of new discussions on the theme.",isbn:"978-1-78923-681-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-680-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-649-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72066",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"essentials-on-dark-matter",numberOfPages:72,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7b9819be21ab94f8d165da9b5531b6bc",bookSignature:"Abraão Jessé Capistrano de Souza",publishedDate:"September 12th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6693.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3744,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 15th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 5th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 6th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 25th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 24th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"52362",title:"Dr.",name:"Abraao",middleName:"Jesse",surname:"Capistrano",slug:"abraao-capistrano",fullName:"Abraao Capistrano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52362/images/system/52362.jpeg",biography:"Abraão Jessé Capistrano de Souza is currently an Adjunct professor IV at University of Latin American Integration (Brazil) and has been working on several problems in mathematical physics, quantum fields, astrophysics, cosmology and gravitation, specifically on gravitational waves, hidden symmetries and killing vectors, embeddings and differential forms, and black holes in embedded space-times. He is the author of more than 25 papers published in refereed journals and books. He is as well a referee in scientific journals. 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This chapter reviews the progress made over many decades in the understanding of these cosmological observations that indicate a serious breakdown of Newton’s universal law of gravitation unless there exists additional unseen matter, named “dark matter.” The only alternative to “dark matter” is to modify Newtonian gravity. The chapter presents a critical review of the two main approaches to providing the additional gravity required to understand the puzzling astronomical observations: (1) the “dark matter” hypothesis providing additional unseen mass and (2) modification of Newton’s universal law of gravity such that there is a stronger gravitational field at larger distances. Both Milgrom’s modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) theory and Robson’s recent quantum theory of gravity provided by the generation model (GM) of particle physics are discussed.",signatures:"Brian Albert Robson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60166",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60166",authors:[{id:"102886",title:"Prof.",name:"Brian Albert",surname:"Robson",slug:"brian-albert-robson",fullName:"Brian Albert Robson"}],corrections:null},{id:"61881",title:"Possible Couplings of Dark Matter",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77252",slug:"possible-couplings-of-dark-matter",totalDownloads:944,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dark matter interacts gravitationally, but it presumably interacts weakly through other channels, especially with respect to regular luminous matter. We look at different ways in which dark matter may couple to other fields. We briefly review some example approaches in the literature for modeling the coupling between dark energy and dark matter and examine the possibility of an arguably better-motivated approach via non-minimal coupling between a scalar field and the Ricci scalar, which is necessary for renormalization of the scalar field in curved space-time. We also show an example of a theory beyond the Standard Model in which dark matter is uniquely connected to the inflaton, and we use observational astrophysical constraints to specify an upper bound on the dark matter mass. In turn, this mass constraint implies a limit on the unification scale of the theory, a decoupling scale of the theory, and the number of \n\ne\n\n-folds of inflation allowed.",signatures:"Kevin Ludwick",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61881",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61881",authors:[{id:"237394",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Ludwick",slug:"kevin-ludwick",fullName:"Kevin Ludwick"}],corrections:null},{id:"61875",title:"Black but Not Dark",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77963",slug:"black-but-not-dark",totalDownloads:847,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Large black holes of millions of solar masses are known to be present in the centre of galaxies. Their mass is negligible compared to the mass of the luminous matter, but their entropy far exceeds the entropy of the latter by 10 orders of magnitude. Strong gravitational fields make them ‘black’—but at the same time, they cause them to emit radiation—so they are not ‘dark’. What is the meaning of their borders that may only be crossed once and that leads to the information paradox and what are the properties of their interiors? In discussing these and related questions (is it possible that the volume of a black hole might be infinite?), we uncover the unexpected meaning of the term ‘strong gravity’.",signatures:"Andrzej Radosz, Andy T. Augousti and Pawel Gusin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61875",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61875",authors:[{id:"243700",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",surname:"Radosz",slug:"andrzej-radosz",fullName:"Andrzej Radosz"},{id:"254451",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy T.",surname:"Augousti",slug:"andy-t.-augousti",fullName:"Andy T. 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At the same time, biodiversity preservation and anthropogenic activities and development are frequently considered incompatible. A variety of research priorities are investigated that facilitate the move from conflict to mutual compatibility between conservation and sustainability goals. Biodiversity science has a long history, but its evolution as an interdisciplinary subject capable of addressing the scientific, political, and societal difficulties that we confront has not kept pace with those challenges. Also, reaching biodiversity sustainability goals has been hampered by a lack of interdisciplinary researchers working on solutions-based investigations.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tThere are a variety of approaches to reversing biodiversity loss, ranging from economic, to ecological and ethical. The utilitarian approach to conservation, bolstered by the concept of ecosystem services, can be utilized to improve the conservation case by supplementing the burgeoning biodiversity rhetoric. To address this issue, a pluralistic approach to biodiversity is required for conservation and sustainability.
5-Hydroxytryptamine called serotonin (5-HT) is a transmitter substance of the nervous system in animal kingdom. From its first discovery in the 1940s, many laboratories have been directing their studies toward understanding the biology of 5-HT and its physiological functions on various biological systems especially on mammals as model organism [1–15]. However, 5-HT has been also identified in bivalves from the period of its first discovery and earlier studies on these animals have led to convince the neurobiologist that it acts as a neurotransmitter.
A brief bibliography of 5-HT discovery and its physiological functions is provided in Table 1. Rapport et al. [16] was the first who isolated a vasoconstrictor substance from the blood serum in a crystalline form and tentatively identified it as 5-HT in a creatinine sulfate complex [17]. Within next 5 years, 5-HT has been synthesized [18], identified in the extract of mammalian brain [19], and localized in the brain of mammals [20]. Along with these studies on mammals, Welsh [21], Twarog [22], and Hoyle and Lowy [23] demonstrated that 5-HT excites the heart nerves in hard clam (
Year | Scientists | Contribution to discovery of identification, localization, and characterization of 5-HT | References |
---|---|---|---|
1947 | Rapport et al. | Isolation of a substance from the blood serum that constricts blood vessels and contracts isolated intestinal strips | [16] |
1948 | Rapport et al. | The substance contains an indole ring | [42] |
1949 | Rapport | Identification of chemical structure of 5-HT as a creatinine sulfate complex | [17] |
1951 | Hamlin and Fisher | Synthesis of 5-HT | [18] |
1953 | Twarog and Page | Identification of 5-HT in the extract of the brain of mammals (dog, rat, and rabbit) | [19] |
1953 | Gaddum | Assigning a role for 5-HT in normal cerebral function in mammals | [43] |
1953 | Welsh | 5-HT, in contrast to acetylcholine, excites the heart nerves in hard clam (Bivalvia, Mollusca) originating from visceral ganglion | [21] |
1954 | Amin et al. | Localization of 5-HT in the central nervous system (brain) of mammals (dog) | [20] |
1954 | Wooley and Shaw | Human schizophrenia might be due to 5-HT deficiency | [44] |
1954 | Twarog | 5-HT-mediated relaxation of byssus retractor muscle in the blue mussel (Bivalvia, Mollusca) is antagonist of acetylcholine contracting the muscle | [22] |
1956 | Hoyle and Lowy | 5-HT is a putative neurotransmitter controlling contraction and relaxation of the anterior byssus retractor muscle in the blue mussel | [23] |
1957 | Brodie and Shore | Assigning 5-HT function as a neurotransmitter | [24] |
1957 | Welsh | Identification of 5-HT in the extract of nervous system of various bivalve mollusks | [25] |
1962 | Falck et al. | Development of Falck-Hillarp method to visualize monoamine-containing cells as intense yellow-green fluorescence | [45] |
1964 | Dahlström and Fuxe | Identification of 5-HT cell bodies in the pons and midbrain, from where they project with their axons to the forebrain, medulla, and spinal cord | [46] |
1968 | Sweeney | Identification and localization of 5-HT in whole body extract and in the nervous system of blue mussel using Falck-Hillarp’s method | [47] |
1982 | Matsutani and Nomura | Serotonin stimulates spawning in Yesso scallop (Bivalvia, Mollusca) | [33] |
1984 | Hirai and Koide | 5-HT stimulates oocyte maturation in surf clam | [48] |
1985 | Osanai | 5-HT regulation of the oocyte signaling required to undergo germinal vesicle breakdown | [49] |
Bibliography of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin, 5-HT): from discovery to physiological characterization.
Species: Blue mussel,
Serotonin regulates various neurobehavioral systems (such as mood, appetite, sleep, learning, and memory). However, studies have revealed that it also plays critical roles in physiological functions of peripheral organs such as stress and growth [3–5]. One of the major systems that 5-HT contributes to is the regulation of reproduction. In both mammals and bivalves, it has been observed that 5-HT regulates reproductive endocrine system, oocyte maturation, and sperm motility [27–38].
Although 5-HT biosynthesis and its receptor structure have been reviewed in bivalves [39–41], there is a gap of review on physiological signaling of 5-HT in these animals. The present study reviews the biology of 5-HT in bivalves; particularly its contribution to reproduction. Biosynthesis pathway of 5-HT in the nervous system and cellular localization of 5-HT neurons in the nervous system are studied. Particular attention has then paid to 5-HT content and distribution of 5-HT neurons in the gonad. This study provides future perspectives that await investigation to better understand 5-HT network and signaling in bivalve reproduction.
Hamlin and Fisher [18] were the first who synthesized 5-HT from tryptophan. A year later, Blaschko [50] suggested that 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) is the substrate for 5-HT. This suggestion led to the discovery of an enzyme in mammalian kidney [51], later called aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) [52] that mainly decarboxylates 5-HTP to 5-HT [53]. In parallel, studies have shown that the extract of mammalian brain contains 5-HT [19], and administration of exogenous 5-HTP or tryptophan increases 5-HT level in the brain and peripheral organs [54, 55]. A year later, Welsh and Moorhead [56] observed that homogenates of ganglia of hard clam are capable of synthesizing 5-HT from 5-HTP,
In 1960s, Bertaccini [62] and Gal et al. [63] demonstrated that the brain contains 5-HT even after partial or complete removal of 5-HT in the gastro-intestinal tissues and the brain produces 5-HT after intracerebral injection of radioactive labeled tryptophan. It is worth noting that it has previously been shown that the intestine contains large amount of 5-HT [64]. These studies provided the scientists with very important information that the brain independently synthesizes 5-HT from L-tryptophan, and suggested that exogenous 5-HT administration incorporates to 5-HT contents in the nervous system. Next studies resulted in molecular identity of two major enzymes in 5-HT biosynthesis pathway: tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) and AADC [6, 14, 65, 66] (Figure 1). In the cytosol of the nerve cells, TPH catalyzes hydroxylation of l-tryptophan to produce 5-HTP by incorporation of an atom of atmospheric oxygen into l-tryptophan and the other is reduced to water, in the presence of the cofactor agent, tetrahydrobiopterin. The pathway is rate-limiting step meaning that suppression of TPH activity results in stopping 5-HT biosynthesis. The AADC catalyzes conversion of 5-HTP to 5-HT which is not rate-limiting step. It has also been shown that the rate at which 5-HT is produced in the central nervous system highly depends on availability of tryptophan, tryptophan uptake into the brain, and dietary contents of tryptophan and other amino acids (such as tyrosine and phenylalanine) that compete with tryptophan uptake or transport carrier into the brain [8, 14, 67].
Biosynthesis, metabolism and reuptake of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin, 5-HT) in bivalves. In the cytosol of the 5-HT neurons, tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) catalyzes hydroxylation of
In the snail, it has been observed that certain nerves are capable of accumulating radioactive labeled 5-HT [68]. Using bivalves, Stefano and Aiello [69] observed that fluorescence intensity of 5-HT-immunoreactive (5-HT-IR) neurons increases in the blue mussel after administration of exogenous 5-HT. Thus, as in mammals, 5-HT biosynthesis in bivalve mollusks also takes place in the nervous system.
Further studies have shown that there are biological systems through which external amounts of the released 5-HT is regulated, as its rise may cause abnormal physiological functions or might be lethal for cells. Reuptake and metabolism of 5-HT are key determinants to remove and/or inactivate significant amount of released 5-HT, respectively. Metabolism of 5-HT is mediated by monoamine oxidase (MOA) located in the outer membrane of mitochondria, and catalyzes the oxidative deaminative of 5-HT to 5-hydroxy-3-indolacetaldehyde (5-HIAL), which is further metabolized into 5-hydroxy-3-indolacetic acid (5-HIAA) by an NAD+-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase. In addition, an NADH-dependent aldehyde reductase or an NADPH-dependent alcohol-dehydrogenase converts 5-HIAL to 5-hydroxytryptophol (5-HTOL) [6, 70] (Figure 1). In mollusks, small amount of MOA has been reported [71]. Boutet et al. [72] cloned MOA molecular structure in the Pacific oyster. Administration of MAO inhibitor leads to increase in the number and intensity of 5-HT-IR neurons in the blue mussel [69]. Thus, metabolism of 5-HT is active in bivalve mollusks. However, studies have demonstrated that 5-HT action at the synapse is mostly terminated by its reuptake across the presynaptic membrane [73–77].
The 5-HT reuptake is also similar between mollusks and mammals. It is an ionic-coupled pathway mediated by a serotonin transporter (SERT) that transport 5-HT from synaptic cleft to the presynaptic neuron [9, 12, 78]. SERT first binds a Na+ ion, followed by 5-HT, and then a Cl– ion in the synaptic cleft and transport to presynaptic neuron. After releasing 5-HT, K+ efflux is involved in the translocation mechanism of SERT. This is an energy dependent process and a Na+/K+ ATPase maintains the extracellular Na+ concentration as well as the intracellular K+ concentration [79]. This mechanism results in the inactivation of 5-HT by removing it from the synaptic cleft. Studies have also shown that a 5-HT reuptake inhibitor (SRI) interferes with SERT function to inhibit or suppress 5-HT reuptake [80, 81].
In bivalves, the nervous system is bilaterally symmetrical, decentralized, and consists of cerebral ganglia (CG), pedal ganglia (PG), and visceral ganglia (VG). The ganglia are joined by a cerebral commissure, a visceral commissure, and cerebral-pedal, cerebral-visceral, and cerebral-visceral-pedal connectives [82–86] (Figure 2). Each ganglion is surrounded by a perineurium. The neuronal cell bodies “perikarya” are located at the cortices and the axonal processes lie at central core called “neuropil”.
Anatomy of the nervous system in bivalves. It is decentralized and consists of bilaterally symmetrical cerebral ganglia (CG), pedal ganglia (PG), and visceral ganglia (VG). The locations of ganglia highly differ among species; however, they are connected by nerve connectives. The PG are absent in oysters (e.g., Pacific oyster,
The pairs of CG lie on the sides of esophagus and are connected by a cerebral commissure in bivalves. In oyster species, CG are less developed and positioned at the sharp angle anterior to the labial palp, gills, and digestive gland [83]. In mussel and clam species, CG are located anterior to the digestive gland, and beneath the anterior adductor muscle [82, 84]. In freshwater pearl mussel (
In most bivalves, the pairs of PG lie on the foot and are connected by a pedal commissure [84–86]. However, PG are absent in oyster species [83]. In soft-shell clam (
The paired VG are located on the ventral side of the adductor muscle, usually posterior to foot. In most bivalves, ganglia of VG are fused into a single organ [83, 89–91]. In scallop species, VG consist of five lobes; two anterior lobes, a posterior lobe, and two lateral lobes [88, 90]. There is an accessory ganglion that locates at the point of the lateral lobes. The CG and VG are joined by a pair of cerebral-visceral connective that pass through the digestive gland or gonad. The VG innervate various organs, including gonads, gills, hearts, sensory organs, posterior adductor muscle, and parts of mantle [83, 84, 86].
Rawitz [92] seems to be first who isolated pear- or club-shaped neurons from the European flat oyster (
Cellular localization of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin, 5-HT) in the nervous system (A–F) and gonad (G–J) of bivalves. (A) The 5-HT immunoreactive (5-HT-IR) cell bodies (arrows) and fibers (arrowheads) in the cortex (C) and neuropil (N) of cerebral ganglia (CG) (135×). (B) A few 5-HT-IR unipolar neurons with cell bodies (arrows) and their process in the CG (360×). (C) 5-HT-IR neurons (arrows) and fibers (arrowheads) in the visceral ganglion (380×). (D) a 5-HT-IR multipolar neuron with its processes (arrows) in pedal ganglion (PG) (800×). (E) Pear-shaped unipolar 5-HT-IR neurons and fibers in cortex (C) and neuropil (N) of PG. The arrowheads show long process of (the axon) of a 5-HT-IR neuron that runs toward commissure (CM) (315×). CVPC is cerebral-visceral-pedal connective. (A)–(C) [
Cellular localization of 5-HT neurons and its quantitative bioassay in the nervous system and gonads provide us with highly satisfactory knowledge to elucidate ontogeny and developmental biology of 5-HT biosynthesis, release, and reuptake, and to understand 5-HT regulation of reproduction in bivalves.
Welsh [25] was the first who identified 5-HT in the nervous system of the hard clam using a paper chromatography method. Then, Welsh and Moorhead [26, 56, 107] used a spectrofluorometric method to measure 5-HT in over 60 species from 11 different phyla that includes 7 bivalve species (Table 2) [108]. They reported that (A) the nervous system of bivalves contains much higher 5-HT than that of other invertebrates. In the phylum Annelida, 5-HT is measured 0.1–10.4 μg/g wet in the nerve cords. In the phylum of Arthropoda, 5-HT is measured from <1.0 μg/g wet in the nerve cords, ventral ganglia, and green ganglia. In vertebrates, 5-HT is measured 0.3–2.6 μg/g wet in different parts of cat brain [109]. (B) Content of 5-HT is higher in the nervous system than the peripheral organs. (C) Content of 5-HT differs among various parts of the nervous system. It is higher in the ganglia than the connective nerves. In addition, they observed that 5-HT content is slightly lower in VG than those of CG and PG (10 vs. 15 μg/g wet) in the blue mussel. (D) The blood does not contain 5-HT. The authors suggested that 5-HT is produced in the nervous system: in cell bodies or synaptic region of neurons.
Species | Notes | Nervous system | Gonad | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Brown mussel | M: HPLC-ED V: pg/mg wet (mean ± SEM) Jul.: Resting stage Sep.: Developmental stage I–II Mar.: Maturation stage IIIA Apr.: Egg-laying stage | 5-HT 74 ± 16 (PG), 51 ± 7 (CG) (Jul.) 115 ± 20 (PG), 61 ± 6 (CG) (Sep.) 293 ± 54 (PG), 63 ± 7 (CG) (Mar.) 302 ± 47 (PG), 150 ± 9 (CG) (Apr.) 5-HIAA 79 ± 22 (PG), 56 ± 30 (CG) (Jul.) 122 ± 30 (PG), 11 ± 1 (CG) (Sep.) 166 ± 46 (PG), 46 ± 12 (CG) (Mar.) 56 ± 16 (PG), 83 ± 40 (CG) (Apr.) | 5-HT 8.7 ± 0.6 (Jul.) 31 ± 5.7 (Sep.) 142 ± 49.6 (Mar.) 142 ± 14.3 (Apr.) 5-HIAA 188 ± 36 (Jul.) 443 ± 70 (Sep.) 29 ± 6 (Mar.) 51 ± 5 (Apr.) | [110] |
Pacific lion\'s paw scallop | M: HPLC V: ng/mg dry (mean ± SD) I: Resting stage II: Initial development stage III: Maturing stage IV: Mature stage V: Partially spent stage VI: Fully spent stage | 5-HT I: ND (O), 0.35 ± 0.63 (T) II: ND (O), 0.87 ± 0.94 (T) III: 0.04 ± 0.07 (O), 0.65 ± 0.72 (T) IV: 0.12 ± 0.19 (O), 2.04 ± 2.18 (T) V: ND (O), 0.42 ± 0.56 (T) VI: ND (O), ND (T) | [111] | |
Surf clam | M: HPLC V: ng/g wet (mean ± SEM) I. Active stage II. Ripe stage III. Spawning stage IV: Spent stage * shows | 5-HT I: 625 ± 100 (O), 550 ± 100 (T) II: 175 ± 50* (O), 225 ± 65 (T) III: 350 ± 95* (O), 500 ± 150 (T) IV: 1050 ± 250 (O), 575 ± 400 (T) | [112] | |
Peruvian scallop | M: Spectrofluorometer V: ng/mg wet (mean ± SEM) It is a hermaphroditic species VG innervates mainly the female portion of the gonad CG and PG innervate mainly the male portion of the gonad * shows | 5-HT CG + PG + VG 29.4 ± 4.3 (before spawning) 17.9* ± 0.6 (after sperm release) 22.5 ± 0.5 (after oocyte release) 21.3* ± 2.3 (24 h after spawning) CG + PG 107.3 ± 12.9 ( 63.6 ± 2.1* (spawned) 100.0 ± 16.3 (unspawned) VG 50.7 ± 4.3 (before spawning) 51.8 ± 5.1 (spawned) 53.3 ± 12.4 (unspawned) | 5-HT Ovary portion of gonad 1.0 ± 0.03 (before spawning) 0.6* ± 0.02 (after sperm release) 0.5* ± 0.05 (after oocyte release) 0.7 ± 0.15 (24 h after spawning) Testis portion of gonad 1.7 ± 0.15 (before spawning) 0.8* ± 0.05 (after sperm release) 0.7* ± 0.09 (after oocyte release) 1.2 ± 0.05 (24 h after spawning) | [113] |
Atlantic deep-sea scallop | M: HPLC-ED V: pg/mg wet (mean ± N.D.) Samples of March | CG + PG + VG 5-HTP: 1650 ± 715 5-HT: 1150 ± 525 5-HIAA: 180 ± 90 | 5-HTP: 2035 ± 520 5-HT: 1000 ± 180 5-HIAA: 90 ± 15 | [114] |
Atlantic deep-sea scallop | M: HPLC-ED V: pg/mg wet (mean ± N.D.) Samples of March–May | CG + PG + VG 5-HT: 1483 ± 828 | 5-HT: 791 ± 408 | [115] |
Peruvian scallop | M: Spectrofluorometer V: ng/mg wet (mean ± SEM) | 5-HT CG + PG + VG 48.3 ± 7.2 (0 d) 46.2 ± 9.7 (0.5 d) 40.0 ± 5.6 (1 d) 37.9 ± 3.5 (7 d) 44.5 ± 5.7 (14 d) 39.0 ± 6.0 (21 d) 47.2 ± 6.2 (28 d) 63.3 ± 12.6 (35 d) | 5-HT Gonad ovary (O) or testis (T) portion 1.3 ± 0.02 O, 6.8 ± 0.5 T (0 d) 0.7 ± 0.03 O, 2.2 ± 0.7 T (0.5 d) 0.7 ± 0.02 O, 2.5 ± 0.5 T (1 d) 1.5 ± 0.34 O, 3.0 ± 0.5 T (7 d) 1.6 ± 0.02 O, 4.8 ± 0.4 T (14 d) 1.4 ± 0.03 O, 4.6 ± 1.3 T (21 d) 1.0 ± 0.04 O, 4.4 ± 0.4 T (28 d) 1.1 ± 0.01 O, 4.9 ± 0.9 T (35 d) | [116] |
Great scallop | M: HPLC-ED V: ng/g.p. (mean ± SEM) Samples of mature individuals (3-year old) | CG + PG 330 (Jul., 1991) 405 (Aug., 1991) 510 (Nov., 1991) 510 (Dec., 1991) 180 (Jan., 1992) 270 (Feb. 1992) 240 (beginning of Mar., 1992) 210 (middle of Mar., 1992) 180 (end of Mar., 1992) 225 (Apr., 1992) 300 (May, 1992) 300 (June, 1992) VG 350 (Jul., 1991) 410 (Aug., 1991) 550 (Nov., 1991) 405 (Dec., 1991) 290 (Jan., 1992) 350 (Feb. 1992) 290 (beginning of Mar., 1992) 200 (middle of Mar., 1992) 315 (end of Mar., 1992) 350 (beginning of Apr., 1992) 450 (middle of Apr., 1992) 350 (beginning of May, 1992) 425 (end of May, 1992) 425 (June, 1992) | [90] | |
California mussel | M: HPLC-ED V: nM/ganglia pair (mean ± SEM) Samples of mature individuals in March–May | 0.09 ± 0.02 (CG) 0.22 ± 0.05 (PG) 0.41 ± 0.07 (VG) | [117] | |
Blue mussel | M: HPLC-ED V: nM/g.p. (mean ± SEM) Samples of mature individuals in March–May | 0.04 ± 0.01 (CG) 0.06 ± 0.003 (PG) | [117] | |
Gaper clam | M: HPLC-ED V: nM/g.p. (mean ± SEM) Samples of mature individuals in March–May | 0.70 ± 0.11 (CG) 0.39 ± 0.06 (PG) 0.48 ± 0.06 (VG) | [117] | |
Cockle clam | M: HPLC-ED V: nM/g.p. (mean ± SEM) Samples of mature individuals in March–May | 0.22 ± 0.01 (PG) 0.24 ± 0.04 (VG) | [117] | |
Bent-nose clam | M: HPLC-ED V: nM/g.p. (mean ± SEM) Samples of mature individuals in March–May | 0.20 ± 0.06 (CG) 0.15 ± 0.004 (VG) | [117] | |
Blue mussel | M: Spectrofluorometer V: μg/g wet (mean ± SEM) *, **, and *** show | 2 CG + 2 PG + 2 VG 25.10 ± 2.71 (Jan.) 26.96 ± 2.11 (Feb.) 32.17 ± 3.85 (Mar.) 41.98 ± 1.22* (Apr.) 48.15 ± 1.02** (May) 53.13 ± 1.71** (Jun.) 51.74 ± 3.14** (Jul.) 57.28 ± 2.49** (Aug.) 48.90 ± 1.13* (Sep.) 44.80 ± 1.51* (Oct.) 35.71 ± 2.70*** (Nov.) 28.97 ± 2.64 (Dec.) | [118] | |
Blue mussel | M: Spectrofluorometer V: ng/ganglion pair (mean ± SD) | 5-HT 123 ± 12 – 252 ± 34 (PG) | [119] | |
Blue mussel | M: Spectrofluorometer V: μg/g wet (mean ± N.D.) | 5-HT 5.4–8.6 (PG, Mar.) 26.2-42 (PG, Apr.) | [120] | |
Fingernail clam | M: Spectrofluorometer V: ng/individual (mean ± N.D.) | 13.4 ± 2.5 (whole body extracts) | [47] | |
Ocean quahog | M: Spectrofluorometer V: μg/g wet | 5-HT CG + PG + VG 20 | [26] | |
Atlantic jackknife clam | M: Spectrofluorometer V: μg/g wet | 5-HT CG + PG + VG 21-39 | [26] | |
Soft-shell clam | M: Spectrofluorometer V: μg/g wet | 5-HT CG + PG + VG 22 | [26] | |
Hard clam | M: Spectrofluorometer V: μg/g wet 26 assays during 16 months | 5-HT CG + PG + VG 30–40 | [26, 107] | |
Atlantic surf clam | M: Spectrofluorometer V: μg/g wet | 5-HT CG + PG + VG 8.0–14.3 Ganglia connectives 2.2 | [26] | |
Atlantic deep-sea scallop | M: Spectrofluorometer V: μg/g wet | 5-HT 36 (VG) | [26] | |
Blue mussel | M: Spectrofluorometer V: μg/g wet | 5-HT 15 (CG) 15 (PG) 10 (VG) | [26] |
Identification of 5-hydroxytryptophan, (5-HTP), serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the nervous system and gonad of bivalve mollusks.
Following development of cellular and molecular methods, 5-HT has been localized in the nervous system and gonad of several bivalve species (Table 3). Firstly, Falck-Hillarp’s method has been used to localize 5-HT in fingernail clam (
Species | Methods | Cerebral ganglia | Visceral ganglia | Pedal ganglia | Gonad | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fingernail clam | Histochemistry using a paraformaldehyde-induced fluorescence method | 5-HT-IR unipolar cells (μm length) are located in the cortices at the dorsal and anteriomedial surfaces of the ganglion. 5-HT-IR fibers are located in the anterior pallial nerve, the CVC, CC, and CPC | No traces of 5-HT-IR neurons are observed in the VG. 5-HT-IR fibers are observed | 5-HT-IR fluorescences are uniformly distributed in the cytoplasm of unipolar neurons (10–25 μm length). Green-yellow fibers extend throughout neuropil and across the PC | [47] | |
Blue mussel | Histochemistry using a paraformaldehyde-induced fluorescence method | 5-HT-IR neurons (9–14 μm d.) are only located in the cortex. Fluorescence is observed in the perikarya | A few 5-HT-IR neurons (11–14 μm d.) are located in the cortex and neuropil. 5-HT-IR fibers are observed in the CVC | [69] | ||
Yesso scallop | Histochemistry using a glyoxylic acid-induced fluorescence method | Fluorohistochemical reaction is detected in the neuropil, and its tendency is higher than PG and VG | Fluorohistochemical tendency is high in the accessory ganglia | Fluorohistochemical reaction is detected in the neuropil close to CPC | Muscles of the gonoduct stretched under the epithelium in the gonad | [88] |
Yesso scallop | Immunohistochemistry using a rat monoclonal 5-HT antibody against a 5-HT-bovine serum albumin conjugate (coded YC5/45 HL, Sera-Lab, UK) | 5-HT-IR neurons are distributed in the AL (right side of the left lobe and left side of the right lobe), and throughout the cortex in PL | ND | 5-HT-IR neurons are distributed throughout the cortex | [105] | |
Mediterranean mussel | Immunogold labeling of nerve cells using an anti-5-HT raised in rabbits against formaldehyde cross-linked 5-HT-bovine serum albumin (Immunonuclear, Incstar Co, Stillwater, MN) | 5-HT-IR unipolar neurons are mostly located in the cortex with a few numbers in the neuropil. 5-HT-IR fibers are seen in the CC and CVPC | 5-HT-IR neurons are unipolar and located in the cortex. Number of 5-HT-IR neurons is lower than CG.5-HT-IR fibers are seen in the visceral commissure and CVC | Large numbers of 5-HT-IR unipolar neurons and a few bipolar or multipolar are clustered in the cortex. 5-HT-IR fibers are observed in neuropil | [103, 104, 125, 126] | |
Great scallop | Immunohistochemistry using an anti-5-HT polyclonal antibody (coded, PS10, TEBU) | 5-HT-IR neurons are mostly located in the cortex: 10 or 20–25 μm d. 5-HT-IR fibers are seen in the CVC | A small number of 5-HT-IR neurons are seen in VG, restricted to ACL at the base of CVC | 5-HT-IR neurons are mostly located in the cortex with size of 10 μm d. (small cells) or 20–25 μm d. (large cells) | 5-HT-IR fibers surround periphery of gonadal lobules (acini) and in the subepithelial layer of the gonoducts | [90] |
Atlantic deep-sea scallop | Immunohistochemistry using a rabbit anti-5-HT antibody (Incstar Co., Stillwater, MN) | 5-HT-IR neurons are widely distributed over the anterior surface and only sparsely over the posterior surface. 5-HT-IR fibers are located in neuropil | 5-HT-IR neurons are mainly distributed in the accessory ganglia. 5-HT-IR neurons and fibers are far fewer than CG and PG | 5-HT-IR neurons are unipolar (5–15 μm d.) and located along the medial, dorsal, and ventral margins, of the anterior surface of each PG. 5-HT-IR fibers are located in neuropil | 5-HT-IR fibers occasionally surround periphery of acini at early gametogenesis. After spawning, 5-HT-IR fibers abundantly surround the empty germinal acini | [115] |
Surf clam | Immunohistochemistry using a rabbit anti-5-HT antibody (Incstar Co., Stillwater, MN) | 5-HT-IR fibers surrounds periphery of gonadal lobules (acini) in males and females throughout reproductive cycle. The 5-HT-IR fibers are interrupted or expelled from each acinus after spawning | [112] | |||
Warty venus | Immunohistochemistry using a rabbit anti-5-HT antibody (Biogenesis, UK) | 5-HT-IR oval perikarya are clustered at the roots of the branchial nerves in the cortex. They are unipolar (15–25 μm d.). 5-HT-IR fibers are located in the neuropil | 5-HT-IR fibers are observed at the periphery of the follicle and seminiferous acini filled with mature oocytes and sperm, respectively | [91] | ||
Soft-shell clam | Immunohistochemistry using a rabbit polyclonal anti-5-HT antibody (Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.) | Largest number of 5-HT-IR cells scattered throughout the cortex | 5-HT-IR cells are symmetrically restricted to clustered population called “glomeruli” | 5-HT-IR cells are symmetrically distributed in the cortex | Early spermatogenesis stage in males and post-vitellogenic stage in females | [89, 106] |
Freshwater pearl mussel | Immunohistochemistry using a rabbit polyclonal anti-5-HT IgG (Zymed Laboratories, San Francisco, CA or Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.) | 5-HT-IR neurons are large (10 × 30 μm d.) and located at the periphery of CG. 5-HT-IR fibers are occasionally detected | 5-HT-IR perikarya are large (10 × 30 μm d.) and located in the cortex of VG. 5-HT-IR fibers are mostly observed in the neuropil. Expression of 5-HT-IR fibers or neurons is higher in females than males | 5-HT-IR neurons are large (10 × 30 μm d.) and located at the periphery of PG | [87, 127] |
Cellular localization of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin 5-HT) in the nervous system and gonad of bivalve mollusks.
In general, studies on bivalves show that 5-HT-IR neurons are mostly located in the cortices, and 5-HT-IR fibers are located in the neuropil of CG, PG, and VG (Table 3). In Yesso scallop, 5-HT-IR neurons are located in the cortices of the right side of the left lobe and in the left side of the right lobe in anterior lobe (AL) of CG, while they are located throughout their cortices in PG and the posterior lobe (PL) of CG [105] (Figure 3). In the great scallop [90], distribution of 5-HT-IR neurons in the posterior lobe of CG slightly differs compared to Yesso scallop. In VG, 5-HT-IR neurons are restrictively scattered in the accessory lobe of scallop species [90, 105, 115] or at the roots of branchial nerves in clams [89]. Large numbers of 5-HT-IR fibers have also been observed in the cerebral-pedal, and cerebral-visceral-pedal connectives [90, 103], suggesting that 5-HT transports from CG to VG [69, 89, 90, 105]. Comprehensive overview of cellular localization of 5-HT indicates that localization and distribution of 5-HT-IR neurons may differ among subclasses of bivalve, for instance between Heterodonta (genus
Using histochemistry or immunohistochemistry methods, studies have shown that a few 5-HT-IR neurons are located in the cortex and neuropil of VG compared to those of the CG or PG, for instances in the blue mussel [47, 69, 128], Mediterranean mussel (
Studies used spectrofluorometric method [26, 47, 56, 118–120] or electrochemical detection coupled with a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-EC) to study 5-HT content in the nervous system of bivalves [90, 110, 114, 115, 117] (Table 2). Results confirm aforementioned differences in 5-HT content among various parts of the nervous system, for instance it is higher in the CG than the VG of gaper clam (
Welsh and Moorhead [56] observed that
Localization of 5-HT in the gonad has studied in a few species of bivalves (Table 3). Using method of Falck-Hillarp, Sweeney [47] and Matsutani and Nomura [88, 105] observed the 5-HT-IR fibers in the gonoduct and epithelium around gonad in the Fingernail clam and Yesso scallop, respectively, and suggested that the 5-HT-IR fibers originate from CVC to innervate the gonad. Further studies using antibodies against 5-HT confirmed existence of 5-HT-IR fibers in the gonad of Yesso scallop [105], great scallop [90], Atlantic deep-sea scallop [115], surf clam [112], warty venus [91], and soft-shell clam [106]. These studies clearly indicated that the nervous system innervation of the gonads is mostly emerged from VG or derived from CVC. The 5-HT-IR fibers surround periphery of collecting tubes and of gonadal lobules (acini) in males and females filled with sperm and oocytes, respectively (Figure 3).
As seasonal-dependent 5-HT content in the nervous system, distribution of 5-HT fibers also changes in the gonad throughout reproductive cycle [91, 106, 112, 115] (Figure 3; Tables 2 and 3). Generally, the 5-HT-IR fibers are occasionally observed around the germinal acini, and extensively distributed around the collective tubes at early developmental stage. However, the 5-HT-IR fibers around the acini are more frequent at maturity stage [112]. After spawning, the 5-HT-IR fibers still exist around collecting tubes, and are abundant around gamete empty acini.
Using spectrofluorometric or HPLC-EC method, 5-HT content has been measured in the gonad of the Atlantic deep-sea scallop [114, 115], surf clam [112], Pacific lion\'s paw scallop (
A few studies show 5-HT content in both nervous system and gonad, for instance in the Peruvian scallop [113, 116] and brown mussel [110]. Results show higher 5-HT content in the nervous system than gonadal tissue as 5-HT content is lower in connective nerves than 5-HT neurons [26, 56].
Croll et al. [115] observed that distribution of 5-HT-IR neurons and fibers is similar between juvenile and adult in the Atlantic deep-sea scallop or between sexes in the surf clam [112]. However, abundance or distribution of 5-HT neurons and 5-HT content may differ between sexes. Martínez and Rivera [116] observed that 5-HT content is higher in the male portion than female portion of the gonad of the Peruvian scallop. Expression of 5-HT-IR fibers or neurons has been seen to be higher in the VG of females than that of males [127]. These studies may suggest inter-sex difference in 5-HT biosynthesis or inter-sex difference in 5-HT regulatory function of reproduction.
The essential components of 5-HT biosynthetic pathway are highly conserved in the animal kingdom. The 5-HT biosynthesis from the essential amino acid L-tryptophan is catalyzed by TPH, which convert L-tryptophan to 5-HTP, and by AADC, which convert 5-HTP to 5-HT. All precursors of 5-HT are identified in the nervous system of bivalves. In mammals, there are two isoforms of TPH (TPH1 and TPH2), which are predominantly expressed in the peripheral organs and in the nervous system, respectively. However, TPH1 is the primary form and expresses earlier in neural development [132, 133]. Molecular sequence of the gene encoding AADC has also been identified and localized in mammals [134, 135]. It has a non-specific tissue distribution and is expressed in wide range of cell types [66]. In bivalves, molecular identity, localization, and characterization of TPH and AADC are unknown. These studies will provide us with satisfactory information to better understand ontogeny of 5-HT neurons in the nervous system and to elucidate developmental biology of 5-HT regulation of reproduction.
It has been seen that the first 5-HT-IR neurons appearing within the nervous system correspond to the location of the CG and apical ganglion (AG) during the late trochophore stage: 30–32 h postfertilization in blue mussel [136], 24 h postfertilization in surf clam [137], and 27 h postfertilization in the Bay mussel (
As animals lost the ability to synthesize tryptophan, there possess developed biological mechanisms through which animals obtain tryptophan from their diets. Thus, 5-HT biosynthesis highly depends on dietary factors including availability of tryptophan and competitive uptake or transport of tryptophan with other amino acids (such as tyrosine and phenylalanine) into the 5-HT neurons. Studying nutritional effects on 5-HT biosynthesis will lead to better understanding of physiological relationships between seasonal variation in 5-HT content and gonadal development. In addition, it can help us to investigate the impacts of parental nutrition on gamete maturation and fertility in bivalves. These studies can provide us with knowledge to better understand 5-HT controls of feeding behaviors such as appetite and satiety, which have been demonstrated in mammals [140].
Mechanisms of 5-HT inactivation in the nervous system and peripheral organs of bivalves are poorly understood. It requires molecular identity, localization, and characterization of SERT and MOA. In this regard, several types of SERT and MOA inhibitors are available [80, 114, 141] that provide us with useful tools to elucidate molecular signaling that control 5-HT reuptake and metabolism. A few studies show that selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitors modulate 5-HT-induced spawning in bivalves. Fong [142] and Fong et al. [143, 144] reported spawning of Zebra mussel treated with selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitors (fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, zimelidine, and paroxetine). Both males and females are capable of releasing their gametes after treatment with fluvoxamine at 10−7 and 10−6 M, respectively. Following treatment with fluoxetine, 100% of males have spawned at 10−4 to 10−5 M, however spawning has induced in 50–60% of females at 10−5 M. Zimelidine induces spawning in 100 and 60–70% of males and females at 10−4 M. Paroxetine induces spawning in 50 and 20% of males and females at 10−6 and 10−5 M, respectively. Considering spawning of males and females at 10−3 M 5-HT, these results indicate that selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitors stimulate spawning in Zebra mussel at concentrations lower than that of 5-HT. Further examinations have revealed that mianserin and cyproheptadine interfere with fluvoxamine-, fluoxetine-, and zimelidine-induced spawning [144] suggesting that antagonists of 5-HT2 receptor block stimulatory function of selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitors in spawning. Inhibition of 5-HT reuptake may increase the synaptic 5-HT concentrations, which in turn activate postsynaptic 5-HT receptor to induce spawning. It is also possible that selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitors act as ligands at postsynaptic receptor rather than inhibition of SERT. Overall, these studies suggest that 5-HT transport plays a key role in reproduction; however, the mechanisms of action are largely unknown.
So far, histochemistry and immunohistochemistry methods have been employed to localize the 5-HT neurons and fibers, and spectrofluorometric and HPLC-EC methods have been used to identify 5-HT content in the nervous system and gonad of various bivalve species. Successful implication of various mammalian monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies indicates that 5-HT structure is highly conserved through evolution across the animal kingdom. However, mechanisms through which 5-HT acts on a biological system may differ. The present review shows that 5-HT content highly differs in the nervous system and gonad of bivalve species. The inter-species differences in 5-HT content might be related to capability of nervous system to synthesize 5-HT, differences in 5-HT inactivation or 5-HT transport from nervous system to the gonad. In the latter case, 5-HT content in the gonad may correspond to 5-HT concentration that requires to stimulate spawning. The present review shows that 5-HT concentration to induce spawning highly differs between sexes, and among species. It is worth to note that tissue sampling, extraction procedure, and analytical method affect the results of 5-HT content. In addition, 5-HT content undergoes seasonal variation and change following spawning.
This study was supported by Tohoku Ecosystem-Associated Marine Sciences (TEAMS) grants from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)-Japan, JSPS KAKENHI (16H04978), JSPS postdoctoral fellow (23-01404), and JAMBIO (23-02) to M.O.
Garlic (
Among the garlic processing products, black garlic is emerging as one of the most well-known functional foods in the market. As compared with the raw garlic, black garlic has a typical black color, sweet taste, and chewy texture without the offensive odor. Moreover, several bioactivities of black garlic including anticancer, anti-obesity, immunomodulatory, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects have been documented in literature [8]. However, a systematic review of black garlic and its therapeutic effects from fundamental to clinical studies is still lacking. This chapter of the book provides food and nutrition experts, researchers, and scientists an overview of application of black garlic in functional food for a variety of specific diseases with clinical evidences to improve people’s health and wellness.
\nThe people from Asian countries such as Thailand, South Korea, and Japan have produced and used black garlic as a traditional food for centuries, but it has been introduced into global market in recent decades. In brief, black garlic is produced by fermentation of whole bulb of fresh garlic at high humidity and temperature which in turn results in garlic to turn black via a set of nonenzymatic browning reactions, including Maillard reaction, oxidation of phenols, and caramelizing. When garlic undergoes fermentation, not only physiochemical characteristics of garlic are altered, but also the concentration of bioactive compounds is also improved [8]. Choi and collaborators [9] showed that the moisture of garlic and pH decreased along with the fermentation process, whereas the reducing sugar and total acidity were accumulated. On the other hand, color spectra and composition of amino acids of black garlic also were altered as compared with fresh garlic [9]. As the consequence, black garlic has elastic and chewy texture, as well as sweet taste without offensive flavor of garlic (Figure 1). Furthermore, black garlic possesses an abundant amount of antioxidant compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, tetrahydro-β-carboline derivatives, and organosulfur compounds, including S-allyl-cysteine and S-allyl-mercaptocysteine, as compared with fresh garlic. Kim and collaborators suggested that the total polyphenol and flavonoid of black garlic increase 9.3- and 1.5-folds, respectively, after a program heat schedule as compared with fresh garlic [10]. The concentration of S-allyl-cysteine, one of the most important organosulfur bioactive compounds of garlic, also increases in black garlic from 4.3- to 6.3-folds depending of heating treatment [11].
\nFresh peeled garlic (A) and black garlic produced from peeled multi-clove garlic by fermentation in high humidity (90%) and temperature (75°C) after 15 days (B).
Due to its palatability and abundant amount of bioactive compounds, black garlic has become one of the most well-known and prominent products in nutraceuticals and functional food market with a remarkable growth of consumption demand and profitability during recent years. Furthermore, black garlic has attracted not only consumer attention but also the researcher and manufacturers in the improvement of its production procedure as well as the innovation of new processing products of black garlic. Manufacturing processes of black garlic are diversely programmed depending on temperature, relative humidity, time, and materials. In previous study, Zhang and collaborators produced black garlic from a variety of thermal treatment from 60 to 90°C, and they concluded that higher temperature could shorten the maturity time and the sensory score of black garlic fermented at 70°C was the highest score as compared to other temperatures [12]. Moreover, Kang also investigated the production and physiochemical characteristics of black garlic fermented in programmed stepwise heating process at 60–90°C with 50–100% relative humidity [13]. The effect of time period on the production and antioxidant capacity of black garlic also has been proved in Choi’s report [8]. On the other hand, the researchers have investigated the production of black garlic from a variety of materials from multi-clove garlic to single clove of garlic as well as from the unpeeled cloves of garlic to peeled cloves of garlic (Figures 1 and 2) [14, 15]. Recently, some black garlic processing products such as black garlic molasses, purée, paste, extract, and supplement pills have been introduced in Vietnamese and global market.
\nSingle-clove garlic, atypical product of garlic bulb-forming process (A) and black garlic produced from single-clove garlic (B).
Cancer, which has been regarded as one of leading cause of death in worldwide, is a type of disease related with uncontrolled or abnormal growth of cells or tissues in our bodies. With the growing number of the evidences reported for anticancer effect of black garlic in recent decades, some researchers suggested that black garlic could be used as a dietary product for preventing and treating cancers from gastric cancer to leukemia. The mechanism of anticancer effects of black garlic in different types of cancer diseases is various comprising of the induction of apoptosis, stopping the cell cycle, and inhibition of tumor growth and invasion. In 2011, Wang and collaborators suggested that aqueous extract of black garlic could inhibit proliferation and triggered the apoptosis of SGC-7901 cells, a human gastric cancer cell line, with dose-dependent manner. The authors also observed the inhibitory effect of black garlic on the growth of tumor in tumor-bearing mice [16]. Moreover, black garlic has the anti-invasive effect and prevents tumor metastasis in human gastric carcinoma AGS cells through the increase of tightness of tight junction as well as the downregulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)-2 and metalloproteinases-9, which play a role as mediators of metastasis and invasiveness [17]. The anticancer effect of black garlic on colon cancer cell line also has been demonstrated. Moreover, treatment with alcoholic extract of black garlic could upregulate PTEN and downregulate Akt/pAkt expression, the members of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signal transduction pathway, leading to the modulation of p70S6K1 protein, induction of apoptosis, and arresting of the cell cycle of HT29 human colon cancer cell line [18]. Park and collaborators have reported that hexane extract of black garlic could reduce the cell viability of U937 cells, human histiocytic lymphoma. It has been found that hexane extract of black garlic exhibited induction of both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways through the alteration of the expression of apoptosis-relating proteins. They found that black garlic upregulates death receptor (DR)-4 and Fas ligand, increases Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, as well as induces the truncation of Bid protein, which involves not only endogenous mitochondrial pathway but also death receptor-mediated apoptotic pathway [19]. Some authors also proved that black garlic could inhibit cell growth and enhance sensitization of Lewis cells, lung cancer cell line, against ionizing radiation [20].
\nObesity is a threatening problem to public health in Western and developed countries which causes several metabolic syndromes and chronic diseases. Obesity can be prevented by a combination of physical activity and healthy diet balance between energy intake and expenditure. Note that several functional foods such as γ-oryzanol, butyric acid, legumes, bromelain, peas, lentil, fabas beans, conjugated linoleic acid, diacylglycerols, purified black raspberries, apples, bilberries, sea buckthorn, etc. have been indicated as preventing and/or treating obesity agents via several mechanisms including the induction of satiation, decreasing of appetite, regulation of lipid metabolism, and thermogenesis [21]. Among them, black garlic is known as a prominent lipid and weight-lowering ingredient. In 2015, Ha and collaborators showed that the diet supplemented with 1.5% black garlic extract could only reduce weight but also decrease kidney and epididymal fat in high-fat model [22]. Moreover, black garlic extract attenuates dyslipidemia induced by high-fat diet. In Ha’s work, the authors observed the lowering effect of black garlic on the plasma level of total lipid, total cholesterol, and triglyceride. On the contrast, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) of black garlic group was higher than high-fat diet group. Of note, treatment with black garlic reduces both glucose and insulin in plasma levels in high-fat diet. One of the explanations for the anti-obesity effect of black garlic is that black garlic could ameliorate diet-induced obesity through downregulation of transcription factors and enzymes related with fat and cholesterol syntheses such as sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c), acetyl-coA carboxylase (ACC), fatty acid synthase (FAS), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, and acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) or fatty acid oxidation rate via increase of the expression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT-1), a key enzyme related with lipolysis and fatty acid breakdown [22]. Furthermore, Chen and collaborators also recommended that the anti-obesity effect of methanol extract of black garlic could be related with regulation of lipogenesis, adipokine biosynthesis, fatty acid oxidation, fatty acid and glucose transport, and lipolysis in both the adipose tissue and liver [23]. Furthermore, Seo and collaborators found that black garlic extract could augment the anti-obesity and cholesterol-lowering effect of exercise in animal models [24]. Combination of black garlic and exercise showed a greater effect on decreasing visceral fat, epididymal fat, and liver weight as compared to exercise-alone group and exhibited lowering triglyceride effects in high-fat diet-induced rats. On the other hand, consumption of black garlic (6 g/day) for a long term (12 weeks) also has the cardioprotective effect in patients from a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial by diminishment of atherosclerosis markers and improvement of dyslipidemia. In Jung study, black garlic supplement group exhibited a significant increase of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol/apolipoprotein B along with a decline of apolipoprotein B as compared to placebo group [25]. Recently, some researchers have developed fermented products from garlic extract that also manifested an anti-obesity effect similar with black garlic extract. Jung and collaborators demonstrated that fermented black garlic extract, a product created by fermented
Black garlic contains abundant antioxidant compounds including polyphenols, alkaloids, flavonoids, S-allyl-cysteine, and antioxidant intermediate products derived from Maillard reaction [8, 9]. Several studies suggest that black garlic not only scavenges the free radicals in vitro but also activates the antioxidant enzymes in vivo. Wang and Sun reported that black garlic ethanol extract has an identical DPPH radical inhibitory effect with vitamin C in concentrations 200 and 250 μg/ml and comparable OH radical scavenging effect with vitamin C in concentrations 400 and 500 μg/ml. Black garlic extract could reduce malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration in serum, an end product of lipid peroxidation, and enhance serum superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities in oxidative damage murine model induced by benzene bromide [28]. These results were similar with Lee and collaborators work. A diet supplemented with 5% black garlic aqueous extract could decrease oxidative stress and diabetes complications. Black garlic exerts a strong antioxidant capacity through the strong scavenging 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) or ABTS radical activity, which is four times higher than those of raw garlic, and suppression of oxidative stress marker, such as thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) content in the liver, and activation of antioxidant defense system, including SOD, GSH-Px, and catalase (CAT) in db/db mice, a genetically modified model for diabetes mellitus [29]. Additionally, Ha and collaborators suggested that black garlic could specifically upregulate the mRNA expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-like factor (Nrf2)-related antioxidant proteins, such as heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), glutathione S-transferase alpha 2 (GSTA2), and NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase-1 (NQO1) to prevent accumulation of reactive oxidative species in the liver [30]. According to a Hungarian research, black garlic also improves superior postischemic cardiac function, infarct size reduction, and HO1 and inducible NOS (iNOS) levels after ischemia/reperfusion, which in turn exerts a cardioprotective effect [31]. Moreover, antioxidant effect of black garlic has also been proved in clinical study. In previous study, Wang and collaborators performed a double-blind, parallel design study with a population of untrained males with similar age and body mass index during 14 days to compare the effect of black garlic and placebo on exercise-induced oxidative stress and recovery of muscle function [32]. They found that black garlic improved the recovery rate of circumference of biceps brachii after eccentric exercise and diminished reactive oxygen metabolites (dROMs), lipid peroxide, and 8-iso prostaglandin F2α concentrations, a new indicator of oxidative stress and related with atherosclerosis [32, 33]. Recently, Liu and collaborators have demonstrated the beneficial effect of black garlic on coronary heart disease patient. Black garlic exhibits an augmentation on chronic heart failure by increasing the left ventricular ejection fraction value and the scores of the quality of life and circulating antioxidant levels along with a decline of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) precursor N-terminal, a biomarker for severity of heart failure [34]. Note that some research implies that the processing method has a remarkable effect on antioxidant of black garlic [8, 15, 35]. The temperature and moisture are the most important parameters that determine the quality and antioxidant capacity of black garlic. In Sun and Wang’s work, scavenging DPPH free radical activity of black garlic produced at 85°C in 85% humidity was higher than ones generated at 75 and 60°C in the same humidity after fermentation. The authors observed that at the same temperature, the indicated humidity (75%) would produce black garlic with highest Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity followed by 85, 80, and 70% humidity [35]. The separation of garlic cloves also has positive correlation with antioxidant capacity. Angeles and collaborators proposed that peeled black garlic cloves exhibited a higher antioxidant capacity than whole black garlic bulbs fermented at same condition in the end of production [15].
\nInflammation is a process by which our immune system responds to injury, infection, and toxin. Inflammation plays a vital role not only in wound healing and repairing process but also in protecting our body from foreign invaders, including viruses and bacteria. However, chronic inflammation may have a negative impact on our health which has been manifested in a variety of chronic diseases from heart disease to rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. Consumption of anti-inflammatory ingredients or foods, such as ώ-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, monounsaturated fatty acids, β-cryptoxanthin, quercetin, kaempferol, malvidin, peonidin, daidzein, genistein, extra virgin olive oil, tomato juice, walnut, red wine, flaxseed flour, and cherry, may help combat certain diseases related to chronic inflammation [36]. Recently, some reports have suggested black garlic as a prominent agent for treatment of inflammation and septicemia-related diseases. Aqueous extract of black garlic hinders the production of nitric oxide (NO) and proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and prostaglandin (PG)-E2, and suppresses NO synthase and TNFα and cyclooxygenase-2 expression through a mechanism-related mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-ΚB in liposaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine macrophages. Furthermore, black garlic extract supplement impedes serum TNFα, interleukin-6 (IL6), and interleukin-1 β (IL1β) production and prevents mice from LPS-induced death [37, 38]. These findings are identical with the results from Zhang and Jilg experiments, in which six different black garlic extracts, including hot aqueous extract, ethanol supernatant extract, ethanol precipitate extract, deproteinized ethanol supernatant extract, and deproteinized ethanol precipitate extract, not only ameliorate regulatory effect of LPS on macrophages growth inhibition but also abate TNF α, IL-6, and IL1β generation in LPS-treated macrophages [39]. Moreover, the chloroform extract of black garlic inhibits TNFα-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, mRNA and protein expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM1), and activation of NFΚB pathway and reduces adhesiveness of THP-1 monocytes to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) [40]. In previous research, hexane extract of black garlic also regulates human endometrial stromal cell proliferation and cell progression via suppression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Moreover, Kim and collaborators demonstrate that hexane extract of black garlic has potential to render the NFΚB and activator protein 1 (AP1) activation, which in turn decreases VCAM1 and ICAM1 expression [41]. Fermented black garlic, a product of fermentation of
A growing body of literature indicates that black garlic has beneficial effects to memory and nerve system through antiamnesic effect, improvement of cognitive impairment, and prevention from neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity. In previous study, Nurmasitoh and collaborators demonstrated that ethanol extract of black garlic has manifested a strong protection of murine medial prefrontal cortex from monosodium glutamate-induced oxidative stress via improvement of the working memory performance and prevention of the pyramidal neurons from modification of neuronal architecture [43]. Furthermore, a variety of doses of black garlic extracts (from 2.5 to 10 mg/200 g body weight) also inhibit deleterious effect of monosodium glutamate on spatial memory and total number of pyramidal neurons in CA1 region of the hippocampus [44]. These findings are identical with the results from Indonesian report, in which black garlic improves motor coordination function and the number of Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex of the rat brain [45]. The protection effect of black garlic on nerve system from neuroinflammation, a pathological evidence of Alzheimer’s disease, and cognitive impairment has been well documented [46]. Β amyloid (Aβ) deposition leads to inflammation of the neuron, which triggers a host defense response to neuronal damage and eventually neuronal degeneration. Nillert and collaborators had established a neuronal degenerative model by treatment with 1 μl of aggregated Aβ(1–42) in the lateral ventricles; eventually they observed that ethanol extract-aged black garlic, a variant form of black garlic produced by aging the fresh garlic in room temperature, could ameliorate short-term recognition memory and inhibit activation of microglia as well as production of IL1β, a proinflammatory cytokine [46]. Additionally, ethyl acetate fraction of aged garlic extract protects PC12 neuron-like cells and ICR mice from neurotoxicity and amnesia induced by Aβ(25–35) [47]. Note that both aged and black garlics are rich of S-allyl-cysteine content, a stable bioactive organosulfur compound which also exerts anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and antioxidant effects [48].
\nThe liver is a vital organ which exerts detoxicity, protein biosynthesis, and digestive biochemical production. However, the liver is vulnerable with medications, chemicals, alcohol, solvents, infection, and nutritional supplement. Black garlic has proved to protect the liver from side effects including hepatoxicity and apoptosis of cyclophosphamide, an anticancer medicine [49]. Ahmed indicated that black garlic supplement at the dose 200 mg/kg body weight recovers the histological change, DNA damage, and blood biochemical parameter alteration (bilirubin, alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST)) as well as increases the hepatic antioxidant enzyme levels (CAD, SOD, GSH-Px) as compared with cyclophosphamide-treated group. According to Lee’s research, black garlic could prevent rat clone-9 hepatocytes from hepatic damage induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide in vitro [50]. One of explanations for hepatoprotective effect of black garlic is that black garlic could improve cell death and reduce lipid peroxidation, oxidative stress, and inflammation through regulation of JNK signaling cascade. Note that black garlic exerts the hepatoprotective effect not only in acute toxicity but also in chronic conditions. One study from Korea reports that black garlic decreases the fat accumulation, epididymal, total fat pad, and liver weight alteration and reduces elevation of hepatic enzymes (ALT, AST, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)) and blood lymphocyte DNA damage in chronic alcohol-induced hepatic damage model [51]. They also observed a decrease of TBARS content in the liver, heart, and plasma and reduction of cytochrome P450 2E1 activity companion with a rise of hepatic GSH level and antioxidant enzyme activities such as GSH-Px, CAT, and glutathione reductase in black garlic-treated group. From these evidences, the authors imply that the strong antioxidant effect of black garlic is related to the mechanism of protection against liver damage induced by chronic alcohol exposure. Moreover, Shin and collaborators suggested that black garlic supplement not only protects the liver from acute toxicity induced by carbon tetrachloride or D-galactosamine but also improves lipid profile and liver injury in hepatic steatosis model [52]. A Vietnamese report also proved the hepatoprotective effect of single-clove black garlic on liver injury in sub-chronic toxicity model (Figure 3) [14].
\nLiver sections from carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-intoxicated mice and CCl4 treated with single-clove black garlic extract mice. Carbon tetrachloride treatment (1 ml of mixture of CCl4 in 50% olive oil/kg body weight, twice per week, for 28 days) not only alters the gross appearance of the liver (swelling liver, hard texture, pale brown with coarse surface) but also results in a severe hepatic inflammation and necrosis in microscopic level (panels A and B, respectively). Supplement with single-clove black garlic extract (200 mg/kg body weight) could improve liver morphology (semihard texture, redness, slight coarse surface) and histological structure of the liver along with reduction of inflammation (panels C and D, respectively).
Black garlic is a well-known garlic preparation which is fermented in regulated high humidity and temperature not only to remove strong unpleasant flavor of fresh garlic but also to improve its nutrient composition, bioactivites, and taste values. After being introduced in the market in last few decades, black garlic has become an emerging functional food on account of its wide-range biological functions, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, lowering hyperlipidemia, anti-obesity, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects. Its bioactivities and therapeutic benefits have been the subjects to a numerous extensive researches in both in vitro and in vivo levels. In recently, there are only a few clinical studies which prove the health benefits of black garlic on cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, further researches focused on other medical application and safety aspect of black garlic are required to provide a comprehensive overview about therapeutic effects of black garlic.
\nThe authors thank their colleagues from the Institute of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Industrial University of Ho Chi Minh City, for their facility and assistance during this project.
\nThis project received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
\nThe authors declare there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this work.
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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"bookSubject",path:"/subjects/358",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"358"},fullPath:"/subjects/358",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()