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\r\n\tAs the subject of adhesives is in constant development, this book's purpose is to get together information about adhesives science and technology, recent advances, and applications that use adhesive technology. Also, to make these contents available to engineering students, engineers, researchers, and the people interested in this topic. The book is expected to present works that aim to contribute to the development of new technologies and the use of non-traditional materials in engineering.
",isbn:"978-1-83880-670-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-669-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-671-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"c58b7d4c17e2a202af1dc4b906b7becb",bookSignature:"Prof. António Bastos Pereira and Dr. Alexandre Luiz Pereira",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11819.jpg",keywords:"The Technology of the Adhesives, Recent Advances, New Perspectives, Structural Adhesives Bonding, Durability of Structural Adhesives, New Applications, Repair of Composites, Bonding of Composites, Experimental Mechanics Tests, Thermal Analysis, Finite Element Method, Numerical Analysis.",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 29th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. António Pereira is a professor and researcher, who graduated from the University of Porto, and gained experience as an engineer working at Renault, with an h-index of 23, and more than 1500 citations for 70 papers published in SCI journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"An active researcher in Solid Mechanics, Dr. Alexandre Luiz Pereira holds a degree in Mathematics from the State University of Rio de Janeiro, and a degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Fluminense Federal University in Brazil.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211131/images/system/211131.png",biography:"Founding shareholder and Director of Martifer Group (ca. 3500 employees) (1990-1999) - was responsible for the planning and production of about 500 steel structures and industrial equipment with a total amount exceeding 100 million euros.\nAssistant Professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, since 2000. Board Member and Member of the Executive Committee at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro (2011 – 2015), currently Director of TEMA - Centre for Mechanical Technology and Automation.\nHis main research area has been mechanics of composite materials, with particular emphasis on delamination fracture mechanics. He has published 44 papers in SCI journals and has delivered 30 presentations at international conferences. 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Churchill, Maja Dutour Sikirić, Božana Čolović and Helga Füredi Milhofer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8812.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219335",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Churchill",slug:"david-churchill",fullName:"David Churchill"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"77761",title:"Multilingualism and Awareness of Cultural Differences in Communication",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99178",slug:"multilingualism-and-awareness-of-cultural-differences-in-communication",body:'In today’s world, contacts with different cultures are very frequent, as a consequence of globalization. As a result, we need cultural awareness and cultural competence in order to relate with empathy to different cultures, with different values and mindsets, rituals and traditions, as well as with different ways of communication. Topics of interest in the foreign language classroom include, aside from linguistics and conversational aspects, aspects related to contemporary culture and civilization, not just culture and civilization from some time ago in history. All traditions and events from history should be presented in relation to what is still relevant at present time. Students may find that old textbooks about the cultures related to the languages they are studying present a world they will no longer find in reality, during a trip. This is because we now live in a multicultural world. Different cultures can be found in the same country. We can come into contact with other cultures at various times in our lives, such as in the classroom, as both teachers and students, as well as at work, during international collaborations, and as tourists. Situations where we need to take care in order to minimize or even avoid culture shock are represented by moving to live in a different culture, going for work, or as students. Having accurate information about the different culture, as well as understanding the differences can help with adaptation, either on long or short term, depending on our stay. Language is an important part of any culture, and, what is more, it “does not exist apart from culture, that is, from the socially inherited assemblage of practices and beliefs that determines the texture of our lives” [1]. The relationship between language and culture also consists of the fact that language is “a key to the cultural past of a society” [2], as well as a key to understanding “social reality” [3]. Thus, language is a means of reflecting a culture and its mindset, but also of influencing it and creating it: “The structure of a language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world or, as a weaker view, the structure does not determine the world-view but is still extremely influential in predisposing speakers of a language toward adopting their world-view” [4].
In time, cultures change, since “they are dynamic, they interact and compete with one another” [5]. Culture is always changing with respect to its traditions, values and mindsets in order to answer to the needs of its members. One change when it comes to cultures can be visible in the phenomenon of multiculturalism, which is currently valued at the time. It refers to “a system of beliefs and behaviours that recognizes and respects the presence of all diverse groups in an organization or society, acknowledges and values their socio-cultural differences, and encourages and enables their continued contribution within an inclusive cultural context which empowers all within the organization or society” [6]. Multilingualism can be regarded as a part of multiculturalism, just as language is part of any culture. According to Cutler [7], multiculturalism means ways of behaving and thinking, as well as learning styles, but also communication styles. Multilingualism can be understood as a communication style, but also as an influence on mindsets and values.
Through multilingualism, we can increase the awareness of cultural differences and feel empathy for these differences at the level of linguistics (especially pragmatics) as well as at the level of values and mindsets. Anyone that is multilingual is aware of different ways of communication and of relying on context of various cultures, not just his/her own. The ability of cultural awareness could be increased through multilingualism, which may, in its turn, help students learn easier another foreign language, since they already have knowledge of possible differences. In the foreign language classroom, the teacher could also make reference to other commonly known language(s) to help the students make connections and learn faster.
The main question this chapter deals with is whether multilingualism helps gain an increased awareness of the cultural differences in communication.
By looking at various definitions of multilingualism, the aspect of being able to use certain languages for communication and to understand what is communicated in these languages stands out. We also notice that multilingualism can be regarded like a trend that is set at a political level, by the Council of Europe, by placing emphasis on diversity and understanding across languages and cultures, but also like a result of the situation in certain countries, where there are several official languages, not just one.
Multilingualism could be defined as “any degree of linguistic ability from an equally good command of two or more languages […] to lesser abilities, active or passive, in one of the languages” [8]. It is believed that a multilingual person is “anyone who can communicate in more than one language, be it active (through speaking and writing) or passive (through listening and reading)” [9]. The European Commission [10] defines multilingualism as “the ability of societies, institutions, groups and individuals to engage, on a regular basis, with more than on language in their day-to-day lives”. Attention has been drawn to the individual multilingualism and the societal multilingualism distinction [11]. Plurilingualism, according to the Council of Europe, is the “repertoire of varieties of language which many individuals use”, while multilingualism is “the presence in a geographical area, large or small, of more than one ‘variety of language’”. In the foreign languages classroom, some students may be multilingual due to their individual preferences or contacts with other cultures, while some others can be multilingual due to the area where they live, if more languages are spoken. For instance, in Russia, twenty-four official languages are spoken, in India twenty-three, while in Switzerland there are four national languages.
Multilingualism can influence the way foreign language learning is going on in several aspects. First of all, if communicative language learning is practiced, the focus will be on the way conversations are understood, and notions of pragmatics will be given, sometimes theoretically, sometimes practically, sometimes by including both. Second, multilingualism is regarded as a means of helping students to adapt to the realities of the everyday world, a world which encourages both multiculturalism and multilingualism. What is more, learning a foreign language is always connected to beginning to understand the respective cultures, with its mindsets, values, as well as rituals and traditions. In this way, by knowing several languages, students can gain insight in the cultural differences and they can sympathize with other cultures. Third, if the class is made up of students belonging to other cultures and thus, having other native languages, or knowing other languages, then the teacher should take these students’ background into account when planning the lessons and devising the activities. Fourth, if students and teachers know several languages, then they can use this background knowledge in order to make teaching and learning easier, and help students draw comparisons among the already known languages and the foreign language they are currently studying. Fifth, there could also be drawbacks in learning several languages, as previous knowledge could at times interfere with the currently studies language, which could lead to students producing incorrect answers.
Foreign language teaching can take into consideration areas such as everyday life culture and dialogs, as well as grammar and vocabulary. A communicative approach is mostly preferred in foreign language teaching nowadays, especially since teaching is supposed to be student-centered, and students should participate actively in class. The communicative competence in foreign language teaching has been around since the 1970s, when the audio-lingual method was believed to help learners [12]. Active participation in class can be guided towards eagerness of students to participate in dialogs with their classmates. In this way, they can be made aware in their building of dialogs of frequently used phrases to address someone or to make polite requests, as well as of using specific formulas in specific contexts. Context awareness in communication is one of the teachings of pragmatics, together with the intended meaning suggested by the speaker. The following definitions could be applied to pragmatics: “Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning”, “Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning”, and “Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said” [13].
One example regarding the domain of pragmatics could be given to native Romanian students that can compare direct and indirect politeness. While in English and French polite requests are formulated in an indirect way, the Romanian language uses a more direct formulation. For instance, while in English the polite request is formulated as: “Can I have your Syntax lecture notes please?”, the Romanian equivalent is: “Dǎ-mi şi mie cursul de Sintaxǎ.
Polite requests differ in directeness and indirectness function of culture. As a result, indirect polite requests are also found in Hebrew and Spanish [15]. Those belonging to Uruguay culture prefer directness in polite requests [16]. Greeks prefer to offer reasons for the polite requests [17]. Some languages use more hints in requests, such as Japanese and English, which use them in a 40% proportion [18]. The hints in the Japanese language are, however, more opaque. According to research, there were less than 10% hints in the requests in English, French and Hebrew [19]. According to research [20, 21, 22], the Chinese polite requests can be more direct when social distance is small. These are all examples that can raise awareness of the cultural differences reflected in language as far as polite requests are concerned.
Increased pragmatic skills can be noticed in multilinguals. We can take the example of Grice’s conversational implicatures, which are a type of inferences about the speaker’s intended meaning [23]. For instance, in the dialog “John: Did all of the students pass the exam? Mary: Some of the students passed the exam.” the following inferences can be drawn: “Some and possibly all of the students passed the exams” and “Not all of the students passed the exams.”, the latter being a scalar implicature. Research results [24] “showed that bilingual children were more advanced than their monolingual peers in computing scalar implicatures.” Studies [24] have been using conversational violations tests, according to which “bilingual children performed significantly better than their monolingual counterparts”. Knowing two languages offers the possibility of gaining more background knowledge regarding conversations. Other researches mentioned in [23] include those listed under [25, 26], which conclude that “bilingualism boosts children’s Theory of Mind-the ability to understand other people’s mental states and intentions.” Researchers [23] have started from this evidence supporting advantages in pragmatic abilities of children in order to extend their findings to multilinguals. However, their experiment’s results [23] “provide only limited support for the position that multilingualism fosters children’s pragmatic abilities. Overall, multilingual children were numerically better than bilectals in most implicature sub-tests including metaphor, irony, scalars 1 and scalars 2.” What is more, they mention the following: […] While the overall pattern of our results points towards a multilingual advantage, especially for the more demanding types of implicatures (i.e. irony), it does not provide robust evidence in favor of the hypothesis that exposure to more than one languages confers an advantage in children’s conversational understanding.” At the same time, their results show that multilinguals seem to benefit more from having wider background knowledge regarding conversation interpretation, as in the example of understanding irony. These findings could be used for practical aspects in foreign language teaching: the students could be given examples from several languages they know regarding conversational skills, so that they can draw their own comparisons and conclusions with respect to differences and similarities among languages. These comparisons could help them become aware of various ways in which communication works, through direct expression or through suggestions, implications and allusions. The favorable results from the experiments mentions with bilinguals, as well as multilinguals, may have to do with the fact that learning a foreign language “enhances children’s understanding of how language itself works and their ability to manipulate language in the service of thinking and problem solving” [27]. By learning a foreign language, students have at times compared it with their own, and have gained insight into the way languages work regarding communication, as well as grammar and vocabulary. If students know Germanic and Romance languages, for example, they may draw further comparisons with new foreign languages they are attempting to learn. With their intuitive comparisons among languages, they can later have a basic background from where they can start their study of linguistics, of domains such as grammar and etymology.
The inclusion of exercises and notions based on pragmatics is necessary in the foreign language classroom, since studying grammar means only studying “how the formal knowledge of the language develops”, while ignoring “the question of how the knowledge is transformed into actual usages, that is, into a productive use of language in its spoken and written forms, or, into socially and culturally appropriate usages” [28].
Besides skills in understanding conversations better, there is another skill that multilinguals can benefit from, namely “Multilinguals are more capable of separating meaning from form” [29]. Research has focused on the cognitive consequences of multilingualism: “multilinguals of different ages develop resources that allow them to perform better on some metalinguistic tasks and can even slow down some aspects of the cognitive decline associated with aging” [11]. These skills can make it easier for multilinguals to learn another foreign language, since it is suggested that they can become more sensitive intuitively to various aspects of the linguistic and communicational level.
There are studies which support the “relationship between multilingualism and conceptualization” [11]. Thus, “Some scholars consider that multilinguals and monolinguals have a conceptual base that is identical, while others think that the differences are not only quantitative but also qualitative.” Other research mentioned is the “volume edited by Pavlenko (2011)”, which “explores the way the acquisition of additional languages is related to conceptual development and restructuring and reports interesting findings on areas such as visual perception, inner speech, and gesturing” [11].
Foreign language teachers should take into consideration the above findings, and develop their activities in such a way as to take into account that students with a multilingual background can be more skillful in some areas of language learning, such as metalinguistic tasks, separation of meaning and form, a better conceptual base, and better conceptual development. At the same time, the foreign language teacher should also have in view to use the more perceptive skills the multilingual students have acquired in order to make differences between communication styles at the level of different cultures and languages more clear. For instance, the teacher could explain to these students, even if they feel them intuitively, the differences between direct and indirect communication cultures (or low context and high context communication cultures). Direct communication cultures focus on “getting or giving information” [30], and are, generally, Western cultures. Indirect communication cultures do not rely on saying the meaning directly, but instead on “pauses, silence, tone of voice” [31], and are, generally, Asian cultures. For indirect communication cultures, “The overriding goal of the communication exchange is maintaining harmony and saving face” [30]. Especially in indirect communication cultures, knowledge of pragmatics can be applied, since there are lots of instances when there are suggested meanings and allusions, both verbal, as well as non-verbal. For instance, in Japanese culture, hesitations and silence can show that someone does not agree with the interlocutor. While an interlocutor from the Western world would directly “yes” or “no”, an interlocutor from the Asian cultures would even say “yes” when meaning “no” in order not to offend the interlocutor, but would provide instead hints and clues to what he/she means by silence, hesitation, and non-verbal communication.
However, the native language and culture can influence the way that the speech acts are used in a foreign language. As an example, the researchers presented in [32] have done studies with respect to pragmatic skills in multilinguals and the way they use the most frequently encountered speech acts of requests and refusals. For their study, they have been preoccupied by the degree of directness of requests and refusals that were formulated by “trilinguals for whom English is L2 (Hebrew speakers) and those for whom it is L3 (Arabic speakers), and the background variables that might explain this production”. The Hebrew group of speakers showed a tendency for using direct requests, especially when using English at work. However, this tendency could be related to the way that requests are used directly when having informal relationships with work colleagues. The Arab group of speakers used less frequently direct requests when they were speaking with close persons, such as family. Arabic culture has the tendency to use direct requests with family [32]. The Arab group tended to use indirect refusals, “as the number of years of exposure to English increased” [32]. While Israeli Arabic is “more direct than English and even Hebrew (Katriel, 1986, 2004)”, it was noticed that “increasing exposure to English may increase the level of indirectness employed by the Arabic (L1) speakers in their production of English refusals” [32]. This study showed that for these groups of users of English as a foreign language, English was used at work, and that language proficiency could “contribute to a more appropriate level of directness in a non-native language” [32]. As a result, the groups’ previous experiences have an impact regarding how they handle requests and refusals in English as a foreign language. English uses both direct and indirect requests, and choosing the appropriate type of request has to do with the relationship between the speakers. Thus, the Hebrew group use more direct requests when having informal relationships with work colleagues, and the Arab group used more indirect refusals if they had studied English for more years. The presentation of this case study shows that previous experience is used when speaking a foreign language.
When teaching and learning foreign languages, we need to take into account the social and cultural realities. In our case, we need to take into consideration the contemporary context, where, according to source [33] one of the “striking” features “of globalisation is the impact of multilingualism, and the related phenomenon of multiculturalism.” What is more, contemporary societies are diverse, as far as both languages and cultures are concerned: “Very few contemporary societies can be considered homogenous; they are increasingly diverse, whether in the languages spoken or in the ways that people live and express themselves (their cultures).” The foreign language lessons need, thus, to help students prepare for the reality of a world where multilingualism is a necessary skill and a necessary tool for adapting to the everyday life. As a result, it is considered normal in today’s world to know at least two or even more languages: “Speaking two or more languages is the natural way of life for three-quarters of the human race. [This] principle … has been obscured in parts of Europe as a consequence of colonial history” [34]. The current world asks for intercultural communication skills, where knowledge of other cultures cannot be completely separated from knowledge of other languages. Research [29] mentions the need to help students “come into contact with a number of different languages and cultures as early on as possible”, since the students should adapt to a multicultural and multilinguistic world, where they will cooperate with other cultures when at work. Source [33] draws attention to the issue that certain languages are disappearing, that some are spoken by a very small number of persons, while English has known a rise as a globally spoken language. However, across the world “there are still over 7,000 distinct languages spoken”, and in some countries multiple languages are spoken.
In today’s world, both knowing other languages, most often English, the global language, as well as others is necessary. However, it is still necessary to maintain a connection with our native language and culture. As an example given by source [33], we can see Welsh identity as being connected to both culture, values, mindset, traditions, as well as to language: “To be Welsh is an experience. To both be and speak Welsh is a related, more robust experience. Each time we erase one of those options from the world of human experience, we lose an incomprehensibly complex realm of knowledge” [35]. The same experience could be applied to any other native language and culture.
Multilingualism and multiculturalism refer to both respecting one’s native language and culture, as well as to showing respect and understanding towards other languages and cultures.
The European Commission views the multicultural language classroom as a means for the teacher to help students “value diversity” and to incorporate “cultural diversity in their teachings” [36]. Their document focuses on issues regarding the inclusion of migrant children in the process of foreign language teaching. The European Commission believes that migrant children should maintain their mother language, together with its culture, while learning another language. This is why, according to [37], they will need to interact with their family and community.
The European Union also “encourages multilingualism by espousing a policy which requires citizens to learn at least three languages, i.e. two languages in addition to their respective mother tongue” [38]. As a result, foreign language teaching should take this rule into account, by having schools and universities develop curricula that help students achieve this goal. The researcher mentioned in [39] draw attention to the reality that students of a foreign language already know at least one more language, other than their mother language. This means that “they already have an array of linguistic and cognitive skills that may prove very useful if they are adequately exploited during the language learning process”. Yet, the issue is that “the particular characteristics of multilingual learners often go unnoticed by foreign language teachers”. The researcher mentioned in [39] believe that teacher should be aware, and make use in the foreign language classroom, of the “multilingual learners’ metalinguistic awareness, for example by adopting strategies such as reactivating prior linguistic knowledge and exploring the formal differences and similarities between the languages present in the classroom”. Most of the times, it is useful for learners to start from what they already know, and then build further knowledge of the foreign language they are currently learning in class. What is more, the human mind tends to work by categorizing knowledge and experience, meaning by ordering knowledge and experience in various groups and based on various features. The language learners’ mind works in the same way, as their previous knowledge of other languages can be considered part of their experience in the domain. They may order language features by types of family the language belongs to, for example to the Romance or to the Germanic family. Due to this, they can establish similarities and differences regarding vocabulary and grammatical structures, or these can be pointed out to the by the teacher during class. The teacher can also draw on his own background with previously known languages to give examples of how he/she uses previous knowledge to help him/her in learning a new language.
As we have seen from the research presented in this chapter, in spite of all the previously presented benefits, there are also disadvantages to using multilingualism during classes. One of these disadvantages can be found under the form of language transfer (also known as language interference), which is explained by source [40] as follows: “when attempting to communicate in a second language, learners often ‘transfer’ elements of their native language onto the speech patterns of the target language”. Language transfer is an issue that is also raised in [41], which can be negative when it is “the sign of the lack of some kind of linguistic and/or pragmatic knowledge and that takes the form of grammatical and/or lexical mistakes and errors.” In some cases, language interference can lead to incorrect use of a foreign language. This could be the reason why certain teachers avoid using the students’ previous knowledge of other foreign languages in their classroom activities. However, language transfer, or language interference, can happen in the case of any foreign language learners, even if they are multilingual or not. This has been identified as one of the common problems of learning a foreign language. In the case of multilinguals, we can speak of second language transfer while learning a third language [42]. While learning a second language, the leaner will go back to the knowledge of the first language, and try to fit in the new language according to the patterns of the first, already known, one. While learning a third language, the learner will go back to the most recently learned foreign language and try to use the same, already known, pattern. This type of mechanism that is visible in the learning of other languages can show that language learners set previous knowledge and experience with languages as a basis for acquiring their new knowledge. At some points relying on what they already know can hinder the process. This could be regarded as a difficulty to adapt to the new reality. An example of transference from a learner’s second language to his/her currently learned third language is given in [43]: “a native speaker of English with French L2 and German L3 says: *
Source [43] enumerates some factors that cause multilingual speakers to mix the currently known language with previously learned ones, namely the language learned right before the one they are currently learning. Among these factors, the following could be found: “typological similarity between languages and the speaker’s level of proficiency”, “the degree of markedness and the degree of morpheme boundedness of individual lexical items”. Other factors include the “foreign language effect” [43] and the “last language effect” [44]. Those factors that are specific to using second language knowledge to third language use are, according to [43], the following: “cognitive mode, language typology, proficiency, and frequency of use.”
However, even transfer from previously known languages is not accepted by all researchers. Source [45], for instance, believe that there is a full transfer among languages, meaning that “all syntactic properties of the L1 initially constitute a base for the newly developing grammar, which is constructed with the involvement of Universal Grammar (UG)” [46]. Other researchers believe that there is not a complete transfer, for example they [47, 48] claim that only transfer of lexical categories can occur, while Eubank [49, 50] claims that lexical and functional categories can both be transferred. The researchers mentioned in [46] claim that the learners can build “an interlanguage grammar (ILG) on the basis of L2 input and of UG” following “this initial transfer phase”. Other researchers [51, 52] believe that there is no transfer occurring from previously known languages. According to these researchers, “neither the L1, nor UG are involved; there are only general (cognitive) learning strategies that guide the learner in the development of a new grammar” [46]. Source [53] claims that “UG alone is involved, and thus the learner will initially create an ILG drawing on UG options” [46].
There are, thus, competitive views regarding whether language transfer occurs or not, among researchers. Foreign language teachers will rely on their personal observations of and experience with a certain group of learners, and try to make them learn a foreign language efficiently.
In the case of using the first language in the foreign language classroom, according to [54], some researchers believe that it is beneficial for the teacher to make references to it, as “learners acquire a second language by using the knowledge they already have of their native language”. Learners “use structures from their first language that are comparable to the second language transfer forms and meanings while attempting to read, speak or write the second language.” From this viewpoint, another previously known language does not hinder the learning process of a new language, but on the contrary, it helps learners.
The research observations presented in this section regarding language transfer refer to the linguistic level, to issues of grammar and vocabulary. Other aspects of multilingualism should also be taken into consideration, especially the cultural and political aspects. The current cultural context depends on the values of diversity put forth at a political level by the European Comission. While the students may not find that knowing other languages can help them with learning a new one in class, they may be taught to take into consideration their previous experience to better understand the way that different cultures communicate differently, by using different phrases, and also non-verbal hints, because they belong to a certain category of cultures. As a result, they may communicate more or less directly or indirectly. Students may also be encouraged to learn more languages since it is believed that they will be helped to better understand the frames of minds of other cultures, due to language and culture being interrelated. Some languages can show specific aspects of certain cultures, such as the way that their members perceive colors. For example, Greeks have, in their language, two terms for blue, light and dark blue (“ghalazio” and “ble”). After staying for a long time in the United Kingdom, for instance, where there is only one term for the two colors, namely “blue”, the Greeks will perceive light and dark blue as more similar.
As a result, depending on their background, whether they are studying humanities or engineering, students can be made aware of the relationships between different cultures and languages. Humanities students can be interested in the theoretical linguistics aspects, as well as in the culture and civilization aspects that have led to the cultural differences, while engineering students may be more interested in the consequences regarding the practical, conversational part and in culture and civilization aspects. The author of the chapter teaches English seminars and a course in Culture and Civilization to engineering students, at the Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest. The focus when teaching these students foreign languages and culture is on examples regarding communication and the relationships between the interlocutors, whether they are more or less familiar, or whether the conversation takes place in a business context or in a family or friends circle. At the Faculty of Engineering in Foreign Languages there are many foreign students, from all over the world; however, since the author of this chapter does not know all their native languages, and since not all the students have the same background regarding other known languages, teaching takes place only in English. However, during classes, cultural aspects of communication can be presented, for instance regarding direct and indirect communication cultures, together with references regarding various structures of different languages, as well as formulas of addressing someone. For instance, in Japanese, there are honorifics, used for addressing someone function of rank and relationship, as a sign of respect. In English, we can address anyone with “you”, as the culture is more egalitarian. Japan is, traditionally, a high-power distance culture, according to Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimensions [55]. This means that they will show respect for anyone in a position of authority, in the family, at school, and at work. In French and Romanian, we also have the pronouns
While knowing several languages can help students learn a new language together with other foreign students, since this means that they are already familiar with various grammatical notions they should pay attention to, there will always be the interference, at some points, of the native language over the newly acquired language. Knowledge of several languages works in the following way on learners: “The most central difference between transfer in SLA and transfer in TLA is the fact that the learner can draw on multiple background languages when encountering a gap in the target language (TL)” [56]. The area that is mainly affected by language transfer is vocabulary: “While transfer can occur at different linguistic levels (e.g. syntax and phonology), it is especially interesting in the case of lexis. Vocabulary is the main carrier of meaning and central to language learning” [56]. Among the factors that can influence the extent of the transfer are the learners’ high proficiency in the background language, how recently they have used a certain language, how close the learners believe a certain language they already know is to the language they are currently learning (based on experience with the new language or based on expectations), as well as item-specific transferability, meaning that learners may believe that a certain item could be found in a close form in a certain language they already [56]. Thus, language transfer may not be related only to transfer from the native language, especially in the case of multilinguals [57]. What is more, the process of language transfer can be both spontaneous and strategic [56].
Source [56] presents the study done on a group of learners that share, as much as possible, the same background and previously known languages, and which were from Luxemburg. The country has three official languages: Luxemburgish, German and French. These learners were 79 high-school students in their second year of learning English. Of course, they also knew other languages in various proportions. The author of the study noticed form-based transfer in the form of borrowing, foreignising, spelling, but also meaning-based transfer, in the form of lexeme matching, but also semantic extensions, combined transfer of compounds, and others. These students were using their main known languages as background knowledge from where to get help in situations they did not know how to deal with in English.
For the Asian learners of English, English is a language that is used in Asia more often with other speakers of Asian languages than with speakers from English-speaking countries such as the US or the UK [58]. The existence of Asian varieties of English may also influence the perception of English by Asian learners, and also their language transfer. For instance, “Very often, Asian speakers of English deviate from American or British norms of communication and thereby understand each other and establish rapport” [58]. The main issue with Asian varieties of English is that native language transfer is considered normal, and that it forms the specific of Asian varieties of English. No improvement is asked from the Asian speakers as far as Asian English varieties are concerned. The same holds true for African varieties of English.
Thus, to some extent, when it comes to English, every speaker in the world has come into contact with it under one form or another. In some cases, native language transfer issues are accepted. With respect to learning other languages, by Westerners or Easterners, most issues related to transfer from first language are related to the subjectivity of the learner, to how he/she perceives other languages or to what he/she expects from them, based on his/her background of previously known languages.
The question is which studies regarding multilingualism should be trusted: those regarding the benefits of multilingualism, or those claiming that monolinguals and multilinguals, or bilinguals and multilinguals can have the same skills? Is multilingualism just a trend supported by the European Commission, and part of the current values regarding diversity and multiculturalism, and respect for these, or is it more?
The answers could be given on the basis of personal experience of both students and teachers. The answers could also be given due to individual skills, since certain persons seem to be more gifted than others at learning foreign languages. One should consider the factors that can influence the results of all the experiments presented in the research papers, and also the limitations pointed out by the authors of the studies. At this point, studies with various groups of learners that are multilingual may seem dependent on other variables, while evidence coming from studying the brain of multilinguals can seem more convincing, as physical evidence can be given. For instance, according to [59], native languages and languages learned later activate the same areas of the brain and use the same neural resources. However, it is not known “whether the brain processes these languages in the same way or not.” Such findings could help support the arguments that knowledge of previously known languages could help learners in their study of a new language. Yet, researchers have not agreed whether all languages can be processed by the brain in a similar way. This could suggest that a multilingual may not learn any other language with more ease.
After all, what is convincing evidence depends on the perception of the person looking for evidence, whether the respective person is more inclined to believe in studying the behavior and skills of a group of persons or is more inclined to look for physical, scientific proof that can be explained by looking at the human physical brain. Most likely, most foreign language teachers will judge these matters based on their own experience with teaching groups of multilingual, bilingual, or monolingual students. They will take action regarding the way they can teach their students efficiently considering the situation at the very moment.
In some cases, multilingualism depends on an individual’s language learning skills, more than on anything else. What is more, some teaching methods can prove to be more efficient than others, and more suitable for learners to better understand the respective language. In other cases, knowing more languages can be an imposition regarding the place where someone lives, if there are several official languages.
Schools and universities are reflections of the rules of the culture and society students and teachers live, and so certain languages can be studied.
Therefore, multilingualism can be the result of various circumstances: values imposed by the European Comission, by the culture someone lives in, as well as of personal preferences.
The chapter has taken into consideration aspects of multilingualism in relation to teaching foreign languages especially, while also taking into account aspects related to contemporary cultural values and communication styles that are culturally related. It has also presented examples of research and group experiments regarding the extent to which multilinguals use previous knowledge of foreign languages, and the extent to which it may or may not help them in acquiring a new language.
The techniques used by the teacher with students having a multilingual background should be adapted to the students’ age. While intuitive comparisons with other languages with concrete examples of conversations can work for any age, explanations that are more theoretical, and dealing with notions of culture and civilizations, as well as pragmatics, are more suitable for university-level students. At the same time, the teacher should also take into consideration the background of the students, even at university level, and needs. Some university students may have a technical background, if they are studying Engineering, and only having English language seminars once a week, like students at the Technical University of Civil Engineering where the author of this chapter teaches. These students may not be interested in the theoretical aspects related to linguistics, and may instead look for a more practical teaching approach. They may be given conversational examples, with explanations related to the notions they study related to Culture and Civilization during the English seminar. The focus is especially on contemporary and everyday culture and civilization, since they should know about today’s contemporary world. Aspects regarding cultural differences are most important, since they will come into contact with other cultures during university years, as well as at work.
While according to various research papers, students may or may not benefit from previous knowledge of other languages, at the level of grammar, vocabulary, and language structure, they can benefit from practical examples given as comparisons of previous known languages with the language they are currently studying. The students can use previous knowledge of other languages and cultures in such a way so as to become aware of cultural differences and to adapt to a world that values multiculturalism.
Multilingualism and multiculturalism are related, and through multilingualism students can be drawn into the topic of multiculturalism, starting from what they already know, with their experiences as language learners. Multiculturalism and multilingualism are both key aspects of the world they live in and they should know about. They also need to understand this world, and one step is to sympathize with different cultures, first of all through communication. Communication itself is dependent on cultural differences, as it can be more direct or more indirect. After all, communication remains the main purpose of learning any foreign language for any foreign language learners. Moreover, communication is regarded as one of the key aspects in today’s world, under all its forms, personal, public, spoken, written, printed books or social media. It is believed that our contemporary age is the age of communication, especially due to all the possibilities of technology, that bring us all together. Multilingualism and multiculturalism invite us to cooperate, especially through efficient communication, cultural awareness and cultural empathy.
An orthosis or orthotic device is a device applied to the body to replace lost function of locomotor systems or to help restore lost or damaged function, to stabilize or immobilize a part of the body, to improve alignment, prevent deformation, protect against injury or assist in movement, or function [1].
Orthoses are used, to:
align or position limb segments to enhance voluntary limb movement and improve function (e.g., an ankle-foot orthosis [AFO] to provide prepositioning of the foot during swing limb advancement and stability during the stance phase of gait);
minimize the influence of abnormal tone on posture and movement (tone-inhibiting designs);
provide individuals with a variety of comfortable and safe positions in which they can sleep, eat, travel, work, or play;
promote joint alignment and minimize risk of contracture development and other secondary musculoskeletal sequelae (especially in growing children);
protect a limb following orthopedic surgery performed to correct deformity or instability;
enhance alignment following pharmacological intervention with botulinum toxin;
provide alternative methods for mobility [2].
These are orthopedic devices that affect the function of the musculoskeletal system: they keep body parts in the desired positions or bring them into the necessary positions, sometimes replacing lost functions, or bringing the disability to a tolerable condition. Furthermore, they are devices attached to the patient’s body, which affect the condition and operation of the musculoskeletal system. This means that they do not compensate for the anatomical loss of the limb, but partially compensate for the lost function. The Committee for Prosthetic Research and Development (CPRD) categorized orthoses with respect to anatomical segments and joints. It created, firmly established and implemented a system of abbreviations derived from the first letters of the name of the orthosis in English for each category. Within the international Standards By ISO, the technical committee TC 168 has introduced the mentioned terminology, which is accepted worldwide [1, 3, 4, 5].
These devices are manufactured individually or in series production, from different materials and in different sizes according to the expected length of use and the burden also related to the patient’s lifestyle. When using mass-produced orthopedic-prosthetic devices (in a sufficient size range based on the anthropometrically determined dimensions of healthy people), the choice and application of a suitable device does not pose a problem. In some cases, this device may require only minimal adjustments (e.g. adjustment of the fastening strap) during the test by a qualified person (orthopedic technician, doctor). Another case is an orthosis made to measure according to the individual requirements of the individual. The traditional production process consists of the phase of taking the necessary measurements, the phase of production of the model (gypsum positive, which is made by casting gypsum) and then the creation of an orthotic device from the required materials [1, 3].
In the final phase, it is necessary to take into account the specific physiological, kinesiological and biomechanical properties that will be placed on the orthosis, structural and material characteristics, use of joints, locks and other biomechanical elements, so that the orthosis fulfills its purpose [1, 5, 6].
The goal of an orthotic device is to help a person with a disability achieve the highest level of functional independence and integration into the community. The design, manufacture and installation of orthoses and ancillary equipment is an important part of the treatment regimen [1, 4, 7].
Of course, an orthopedic device must always be prescribed by a specialist. Because, it is an aid that acts and influences the function of the locomotor system, it can harm the patient can lead to progression of the damage. It is therefore necessary that the technician who equips the patient with orthopedic aids understands the work well and is sufficiently prepared in the field of craftsmanship.
For the technician to be able to determine the correct functional type of orthosis and its optimal design, he needs to be able to assess the overall physical condition of the patient, or the affected segment. Basic examination methods, which include manual muscle testing (MMT), range test (ROM) and sensory testing, thus provide the technician with important information for an individual design of the structure and structure of the device [1, 8, 9, 10]. This knowledge, combined with the technical skills required in the manufacturing process and installation of these devices, lead to successful outcomes for patients [1, 4, 7].
Depending on the type of orthosis, the location of its action, the type of treatment, a combination of different materials (metals, plastics, leather, composites, foams, rubber and other materials) is chosen. The material is often selected to achieve the desired clinical result, while guaranteeing the required technical strength and environmental resistance [3, 10].
The choice of material for a given design depends in part on an understanding of the basic principles of mechanics and materials, force concepts, deformation and failure of structures under load, improving the mechanical properties by heat treatment, the manufacturing process and also has an impact on the proper functioning of the orthotic device. Among the traditionally used materials we can mention metals (connecting materials), they are also plastics, textiles, rubbers and leather have a wide range of uses. Development of new materials, especially the possibility of using new composite materials (plastic matrix with reinforcing fibers), which provide better mechanical properties and aspects of biocompatibility [3].
When using plastics, a distinction is made between low and high temperature plastics, while their use depends mainly on the location for which the orthosis is intended and the purpose of its use. In the area of the forearm and hand, low-temperature thermoplastics are usually sufficient, which can be modeled directly on the patient’s body surface after heating to the working temperature (60 to 70° C). Especially orthoses intended for the fixation of affected joints, it is suitable to use either high-temperature thermoplastics, or low-temperature thermoplastics, but with a greater thickness (3.2 mm). These types of upper limb orthoses are also produced by lamination, but they are mainly those that are intended for long-term application in permanent disabilities. Large progress is being made mainly due to the wide range of materials currently available to the orthopedic technician. The ability to produce custom devices with very complex accuracy has improved the customization of the devices. Materials with a high strength-to-weight ratio have made the equipment lighter and materials that bend smoothly have improved achievable functions and performance. Knowledge of materials helps the technician in the production process and in the use of new techniques, such as additive production. As technologies and materials are constantly advancing, it is important that the orthopedic technician is constantly informed about innovations, technological procedures and materials, so that he can provide the patient with adequate care for progress [3].
Upper limb orthoses are manufactured using plastics, while the production of low-temperature and high-temperature thermoplastics has a significantly different technological process. With low-temperature thermoplastics, processing is faster and easier. A shape is cut from the plastic or cut out according to the choice of the orthosis, which is then heated to a temperature of 60 to 70°C (depending on the thickness of the material and its properties). The material can be heated to the operating temperature in either a water bath or by dry heating. After isolation of the patient’s body, the plastic is formed directly on the limb, where the knowledge and experience of an orthopedic technician are necessary for the final position of the segment of the affected segment to be correct. Gypsum positives are used as a basis for the production of orthoses from high-temperature thermoplastics. However, before starting the plastering itself, it is necessary to fill in the measurement sheet. For an orthopedic technician, it is important to assess the range of motion in terms of mobility in a targeted way to create a design for a functional orthopedic device. Based on the initial examinations, the maximum correction position of the given segment is assessed. According to the required function of the orthosis, the maximum correction position of individual segments and its time tolerability are determined. If the joints are physiologically loaded, the properties and construction of the orthosis must not change this loading situation. When plastering in practice, plaster bandages are most often used, which are attached to the limb that will be plastered and shaped at the same time. It is important to pay attention to the load points and correct the shape before the plaster hardens. It is also very important to draw landmarks and painful areas on plastered parts of the body. When removing a plaster cast, it is very important to note and mark all bone growths (bumps) that protrude to the surface or are well palpable under the skin, as some of them are important landmarks. They are marked with a dermo-graphic pencil so that they are well pressed onto the gypsum casting. Although the casting itself is in principle accurate, if the patient moves or adjustments are not made correctly, this will affect the shape or function of the orthosis. This is the case when the skill of an orthotist is shown. With the gypsum positive finished, it is necessary to decide whether to use a high-temperature thermoplastic or to make the orthosis by lamination [5, 11].
The techniques used to make traditional metal and leather orthoses and thermoplastic orthoses have not changed. What has changed is where these devices are made and whether they are made for a specific patient or mass-production. In the search for production efficiency and cost savings, along with the limitations of established production technologies, many prosthetics manufacturers have chosen the “multi-model for all” approach. They basically create several different standardized sizes and a neutral look (in terms of color, texture, etc.). Using these so-called stencils, thousands of aids are produced every year.
Due to developments in data collection and software development, the use of computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), including additive manufacturing (AM), has increased for orthoses. At present, CAD/CAM methods are available for the smallest orthotic workplaces and can be used to speed up assembly as well as to facilitate off-site production in a specialized production center [5].
In order to achieve the optimal clinical result of the application of orthoses, it is necessary to make compromises in the field of choice of materials and individual components from which the choice of production method and assembly is derived [3, 8].
The innovation of the technological process of making an orthosis may consist in the use of modern technologies in the collection of measurements and subsequent conventional production or in the modernization of the entire process of data obtainment or production. The innovation of the technological process of collecting measurement data consists in the use of 3D scanning and computer processing of scanned data into a 3D model, which replaces the gypsum positive and the subsequent use of subtractive or additive methods of positive production. In this way, we get the basis either for drawing high-temperature thermoplastic or for the following lamination process (conventional production). The innovation of the entire technological process of orthosis production also consists in digital sampling of measuring data (3D scanning) and subsequently a specific shape of the orthosis is designed in the relevant software, which is manufactured using additive technologies. Due to the cost of the purchase price of digital imaging equipment and subsequent subtraction or additive production, large companies provide the possibility of external design and production of aids, while the orthopedic technician takes the appropriate specified measures necessary for production. The process of obtaining measurement data for “branded”, i.e. the orthoses patented by the manufacturer, has been simplified by using developed measuring tools. Their use in practice is conditioned by the training of the staff who gather these measurements and their use reduces the risk of error in production. This increases the adjustment and function of the orthoses and reduces the number of aids that need to be redesigned. Despite many advances in materials and manufacturing techniques, clinical judgment and the technical skill of the orthopedic technician in the conservative treatment of the patient remain the most important elements in creating a well-equipped, highly functional orthosis [3, 5, 10].
The modern approach to the creation of devices begins with the digitization of the human body and its parts in order to obtain input data from the patient’s body for the needs of modeling an orthopedic device in CAD software, following its final production. In the hands of experts, this innovative method replaces the unpleasant and time-consuming plastering. Thanks to this technological process, it is possible to achieve greater accuracy, speed of device production, a new level of comfort for the patient and functionality for the field of ortho-prosthetics. Two techniques are used for data collection: measurement and scanning. The data is processed by a computer program that creates a three-dimensional image of the model. The technician then converts the data and image to adjust the positive model. Software tools allow the practitioner to accurately apply a wide range of adjustments, including bends, rotations, scaling, alignment, and adding pressures or reliefs [5].
Digitization brings to the system of orthopedic practice better control over the creation of the device and at the same time respects the know-how of the traditional method of production and the creativity of the orthopedic technician.
In general, digitization allows:
non-contact, immediate and comfortable obtainment of measurement data via a 3D scanner,
modification of the model thanks to a CAD software,
the finished 3D model of the device can be made in an innovative way of production.
Most of the software used for the design of orthopedic aids use features such as templates and macros (pre-recorded sequences of adjustments) of selected orthosis designs, which further speed up design work and ensure consistency. Other features focus on the design of the final device, not just the positive form. The information is exported to a CAM machine, which is used to manufacture a modified positive model that will be used to make the orthosis [5].
The creation of digital models also brings other possibilities how to analyze possible problems that may arise as a result of design, choice of material and in connection with the production process. The computer definition of the product to be manufactured includes all dimensions and material [3, 10].
The production of positives by the subtraction method can be realized by means of multi-axis milling machines and robotic arms. The control of multiple milling cutters is simpler, but it is possible to produce mostly only less complicated shapes, which means that they are suitable for the production of models of the forearm, shoulder, or elbow joint, but not detailed models of the hand and fingers. There is a need to use robotic arms that can incorporate even the details of the positive. The semi-finished model for production can be gypsum or polyurethane blocks of material, of different sizes depending on the location. Polyurethane blocks are usually produced in different densities according to the purpose of subsequent use.
Although CAD/CAM production is currently widely available, high initial costs (scanner, software, milling machine, 3D printer) limit its use even in small orthopedic and prosthetic operations. This leads to the centralized production of orthotic devices, but it also brings limitations in the use of this technology. This also leads to new problems arising from the fact that the experts themselves do not have control over the actual construction of the equipment, as this is done by technicians at a remote production site [10].
A general feature of additive manufacturing (AM) methods is that the production is not carried out by removing the material as in a milling machining, but by gradually adding the material in the form of powder or melt in small layers. The basic principle of 3D printing is that the computer interpretation of the object serves as a direct input to the 3D printer, which creates the required physical object without special tools [12].
Thanks to AM, it is possible to produce such products that are otherwise unusable, or their price would be very high. For parts manufactured by AM, the complexity is not what the final price is based on, it is mainly based on the material used and its properties and accuracy of 3D printing. The second big advantage is production without molds and tools. The third advantage is the possibility of production from demanding, problematic materials.
There are several ways of 3D printing, which differ in technology, materials used, print speed, accuracy and strength of products or price.
At present, various 3D printing technologies are available, with material extrusion and SLS technology having the greatest application and use in the field of prosthetics and orthotics.
FDM (Fused deposition modeling) is the most common and widely used 3D printing technology today. It is an extrusion 3D printing, in which models and prototypes are formed by layering step by step from various non-toxic thermoplastic materials. The plastic fiber is guided to the printer head, where it is melted and applied in layers that gradually solidify.
The material used in the SLS (selective laser sintering) and SLM (selective laser melting) printing methods is in the form of a powder (plastic, metal, ceramic or glass powder). The printer applies a layer of powder material to the substrate by means of a built-in roller, over which a laser (for example a laser based on carbon dioxide) moves, which selectively welds it into the lower layer. Subsequently, the roller applies another layer of material until a complete 3D model is created. The resulting models are characterized by high strength.
Orthoses made with additive technologies require postprocessing, which most often consists of surface treatment (roughness, appearance, polishing, painting, painting, etc.), which differs depending on the technology used. With FDM technology, it is advised to smooth out the layers that remain present to the print to a greater or lesser extent. The need for postprocessing in the case of SLS printing is significantly reduced compared to FDM technology.
Mohammed et al. [13] reported that 3D scanning method of positives obtainment and CAD design of splints is quicker, non-invasive and provides greater accuracy in reproduction. On the other hand, they also report that AM splint requires longer fabrication time, which is still acceptable but less than desirable with respect to it potentially meaning an additional visitation by a potential patient. The disadvantage of longer production time is also reported by Buonamici et al. [14], however, they suggest the adoption of modern method due to the incredible benefits in terms of weight, expected comfort, breathability and the possibility of washing the immobilized segment. Barios-Muriel et al. [15], Fitzpatrick et al. [16] and Chen et al. [17] also support this theory. Li et al. [18] proposed a splint design method, which reduces the duration of the modeling phase and reduces the manufacturing phase by using multiple 3D printers to produce individual parts of the orthosis. When comparing production costs of orthoses produced by AM or conventionally, in an analysis done by Fernandez-Vincente et al. [19] the cost of AM thumb orthoses is reduced by a half compared to the traditional method of production. When producing larger orthotic devices, Redaelli et al. [20] reported that the AM fabrication of back braces can provide a valid alternative to the current fabrication methods. The overall production time from initial scanning to delivery to the patient took approximately a full working day, similarly to what is required by the thermoforming process. However, the total man-hours are reduced because of the minimal supervision necessary during the 3D printing. The cost of the AM back brace is therefore competitive compared to the production cost of a thermoformed back brace, that typically ranges from 250 to 500 euros due to the long labor time. Also, Hale et al. [21] found out that scanning to delivery of an individual AM neck brace, which takes approximately 6 weeks to produce by the traditional way, was approximately 72 hours, and the production costs of both methods is comparable.
These facts confirm the practical application of modern methods in orthoses production. The goal of this study is to apply these modern methods in the production of individual arm and forearm orthoses and propose a methodology.
3D scanning technology, specifically the Artec Eva (Artec 3D, Luxembourg, Luxembourg) handheld scanner, was used to create the positive of the patient’s upper limb segment. A handheld scanner is a device that constantly creates images of an object by creating real-time images of the scanned object in the software of the given scanner. Using this modern method of data acquisition, we can generate a 3D model of the patient’s body segment, for which an orthosis will be designed. One of the advantages of a handheld 3D scanner is that the device is compact, lightweight, portable and requires only 1 person and a laptop to operate.
The subjects´ arm and forearm were scanned with the entire upper limb being abducted with 30° rotation in the shoulder joint and 100° flexion in the elbow joint, with the thumb in opposition to the fingers and wrists at a 10° to 20° extension, and the elbow placed on a table for better support (Figure 1). All subjects had sufficient strength to hold the segment in position for the time which the area of interest was scanned. The scanning frequency was set to 8fps (frames per second) and no errors occurred during the positives obtaining. For this experiment, as seen in Figure 2, the arm and forearm of 10 adult subjects were scanned and processed.
Arm and forearm scanning process.
Obtained models of 3D scans.
The Autodesk Meshmixer (Autodesk, Inc., San Rafael, CA, USA) software was used to create a digital model of the orthosis. It is a freely available modeling software in which it is possible to create and edit 3D objects. The shape of the device was sketched directly on a 3D model of a patient’s upper limb segment, which we obtained by 3D scanning. When creating the contour of the device, we had to consider the coverage of the area of the segment sufficient for the orthosis to secure the wrist, thumb and the overall attachment of the device to the forearm.
The sketch of the orthosis’ surface was then copied and placed on the 3D positive to create a 0.5 mm gap between the device and the area of interest. The creation of such a gap, or “offset”, is important so that after the application of a real device to a given segment, there is no surface pressure, which would result in negative effects on the patient’s upper limb. We can correct the size of the gap regarding whether a bio-compatible lining, which eliminates skin irritation, will be applied to the orthosis (Figure 3).
Orthoses design process.
After creating a copy of the orthosis surface and applying the offset, the material thickness was set. Thickness of 2 mm was chosen when designing the orthosis. The thickness and choice of material is important in terms of strength and flexibility to avoid damage during use and repeated application to the given segment.
In the last step, the surface and edges of the model were smoothened, and the design of the final model was revised. Ten individual orthoses were designed and produced using FDM additive manufacturing technology.
All models were manufactured on the Fortus 450mc (Stratasys Ltd., Rehotov, Israel) professional 3D printer using ABS-M30i bio-compatible polymer with a T16 tip and SR-30 support material with a T12SR30 tip. Since this printer has pre-set printing parameters for individual materials, the settings were not edited. Printing settings are listed in Table 1.
Slice height | 0,010 mm |
---|---|
Infill | 100% |
Part interior style | Solid |
Visible surface | Normal |
Support style | Box |
Printing settings.
All models were printed one-by-one and positioned on the removable printing plate, which is stuck on the printer bed with the dorsal side oriented on the bottom (Figure 4).
Fortus 450mc 3D printer (left) and an example of an orthoses manufactured by this machine (right).
After the manufacturing process, the printing plate was removed from the printer, all orthoses have been manually extracted and the support structures have been thoroughly removed. Final orthoses, as seen in Figure 5, have not been post processed chemically, or sand blasted.
Final orthoses.
All orthoses were 3D scanned in order to compare them to their actual 3D models. The Artec Eva scanner was used for this process. Individual orthoses have been fixed in a clamp by their proximal end and positioned vertically in order to capture the external and internal surface of the models (Figure 6).
3D scanning of the final orthoses.
The scanning frequency was set to 8 fps (frames per second) and no errors occurred during the positives obtaining. Scanning of 1 orthosis took approximately 10 minutes, where the scanning took approximately 5 minutes and the postprocessing of the acquired data also 5 minutes. While postprocessing the acquired data in Artec Studio13 (Artec 3D, Luxembourg, Luxembourg), artifacts surrounding the 3D scan have been constantly generating when fixing the holes in the scan. To eliminate these defects, hole filling in the software has been disabled and the scan processing has been finished in Meshmixer software, where the scans were converted to solid models (Figure 7).
Model of the scan generated from Artec Studio13 (1) and solidified 3D model of the scan (2).
The edges of individual models have not been smoothened to preserve the generated shape. After the finalization, all 3D models of the scans were compared to their actual STL models in VGStudio MAX (Volume Graphics, Germany) software.
When comparing actual to nominal models we must first determine what models we are comparing. The first step was to find out if there is a difference between the models generated from the 3D scanner software and digitally solidified 3D scan models. One of these 2 models was then chosen as the actual model. These models of the orthoses were then compared to their nominal models, which are the original orthoses models designed in Autodesk Meshmixer. After the actual to nominal model comparison, the thickness of the orthoses was also verified.
As a result, an orthosis design methodology is proposed. Time consumption of individual steps of this process has been recorder to calculate the average length of orthosis production by modern technologies.
Overall duration of the scanning and data postprocessing of individual subjects is summarized in Table 2. Based on these results the average duration of the arm and forearm scanning is 2 minutes and 20 seconds, and the duration of data postprocessing is 5 minutes and 20 seconds. While scanning the area of interest no complications and errors have occurred. All collected data has satisfactory quality of the surface necessary for orthosis design.
Subject | Scanning (mm:ss) | Postprocessing (mm:ss) |
---|---|---|
Subject 1 | 02:49 | 05:50 |
Subject 2 | 02:30 | 05:23 |
Subject 3 | 02:36 | 05:32 |
Subject 4 | 02:27 | 05:33 |
Subject 5 | 02:15 | 05:47 |
Subject 6 | 02:21 | 05:12 |
Subject 7 | 02:02 | 05:05 |
Subject 8 | 02:12 | 04:49 |
Subject 9 | 02:05 | 05:09 |
Subject 10 | 02:09 | 04:58 |
Subject scanning and data postprocessing duration.
No extra modifications of the scan 3D models were necessary during the orthosis design phase. Thanks to this fact, the design process of orthoses took approximately 3 minutes. Design duration for each orthosis is summarized in Table 3.
Orthosis model | Design duration (mm:ss) |
---|---|
Orthosis 1 | 03:12 |
Orthosis 2 | 03:20 |
Orthosis 3 | 03:05 |
Orthosis 4 | 02:58 |
Orthosis 5 | 02:52 |
Orthosis 6 | 03:13 |
Orthosis 7 | 03:07 |
Orthosis 8 | 02:53 |
Orthosis 9 | 03:23 |
Orthosis 10 | 03:16 |
Orthoses design duration.
When positioning individual orthoses models on the virtual building platform of the 3D printer, the software automatically calculates the volume of the used model material, support material and the overall time of production. Average volume of model material used for the orthosis production is 65,94 cm3, 57,40 cm3 of support material and the average time of production is 5 hours and 18 minutes. These data are summarized in Table 4.
Orthosis | Model (cm3) | Support (cm3) | Time (hh:mm) |
---|---|---|---|
Orthosis 1 | 60.91 | 65.33 | 05:22 |
Orthosis 2 | 55.23 | 50.43 | 04:58 |
Orthosis 3 | 63.25 | 34.60 | 04:30 |
Orthosis 4 | 72.87 | 70.33 | 06:31 |
Orthosis 5 | 70.85 | 63.29 | 05:37 |
Orthosis 6 | 77.58 | 71.48 | 05:56 |
Orthosis 7 | 58.56 | 59.67 | 05:05 |
Orthosis 8 | 69.47 | 49.41 | 05:03 |
Orthosis 9 | 75.67 | 61.74 | 05:51 |
Orthosis 10 | 55.04 | 47.68 | 04:25 |
Orthoses printing parameters.
The results of comparing models generated from the 3D scanner software and digitally solidified 3D scan models shows that from the deviation in the range of ±0.050 mm the models are identical. Only differences are on the edges of the models. An example is shown in Figure 8. Digitally solidified scan models were chosen for the actual to nominal comparison.
Original scan model and solidified scan model comparison with a detail on the edge of the model.
In Table 5 the average deviation of solidified scan models to actual scanned models are summarized. To evaluate the differences between the actual scan model and the solidified model, the maximum deviations for 75%, 90% and 95% surface coverage were determined. These data indicate that for e.g. 95% of all values are the maximum deviation. By the deviation values of Orthosis 4 all comparisons have a deviation of less than 0.01 mm at 75% coverage, so there are only minimal changes compared to the actual model. At 90% this value is less than 0.03 mm and at 95% less than 0.08 mm. In these cases, the sets of deviations are already affected mainly by deviations caused by the closing of edges of the solidified model and possible defects.
Orthosis model | Average deviation [mm] | 75% deviation [mm] | 90% deviation [mm] | 95% deviation [mm] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Orthosis 1 | −0.0110 | 0.0058 | 0.0131 | 0.0319 |
Orthosis 2 | −0.0120 | 0.0059 | 0.0129 | 0.0290 |
Orthosis 3 | −0.0110 | 0.0063 | 0.0124 | 0.0345 |
Orthosis 4 | −0.0057 | 0.0078 | 0.0286 | 0.0793 |
Orthosis 5 | −0.0110 | 0.0068 | 0.0132 | 0.0300 |
Orthosis 6 | −0.0075 | 0.0059 | 0.0128 | 0.0290 |
Orthosis 7 | −0.0098 | 0.0057 | 0.0120 | 0.0317 |
Orthosis 8 | −0.0097 | 0.0076 | 0.0194 | 0.0527 |
Orthosis 9 | −0.0095 | 0.0063 | 0.0153 | 0.0362 |
Orthosis 10 | −0.0096 | 0.0052 | 0.0103 | 0.0284 |
Average variation values of solidified scan models to actual scanned models.
When designing orthoses, the wall thickness was set to 2 mm. The actual thickness was measured in the “Wall thickness module” of VGStudio MAX. As a result of the analysis, the actual values range from 2.006 mm to 2.097 mm and the standard deviation is less than 0.24 mm (Table 6).
Solidified orthosis model | Average [mm] | Standard deviation [mm] |
---|---|---|
Orthosis 1 | 2.031 | 0.190 |
Orthosis 2 | 2.042 | 0.134 |
Orthosis 3 | 2.040 | 0.224 |
Orthosis 4 | 2.054 | 0.231 |
Orthosis 5 | 2.065 | 0.196 |
Orthosis 6 | 2.006 | 0.157 |
Orthosis 7 | 2.027 | 0.163 |
Orthosis 8 | 2.097 | 0.234 |
Orthosis 9 | 2.082 | 0.154 |
Orthosis 10 | 2.047 | 0.174 |
Actual wall thickness values.
When the scan model is compared with the actual orthosis model, it is necessary to perform their mutual alignment before performing the analyzes, as the scanned orthosis has a different coordinate system than the designed model created in the Meshmixer software. Due to the shape of the orthosis (absence of planes and simple shapes such as cylinders, etc.), their mutual alignment is possible using the Best-fit and RPS methods (reference positioning system). When using the RPS method, the Best-fit of the objects is the first step, and second the subsequent transfer of points to the current model (orthosis scan), after which the alignment itself is performed. The Figure 9 shows an example for Best-fit alignment and RPS alignment. The figure above compares the scan of the orthosis to the solid model using the Best-fit method and below using the RPS method.
Best-fit alignment (up) and RPS alignment (down).
Figure 10 shows the deviations between the two methods of alignment. It can be seen from the histogram (Figure 11) that the deviations are almost symmetrical with respect to zero, i.e. the two alignments are rotated relative to each other, which can also be seen in the figure.
Deviation between the best-fit and the RPS alignment.
Histogram representing the deviations of the 2 alignment methods.
Significant differences in models (orthosis shape) do not allow the distribution points to be distributed on all orthoses in the same way. To eliminate the effect of point placement for RPS alignment, the orthosis scan model and actual model were aligned with each other using the Best-fit method.
Table 7 shows the data for the average deviation of the original individual orthoses model with respect to the solidified model. To evaluate the differences between the solidified scan model and the original orthosis model, the average deviation value and the maximum deviations for 90% and 95% surface coverage were determined. The average value of the deviation is close to zero and thus the distribution of deviations has the character of a normal (Gaussian) distribution. The average value for 95% coverage is 0.419 mm and 95% coverage 0.576 mm.
Orthosis | Average deviation [mm] | 90% deviation [mm] | 95% deviation [mm] |
---|---|---|---|
Orthosis 1 | 0.006 | 0.69 | 0.86 |
Orthosis 2 | 0.013 | 0.24 | 0.33 |
Orthosis 3 | 0.037 | 0.26 | 0.38 |
Orthosis 4 | 0.026 | 0.30 | 0.46 |
Orthosis 5 | 0.011 | 0.73 | 0.90 |
Orthosis 6 | −0.001 | 0.46 | 0.57 |
Orthosis 7 | 0.022 | 0.15 | 0.22 |
Orthosis 8 | −0.014 | 0.81 | 1.25 |
Orthosis 9 | 0.041 | 0.32 | 0.43 |
Orthosis 10 | 0.033 | 0.23 | 0.36 |
Average deviations of the original model to the solidified scan model.
To control the quality of production, the thickness of the orthosis over its entire surface was also evaluated. The results in Table 8 show that the average thickness is 1.956 mm and the standard average deviation is 0.206 mm. Compared to the nominal solidified model, the average wall thickness of the actual manufactured orthosis is smaller by 0.0931 mm and the value of the standard deviation is greater by 0.0203 mm, which are negligible differences.
Orthosis | Average [mm] | Standard deviation [mm] |
---|---|---|
Orthosis 1 | 1.95 | 0.20 |
Orthosis 2 | 1.95 | 0.13 |
Orthosis 3 | 1.94 | 0.27 |
Orthosis 4 | 1.94 | 0.27 |
Orthosis 5 | 1.97 | 0.19 |
Orthosis 6 | 1.97 | 0.18 |
Orthosis 7 | 1.97 | 0.18 |
Orthosis 8 | 1.93 | 0.28 |
Orthosis 9 | 1.97 | 0.17 |
Orthosis 10 | 1.97 | 0.19 |
Average thickness values of the orthoses surface.
Duration of the inspection and verification process has not been recorded, since it is not a part of the design methodology. Only the results of this process are relevant.
When developing custom orthoses by modern technologies it is necessary to follow the steps of the method proposed in this study. First important step is the positive obtainment. Method of 3D scanning has shown to be very practical, fast, clean, precise and comfortable for the subject and the scanning staff. Working with a handheld 3D scanner is very intuitive and simple. Only 1 person and a laptop or a PC is required for the scanning process. Since the scanner is portable, it is not necessary that the subject must be in a special work environment. This fact is very important, if the subject is immobile or has movement difficulties and it’s a great advantage when compared to the traditional plastering method. The positives obtainment with the postprocessing of the acquired data took less than 10 minutes average, which is much quicker than the traditional way.
Body segment positioning before scanning is important. It is necessary to stabilize the segment of interest in order to capture the desired shape. It depends on what physical health the subject is in. If the subjects have movement restrictions or have weak body strength, it is important to provide them some form of support or stabilize the scanned body segment with the help of an assistant. The assistant can help stabilize the subject, but must support the areas, which are not important for orthosis development. When scanning subjects with no movement or force limitations it is still helpful to give them some type of support, for example, in this study the subjects had their elbow joint resting on a desk, while the arm and forearm had been scanned.
Artec Eva 3D scanner, which has been used in this study is an expensive, professional scanner used mainly for scanning larger objects and structures in mechanical, design, architectural, automotive and similar industries. Nevertheless, it is also applicable in prosthetics and orthotics. In one of our studies [22], we concluded that a high-end 3D scanner is not necessary and that low-cost scanners can capture important body segments with sufficient precision for orthosis development.
Capturing the segment in its correct shape is mandatory when designing an orthotic device. If the scanned model has defects, deformities or other artifacts it cannot be used as a positive. The original model must be clean and precise so that there’s no editing needed. If the 3D model of the scan is edited, it could end up in a difference between the surface of the orthosis and the body surface, which would lead to an incorrectly designed aid.
One of the objectives was to use an open-source 3D modeling software. We chose Autodesk Meshmixer, as it has functions suited to prosthesis and orthosis design. In a few easy steps it is possible to design simple orthoses suited for additive manufacturing. The design process of an arm and forearm orthosis in this software took less than 4 minutes. The interface is very clear and organized and the user does not need any special training. However, when designing medical devices, it is necessary that a skilled prosthetist operates the software. Main disadvantage of the software is that it does not have medical certification, so the models should be used only for educational and research purposes.
Choosing the correct material for the production is important from the point of manufacturing and application. Since the orthoses are meant to fix and stabilize the arm and forearm and skin contact is unavoidable, the used material needs to be strong and biocompatible. Also, the Fortus 450mc printer uses cartridges of materials suited only for this type of printer, so the range of materials is limited by the manufacturer. For these reasons the ABS-M30i has been chosen as the most suitable material. Other materials like PETG or PLA can be used for orthosis production [20], but since this 3D printer does not support these materials, they were not chosen for this study.
All models have been positioned with the dorsal side facing the printer bed. The meaning of this was to avoid support generation on the inner shell of the models to minimize support material volume and reduce postprocessing difficulty. Support structures on the inner shell could also deform the surface during the production process. From the results of the nominal to actual comparison of some models it is clear that the parts of the models that arch above the inner shell have deformed during printing. For this reason, it is advised to put support structures even on the inner shell of the models to avoid deformation.
The maximum time length of an arm and forearm orthosis produced by high or low-temperature thermoforming set by the public insurance company in Slovakia is 5 and a half man-hours. The manufacturing of a single 3D-printed individual orthosis took less than 5 and a half hours. When we add the average time of actual labor, which was approximately only 10 to 15 minutes, the whole process took less than 6 hours, which is the approximate time of an orthosis production by conventional methods for a single patient. This means, that by using proposed innovative methods, the technician can save time and design other orthotic devices, while the previous ones are producing. This time length can vary depending on the technologies used in single steps, or the number of models being developed. Duration of conventional and proposed production of arm and forearm splints is summarized in Table 9.
Method | Duration (hh:mm) | Cost (euro) |
---|---|---|
Conventional | 05:30 | 166.00 |
Proposed (modern) | 05:28 | 70.00 |
Production duration and cost of conventional and modern arm and forearm orthoses.
From the results of the analysis we can see that the difference between the produced orthosis and the 3D model is negligible from the point of view of orthotic application. After postprocessing and application of straps and maybe lining, these orthoses are fully functional and ready to use.
Since the manufacturing technology used in this study is a high-end, professional 3D printer, it is possibl e for hospitals, or prosthetic workshops, to produce their orthoses externally. Price of 1 orthosis, considering the material and applied technology, is approximately 70 euros. The maximum cost of an arm and forearm orthosis produced by high or low-temperature thermoforming set by the public insurance company in Slovakia is 166 euros (including materials, technology and man-hours). This means that there is a 96-euro gap between the conventional orthosis price and the 3D-printed orthosis manufacturing cost. This gap can be used to compensate the scanning, designing process and labor payment. Cost of conventional and proposed production of arm and forearm splints is summarized in Table 9.
If these institutions can acquire their own low-cost 3D scanner and maybe a 3D modeling software, the development process is faster, simpler and more practical, which means that the amount of produced individual orthotic devices grows. This is a favorable state not only for these institutions, but mainly for the patients themselves.
The proposed methodology, which contains orthoses design and additive manufacturing, is an adequate method for orthoses production. This method could also be used for design and manufacturing of individual prosthetic sockets for lower or upper limb prosthesis, trunk orthoses, orthotic seating systems and disability aids.
An orthoses development methodology using modern technologies has been proposed. Whole process consists of positives obtainment using a 3D scanner, orthosis design in a 3D modeling software and production using additive manufacturing technology. This methodology has been analyzed and verified by reverse engineering in an adequate software with data obtained by a proper 3D scanning device. In conclusion, it can be stated, that the proposed methodology is suitable for the use in orthotic practice.
In the future, it is planned to compare different results gained by applying other types of 3D scanners and 3D printers in the development process. The use of different types of materials is also possible if other 3D printers are used. Orthoses manufactured from different types of materials can be mechanically tested to determine, which material is most suitable for this application.
The present article was elaborated under the support received from the project APVV-19-0290, KEGA 041TUKE-4/2019, KEGA 023TUKE-4/2020 and Stimulus for research and development 12/2018-2112/2021.
All authors declare no conflict of interest.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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Afterwards, we prepared and pre-processed data to classify servers and hosts by their behavior. We concluded that it is possible to say that deeper analysis is possible thanks to Zabbix monitoring system and its features like Open-Source core, documented API and SQL backend for data. 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Previous researches stated the various characteristics of Chinese labor market. However, with rapid development, the labor market in China has some new and unpredicted changes in recent years. With the comprehensive, rigorous, and consistent data investigated from 2000 to 2015, which come from the National Bureau of Statistic of China (NBSC), this paper does a descriptive research on verification of common features stated in the previous literature, disclosing some new features and changes of current Chinese labor market. These features include the following: (1) the average wage in society keeps increasing with a relative decrease of return to education; (2) the old pattern of labor mobility, from rural area to urban area, is steady; however, the growth rate of urban population keeps decreasing, and the mobility of labor forces showed significant regional inequality; (3) the effectiveness and conduction of labor law and regulation are challenged by labor market segmentation caused by informal employment; and (4) the labor force participation rate (LFPR) in China keeps stable after 2010, with four different definitions. This paper designs a new way of measurement of informal sectors and indicates that the labor force participation rate in China is steady, not declining, after 2010. This analysis not only provides a complete understating of the current Chinese labor market but also indicates the potential impact and problem caused by these new and changing features of Chinese labor market for researcher and policy-maker.",book:{id:"6449",slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Yajun Meng",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57132",title:"Prepaid Voice Services Based on OpenBTS Platform",slug:"prepaid-voice-services-based-on-openbts-platform",totalDownloads:1623,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This article describes the design and implementation of prepaid voice services based on OpenBTS platform. By using various programming languages and open-source software tools, we can integrate prepaid voice services with this system, so its functionality is resembled as much as possible the operation of traditional GSM network provider. This article also provides description of how customers will approach their billing services, how they will access their accounts and pay their invoices.",book:{id:"6449",slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Ladislav Behan, Lukas Orcik, Filip Rezac, Ivan Baronak and Jerry\nChun Wei Lin",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57128",title:"Employing Monitoring System to Analyze Incidents in Computer Network",slug:"employing-monitoring-system-to-analyze-incidents-in-computer-network",totalDownloads:1230,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Today, network technologies can handle throughputs or up to 100 Gbps, transporting 200 million packets per second on a single link. Such high bandwidths impact network flow analysis and as a result require significantly more powerful hardware. Methods used today concentrate mainly on analyses of data flows and patterns. It is nearly impossible to actively look for anomalies in network packets and flows. A small amount of change of monitoring patterns could result in big increase in potentially false positive incidents. This paper focuses on multi-criteria analyses of systems generated data in order to predict incidents. We prove that system generated monitoring data are an appropriate source to analyze and allow for much more focused and less computationally intensive monitoring operations. By using appropriate mathematical methods to analyze stored data, it is possible to obtain useful information. During our work, some interesting anomalies in networks were found by utilizing simple data correlations using monitoring system Zabbix. Afterwards, we prepared and pre-processed data to classify servers and hosts by their behavior. We concluded that it is possible to say that deeper analysis is possible thanks to Zabbix monitoring system and its features like Open-Source core, documented API and SQL backend for data. The result of this work is a new approach to analysis containing algorithms which allow to identify significant items in monitoring system.",book:{id:"6449",slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Lukáš Macura, Jan Rozhon and Jerry Chun-Wei Lin",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57130",title:"Mobile Probe for Cellular Network Coverage and Quality Measurement",slug:"mobile-probe-for-cellular-network-coverage-and-quality-measurement",totalDownloads:1359,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This article describes a proposal of the probe application used for 2G–4G mobile network coverage and speech quality measurement. It is based on Android platform, most commonly used operation system for mobile phones. Measured results are visualized in the form of a map using GPS location. There are few tests available focusing on the applications that are most often used: test of the network coverage, speed of the websites loading, data rate test and voice quality test. The results are analyzed directly in the application and are also available over the web interface form. Individual results can be exported to standard output .csv, .json and .xml formats for further analysis.",book:{id:"6449",slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"David Vasicek, Martin Mikulec, Erik Gresak, Filip Rezac and Erik\nChromy",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]},{id:"57112",title:"Traffic Management by Admission Control in IMS Networks",slug:"traffic-management-by-admission-control-in-ims-networks",totalDownloads:997,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The paper deals with traffic management in IP multimedia subsystem (IMS) networks. The aim of this article is ensuring quality of service (QoS) in IMS network. Admission control (AC) is used to manage incoming traffic and to prevent the network congestion. The main function of AC is to maximize the utilization of network resources and to ensure the level of QoS. AC was applied on constant bit rate (CBR) and variable bit rate (VBR) traffic. Three methods were chosen for VBR traffic and they were compared. The last part of the article deals with simulations CBR and VBR traffic before and after application of AC.",book:{id:"6449",slug:"proceedings-of-the-3rd-czech-china-scientific-conference-2017",title:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the 3rd Czech-China Scientific Conference 2017"},signatures:"Ivan Baroňák, Michal Čuba, Chien-Ming Chen and Ladislav Beháň",authors:[{id:"200987",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaromir",middleName:null,surname:"Gottvald",slug:"jaromir-gottvald",fullName:"Jaromir Gottvald"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"120",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. 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The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11967,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. 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He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. 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She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11969,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. 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He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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David Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEI9QAO/Profile_Picture_1623656213532",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama in Huntsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72920/images/system/72920.jpeg",institutionString:"Dalarna University, Faculty of Data and Information Sciences",institution:{name:"Dalarna University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"bookSubject",path:"/subjects/120",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"120"},fullPath:"/subjects/120",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()