\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups:
\r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics.
\r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour.
\r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production.
\r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production.
\r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). From 1988 to 1992, he worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition (Agricultural University in Wageningen). In 1992 he obtained a PhD degree in animal nutrition from the University of Wageningen.He has authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters). He edited 3 books and 14 international conference proceedings. His total number of citation is 407. \r\nHe is member of various committees e.g.: American Society of Animal Science (ASAS, USA); the editorial board of the Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A- Animal Science (Norway); KRMIVA, Journal of Animal Nutrition (Croatia), Austin Food Sciences (NJ, USA), E-Cronicon Nutrition (UK), SciTz Nutrition and Food Science (DE, USA), Journal of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology (NJ, USA), Current Research in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences (USA). From 2015 he has been appointed chairman of World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).\r\nHis main research areas are related to pig and poultry nutrition: elimination of harmful effects of heat stress by nutrition tools, energy- amino acid metabolism in livestock, relationship between animal nutrition and quality of animal food products (meat).",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"25",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"17450",title:"Life Cycle Assessment in Municipal Solid Waste Management",doi:"10.5772/20421",slug:"life-cycle-assessment-in-municipal-solid-waste-management",body:'\n\t\tIntegrated Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management is a tedious task requiring the simultaneous fulfilment of technical, economical and social constraints. It combines a range of collection and treatment methods to handle all materials in the waste stream in an environmentally effective, economically affordable and socially acceptable way (McDougall, 2001). Due to the complexity of the issues required for effective integrated MSW management, various computer-aided approaches that help the decision makers reach their final decision have been engaged since the early days of integrated MSW management. Any computer-based system supporting decision making is defined as a DSS (Finlay, 1989). DSS incorporate computer-based models of real life biophysical and economic systems. There are two main categories of DSS applied to solid waste management: the first one, based on applied mathematics, emphasises application of statistical, optimisation or simulation modelling. The second category of DSS provides specific problem-solving expertise stored as facts, rules and procedures. In addition, there are also hybrid approaches.
\n\t\t\tRecently, there has been a major shift towards Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) computer-aided tools. LCA is a holistic approach that is increasingly utilised for solid waste management especially in the decision-making process and in strategy-planning. LCA can be categorised as a hybrid approach since it utilises equations for inventory analysis and recycling loops on the one hand, while on the other it requires expertise input for impact assessment and characterisation.
\n\t\t\tLife Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a holistic approach that quantifies all environmental burdens and therefore all environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of products or processes (Rebitzer et al. 2004). LCA is not an exact scientific tool, but a science-based assessment methodology for the impacts of a product or system on the environment (Winkler & Bilitewski 2007). It is increasingly utilised for solid waste management systems especially in the decision-making process and in strategy-planning. LCA has been utilised for sustainable MSW management since 1995 (Güereca et al. 2006). LCA is an ideal tool for application in MSW management because geographic locations, characteristics of waste, energy sources, availability of some disposal options and size of markets for products derived from waste management differ widely (White et al., 1997; Mendes et al., 2004). LCA can help reduce local pressures and waste management costs, while considering the broader effects and trade-offs felt elsewhere across society (Koneczny and Pennington, 2007).
\n\t\t\tThe LCA procedure has been standardized in 1998 and revised in 2006 (ISO 14040, 2006). Based on this standard, LCA consists of the following four sections:
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope definition,
Life cycle inventory (LCI),
Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA),
Life cycle interpretation.
The objective of this chapter is the critical presentation of recent peer-reviewed research articles dealing with various stages of MSW management using the LCA methodology. In each article the main LCA components are presented (Goal and scope, functional unit, main assumptions, data sources for the compilation of the LCI, LCIA categories) in addition to the main conclusions of the study. Based on this review, conclusions are drawn for answering the key chapter question “What have we learned from the application of LCA to MSW?”
\n\t\tThe application of LCA in MSW management is a very challenging task due to the following reasons:
\n\t\t\tEvery single waste management facility is considered a priori as environmentally friendly. However, solid waste management facilities require land (a lot of land in the case of landfills), consume non renewable natural resources for their operation (e.g. fuels and electricity) and emit a series of air pollutants and leachates. Therefore, waste management facilities put an environmental burden of their own on the natural environment. The trade-offs between environmental gains and burdens have to be assessed.
Solid waste management facilities on the other hand generate a lot of useful “products”; Material reclamation facilities produce different sorts of paper and cardboard, glass, plastics, etc. A mechanical biological treatment facility generates RDF, which can be used as a solid fuel in cement kilns for example, and compost which can be used as a fertilizer substitute. Thermal treatment facilities, the so called waste-to-energy, produce electricity and heat. Therefore, solid waste management facilities have to be credited for all those useful “products”.
There is a great deal of uncertainty in a lot of the major solid waste treatment processes. The lack of quality data with respect to waste management practices is a recognized problem of LCA (McDougall, 2001). Landfilling, the most widely used MSW management option, has a lot of uncertainties related to the time frame of the impacts. Obersteiner et al. (2007) report that data relating to processes with direct measurements (such as collection, recycling and treatment) are more reliable than data from landfills which partially have to be modelled and where estimations are necessary.
The life cycle of MSW is depicted in Figure 1 by the dotted line. The LCA system boundary is the interface between the waste management system and the environment or other product systems. The life cycle starts once a material or product becomes waste, i.e. its owner discards it in the waste collection bins. MSW is collected either via mixed-bags or via separate collection. Each collection method requires its own infrastructure, i.e. dedicated bins and collection vehicles. The transportation stage follows. In the MSW management system of developed countries, the mixed bag waste can either go to the landfill, the waste-to-energy facility or to the Mechanical Biological treatment plant (MBT). The source-separated waste, if it is a dry stream (paper and cardboard, plastics, glass, tin, aluminium, etc.), can go to the material reclamation facility or if it is a wet stream (kitchen leftovers, garden trimmings, etc.) can go directly to the biological treatment facility.
\n\t\t\tThe complete life cycle of MSW
In every management stage, products are presented in green boxes while residues from each management stage end up in the landfill. The end of the life cycle of MSW is when it ceases to be waste by becoming a useful product, residual landfill material or an emission to either air or water (McDougall, 2001). Landfill, therefore, is an end of the MSW life cycle. The production of useful products resulting from material or energy recovery is also an end of the life cycle of MSW. Figure 1 presents all possible routes for MSW management. This does not imply that each waste stream undergoes every management and treatment step. Please also note that Fig. 1 does not present the resources consumed and the emissions in each management step.
\n\t\t\tIn the following paragraphs, each one of the aforementioned management stages is discussed and the necessary data for the implementation of their life cycle inventory are presented.
\n\t\tLCA assesses the use of resources and the release of emissions to air, water, land and the generation of useful products. All these inputs (material and energy resources) and outputs (emissions and products) have to be identified and quantified during the life cycle inventory (LCI) phase of the LCA. In the following sections, the most important LCI components of each management stage are identified and presented. Inputs from natural resources and output emissions are identified in red colour while the useful products in green. The functional unit (FU) is the reference to which the inputs and outputs are related (ISO 14040, 2006).
\n\t\t\tCollection of MSW can either be in mixed bags or in separate bins. Mixed bag collection is the most widely applied method; however separate collection is a prerequisite for successful material recovery. Fig. 2 presents the inputs and outputs to the collection and transport stages of MSW management. The inputs are MSW and the materials and energy for the required infrastructure (MSW temporary storage containers and vehicles needed for collection and transportation). The outputs of these processes are again MSW (with altered physical properties such as density) and air, water and solid emissions.
\n\t\t\t\tLife cycle inventory components for the collection and transportation stages.
The following parameters must be taken into account for the compilation of an effective LCI in the collection and transportation stages of an LCA:
\n\t\t\t\tSelective collection system,
Material of containers (HDPE, steel and fiber glass),
Collection frequency,
Distance covered,
Type of collection truck (pneumatic, top loader, rear loader, side loader),
Fuel of collection truck (diesel, natural gas),
Density of the waste fractions in containers and collection trucks,
Size of containers,
Filling percentage of the waste containers.
Life cycle inventory components for the MBT plant.
Mechanical and biological treatment is a process that generates many useful “products” (see Fig. 3). Its inputs include mixed-bag MSW, electricity, fuels (e.g. diesel and natural gas), water and materials for the required infrastructure (e.g. lubricants and strapping). The outputs are recovered metals (Fe and Al), RDF (which ultimately can be used as an energy source), compost (which can substitute chemical fertilisers), emissions to air and water and finally a fraction of residue that ends up in the landfill.
\n\t\t\tThe major inputs and outputs considered when compiling the LCI of an incineration plant are the following (see Fig. 4): MSW, electricity, other fuels (diesel, natural gas or even coal), water and activated carbon (for air pollution control), are the major inputs. On the other hand, the outputs are: flue gas (HCl, SO2, NOx, dioxins, CO, PM10, HF), bottom ash, iron scrap, electricity generated, water discharge and air pollution control residues.
\n\t\t\t\tLife cycle inventory components for an incineration plant.
The key factors in modelling incineration in LCA terms are (Chen & Christensen, 2010): incineration technology (e.g. grated firing, fluidized bed), the heating value of MSW (specified by the MSW composition), the use of auxiliary fuel (type and amount) and leachate disposal methods (e.g. spraying, wastewater treatment).
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 5 presents the major inputs and outputs for the life cycle inventory of MSW biological treatment. There are two processes included under the term “biological treatment” in MSW management: composting and anaerobic digestion. The biodegradable fraction of the MSW is involved in both of the aforementioned processes. Composting is an aerobic process. The degradable organic carbon in the MSW is converted into CO2.
\n\t\t\t\tLife cycle inventory components for biological treatment.
Landfilling is the first and oldest MSW treatment option. The types of landfilling facilities, all over the world, range from uncontrolled dumpsites to highly engineered facilities with leachate and lanfill gas (LFG) management. Fig. 6 presents the major inputs and outputs for the life cycle inventory of landfilling. When MSW is landfilled directly, anaerobic biological degradation produces landfill gas and leachate. Over 90% of the converted organic carbon is released as CO2 and CH4. The remainder is released in the leachate (Obersteiner et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tLife cycle inventory components for landfilling.
Environmental impacts arising from landfills are: leachate (heavy metals and organic loading), emissions into the air (CH4, other hydrocarbons), the energy inputs (fuel and electricity) and material inputs for the construction of the engineered landfills (HDPE, clay, gravel, top soil).
\n\t\t\tWaste management systems require capital equipment and infrastructure for their operation, in addition to inputs of energy and materials. All of these equipment and infrastructure consume natural resources and release emissions to the environment during their respective life cycles. These emissions, also known as secondary environmental burdens, tend to be excluded from LCAs of MSW since they are assumed to be relatively small in comparison to primary burdens (McDougall et al., 2001).
\n\t\t\tAll of the reviewed studies appeared recently in peer-reviewed journals. They are presented in chronological order starting from the oldest. They are comparative LCAs that evaluate the consumption of natural resources, environmental emissions and/or performance of various types of MSW management systems. The MSW management stages considered in the reviewed publications are the following:
\n\t\t\tCollection and transport,
Material recovery via separate collection, material recovery facilities or the application of MBT technology,
Thermal (mostly incineration) and biological treatment (both composting and anaerobic digestion) treatment,
Final disposal via landfilling.
\n\t\t\t\tMendes et al. (2004) examine the management of the biodegradable MSW fraction in Sao Paulo, Brazil.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of the study was to compare composting, biogasification and landfilling. The scope included the analysis of 5 scenarios:
\n\t\t\tlandfilling,
landfilling with energy recovery,
composting,
composting followed by gas treatment (compost with biofilter) and
biogasification.
Functional unit: the treatment and disposal of 1 ton of MSW
\n\t\t\tLCI: the main sources of data were published Japanese LCA reports
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: None
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: Emissions from the construction of facilities were not included in the study because they are assumed to be small compared to those released during the operational stage of the facilities.
\n\t\t\tLCIA: based on 3 impact categories: global warming potential, acidification potential and nutrient enrichment potential.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: Landfilling was the scenario with the highest environmental impacts, except in the case of acidification potential, in which composting presented the highest potential. Composting without gas treatment presented higher environmental impacts than biogasification. Finally, both composting and biogasification can decrease significantly the impacts compared to landfilling. The authors also mention that both waste composition and carbon intensity of energy sources are very important factors to the outcome of the environmental impact of an MSW management system.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tBeigl & Salhofer (2004) compare different waste management systems of rural communities in the region of Salzburg in Austria.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of the study was to compare the ecological effects and costs of different waste management systems in a selected rural area in Austria. The scope of the study included 3 scenarios: scenario 1 included recycling by collection in the bring system; scenario 2 included recycling by kerbside collection; scenario 3 was non-recycling.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: the amount of communal waste generated annually
\n\t\t\tLCI: data from the actual practices of collection and treatment were used.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: IWM
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: Switzerland in 1997 was chosen as the area and year of reference for comparison purposes due to the lack of Austrian data
\n\t\t\tLCIA: The impact categories examined were the global warming potential, the acidification potential and the net energy use. However, no life cycle impact assessment phase was included, therefore the study is not really an LCA.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: Kerbside collection is ecologically better than collection in the bring system because the specific fuel consumption is lower for collection transports than that for individual transports. With regard to acidification and net energy use, the recycling of metals plays an important role.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tHischier et al. (2005) study the application of LCA on the management of a certain fraction of MSW, namely the waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The examination in environmental terms of the two Swiss take-back and recycling systems of SWICO (for computers, consumer electronics and telecommunication equipment) and S.EN.S (household appliances).
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: All activities linked with the disposal and recycling of WEEE accumulated over one year (2004) in Switzerland.
\n\t\t\tLCI: Data are derived from the two separate WEEE recycling systems that operate in Switzerland: the SWICO Recycling Guarantee and the S.EN.S system. Each of these systems covers different parts of WEEE. The two systems are well established in Switzerland; In 2004 the systems yielded the recycling of 11 kg of WEEE per inhabitant, a figure well over the goal of 4 kg of WEEE recycled defined in the European WEEE directive.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: None
\n\t\t\tLCIA: Based on the impact categories from the CML methodology were used.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: The take-back and recycling system for WEEE as established in Switzerland has clear environmental advantages, compared to the complete incineration of all WEEE.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tHong et al. (2006)\n\t\t\t\t apply LCA to study MBT application in China.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: Comparison of the environmental impact potential of five different alternative waste treatment strategies:
\n\t\t\tlandfill,
incineration,
Biological and mechanical treatment (BMT)-compost,
BMT-incineration and
BMT-landfill. In scenario 3, MSW is firstly pre-treated by BMT and then be composted.
Functional unit: Treatment of 2200 t/day of MSW in the Pudong New Area, in Shanghai, China.
\n\t\t\tLCI: The primary data come from the incineration plant, the biological compost plant, the landfill yard and Pudong Environmental Protection Bureau.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: none
\n\t\t\tLCIA: Based on three impact categories: global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP) and eutrophication potential (EP).
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: The results of LCA show that the incineration process of MSW presents the highest acidification potential while the landfill presents both the highest global warming and eutrophication potential.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tÖzeler et al. (2006) study various MSW management methods for Ankara, Turkey.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of the study was the comparison among five scenarios that included different municipal solid waste processing and/or disposal methods. The management system components considered in the scenarios were: collection and transportation of MSWs, source reduction, material recovery facility/transfer stations, incineration, anaerobic digestion, and landfilling.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: The amount of municipal solid waste generated in the districts of Ankara.
\n\t\t\tLCI: The data collection and preparation were mainly based on information provided by the Solid Waste Management System of Ankara.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: IWM-1
\n\t\t\tLCIA: The IWM-1 model is an LCI model; therefore there is no explicit LCIA phase
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: The scenario which included source reduction, collection, transport and landfilling was the one with minimum contribution in all the impact categories but global warming and FSW, due to the source reduction process and subsequent recycling of the sorted materials in addition to less solid waste input to landfill.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tWanichpongpan & Gheewala (2007) examine the landfill gas-to-energy conversion in Thailand.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of the study was to evaluate the reduction potential of methane gas emissions from MSW landfill. The scope of the study included two scenarios:
\n\t\t\tScenario 1 included a single landfill using the methane emitted for electricity production.
Scenario 2 included two small landfills without electricity production and with flaring of the collected methane
Functional unit: 1 ton of collected MSW
\n\t\t\tLCI: data from municipalities were collected for the MSW collection and transportation. The Landfill Gas Emissions Model (LandGEM) was used for the quantification of air emissions from landfills. The UNFCCC guidelines were also used.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: None
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: Leachate treatment is not included as it is common to both scenarios. Emissions from the construction of facilities are also not included since they are assumed small compared to those of the operating facilities.
\n\t\t\tLCIA: the only impact category of interest to the authors was the global warming potential.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: centralized landfills are viable with landfill gas-to-energy projects and preferable over the current management system of small landfills.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tChaya & Gweewala (2007) examine the MSW-to-energy schemes in Thailand.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal was to compare the performance of two MSW-to energy schemes, incineration and anaerobic digestion, in terms of environmental impacts and energy balance.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: 1 ton of MSW managed
\n\t\t\tLCI: data for incineration were obtained from a plant in Phuket in South Thailand. For anaerobic digestion, data were obtained from technical manuals and refereed literature.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: SimaPro 5
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: transportation, construction and maintenance of the plants, and recycling were not included in the study.
\n\t\t\tLCIA: Based on the Ecoindicator 95 ready-made method
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: MSW anaerobic digestion was preferable to incineration. This was partly because more than 60% of the waste is biodegradable and thus suitable for anaerobic digestion.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tButtol et al. (2007) examine the MSW management system of the Bologna district in Italy.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The scope of the study was to compare different MSW management options in the Bologna district. The scope of the study included 3 different scenarios: scenario 1 is based on the current MSW practices; scenario 2 anticipates a strong increase in the fraction sent to incineration with energy recovery, the percentage increasing from 30% to 50% of the total MSW; scenario 3 anticipates a fraction sent to incineration equal to 37% of the total waste and a separated collection equal to 31%.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: The collection and treatment of 566,000 tons of MSW, which correspond to the annual generation in the district of Bologna for 2006
\n\t\t\tLCI: Data were obtained from the actual MSW management operations in Bologna
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: WISARD
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: Are made on every management step, i.e. incineration with energy recovery, landfilling with energy recovery, composting, sorting and recycling.
\n\t\t\tLCIA: Based on the following impact categories: greenhouse effect, air acidification, eutrophication, depletion of non-renewable resources, ecotoxicity (sediment, terrestrial, aquatic), human toxicity.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: There is a clear environmental benefit in increasing recycling and incineration with energy recovery.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLiamsanguan & Gheewala (2008) examined two methods of MSW for the island of Phuket, Thailand.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: the goal of the study was the comparison of 2 waste management methods used currently for MSW management in the island of Phuket, namely landfilling (without energy recovery), and incineration (with energy recovery). The scope of the study was the comparison in terms of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: 1 ton of MSW treated
\n\t\t\tLCI: Information about energy consumption of the MSW management systems was collected from the actual processes at the study site. Emission factors used were based on refereed literature and commercially available databases (BUWAL 300, ETH-ESU).
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: None
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: The treatment of landfill leachate was not included in the study because its energy and resource requirements are negligible. Transportation of MSW was also not included in the study because it is common to both MSW management systems.
\n\t\t\tLCIA: this study is based just on the life cycle inventory, therefore it is not really an LCA
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: Incineration was found to be superior to the landfilling. However, landfilling reversed to be superior when landfill gas is recovered for electricity production.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tIriarte et al. (2009) applied LCA to compare systems or subsystems of waste management and treatment and to identify which areas require an improvement in terms of environmental performance.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The main objective of the study was to compare the overall environmental impacts of three selective collection services of MSW in dense urban area:
\n\t\t\tmobile pneumatic,
multi-container, and
door to door systems.
Functional unit: The provision of the selective collection service of 1500 tons a month of MSW generated in an urban locality with a density of 5000 inhabitants/km2, in a European setting, considering a rate of theoretical recovery of 100% for the following fractions: organic, paper, packaging and glass by means of the aforementioned three selective collection systems.
\n\t\t\tLCI: The data of the operations and infrastructure of the selective collection systems have been obtained from the field work of the members of the group, management reports and waste management programmes, container companies, waste collection truck suppliers and suppliers of pneumatic waste collection systems.
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: The main assumptions of the study refer to the fraction densities, the equipment and infrastructure, consumption of resources in waste transport and differences in the values of impact categories.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: SimaPro 7.0.2
\n\t\t\tLCIA: Based on the CML 2 baseline 2000 method.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: The collection system with the least impact is multi-container collection. The mobile pneumatic system has the greatest environmental impact in the categories of global warming, fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, acidification and eutrophication. The door-to-door system has a greater environmental impact in the categories of abiotic depletion, ozone layer depletion and human toxicity. In addition, the door-to-door system has the highest energy demand. This result is mainly due mainly to the waste urban transport associated to its longer collection routes. However, the authors claim that the low environmental performance of the door-to-door collection system should be seen in a wider context, since it delivers higher recovery rates of waste compared to the other collection options.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCherubini et al. (2009) compare selected waste disposal alternatives in a life cycle perspective, considering both landfill systems, where no recycling takes place, and systems which are able to minimize the amount of landfilled waste while maximizing material and energy recovery.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of this study is to provide a transparent and comprehensive environmental evaluation of a range of waste management strategies for dealing with mixed waste fractions in the city of Roma, Italy. Regarding the scope of the assessment, four different waste management strategies are investigated:
\n\t\t\tScenario 0: wastes are delivered to landfill without any further treatment;
Scenario 1: part of the biogas naturally released by the landfill is collected, treated and burnt to produce electricity;
Scenario 2: a sorting plant is present at landfill site for separation of the organic and inorganic fractions and for ferrous metal recovery. Electricity, biogas and compost are then produced on site;
Scenario 3: wastes are directly incinerated to produce electricity.
Functional unit: The amount of waste produced in a year (2003) by the city of Roma, which must be disposed of: 1460 kton of wastes contained in the so-called “black sacks” (i.e. pre-sorted and recycled wastes not included).
\n\t\t\tLCI: Data were compiled from selected references.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: SimaPro 7.1
\n\t\t\tLCIA: based on global warming potential, acidification potential and eutrophication potential.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: Results show landfill systems (scenarios 0 and 1) are the worst waste management options and that significant environmental savings are achieved from undertaking energy recycling.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tDe Feo & Malvano (2009) study various MSW management scenarios in Southern Italy.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The aim of this study was to apply the LCA procedure to MSW management on the Province of Avellino in Italy in order to choose the “best” management system in environmental terms. The MSW management scenarios considered can be divided into two categories: the first includes scenarios that are based on the incineration of the dry residue, while the second does not consider the thermal treatment of dry residue.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit:
\n\t\t\tLCI: All the data necessary for the construction of the analysed scenarios were deduced from the Province of Avellino and the two MSW management companies.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: WISARD
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: The facility for the production of the RDF was simulated as an MBT plant.
\n\t\t\tLCIA: The 11 impact assessment categories applied are: renewable energy use, non-renewable energy use, total energy use, water, suspended solids and oxydable matters index, mineral and quarried, greenhouse gases, acidification, eutrophication, hazardous waste, non hazardous waste.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: The selection of the best scenario depends on the impact category examined. More specifically the scenario that includes 80% separate collection, no RDF incineration and dry residue sorting was the most preferable for the following six impact categories: renewable energy use, total energy use, water, suspended solids and oxydable matters index, eutrophication and hazardous waste. On the other hand, the scenario with 80% separate collection and RDF production and incineration is preferable for the following three impact categories: non-renewable energy use, greenhouse gases and acidification. Finally, the scenario with 35% separate collection, RDF production and incineration is the most preferable for the mineral and quarried matters and non-hazardous waste impact categories.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tBanar et al. (2009) study various MSW management methods for Eskisehir, Turkey.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of the study was to analyse and evaluate different alternatives that can be implemented to enable the targets required by the European Landfill and packaging and Packaging Waste Directives for solid waste management in the city of Eskisehir, Turkey. The scope of the study included the development of five alternative scenarios to the current MSW management system, which is uncontrolled dumping.
\n\t\t\tScenario 1 is an improved version of the current system assuming a 92.7% landfilling;
Scenario 2: A source separation system with efficiency 50% was added as an improvement to scenario 1. The recyclables obtained from source separation were sent to the MRF;
Scenario 3: The flow of recyclables is similar to scenario 2, while the organic fraction from the MRF is transported to the composting facility.
Scenario 4: An incineration process was added instead of a composting facility. All organic wastes and the wastes from the separated recyclables are transported to the incinerator (85%);
Scenario 5: all MSW is sent to the incineration facility (100%).
Functional unit: The management of 1 ton of MSW of Eskisehir.
\n\t\t\tLCI: Data were gathered from actual applications in Eskisehir, literature and the database of SimaPro 7.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: SimaPro 7
\n\t\t\tLCIA: Based on 6 impact categories included by the CML method, namely: abiotic depletion, global warming, human toxicity, acidification, eutrophication, and photochemical oxidation.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: Recycling of materials leads to lower abiotic depletion. Also, the scenarios that include recycling (S2, S3 and S4) are better than the others in terms of human toxicity (mainly due to the recycling of aluminium). Scenario 3 is the best option in terms of global warming, acidification (because of the displacement of fertiliser), eutrophication and photochemical ozone depletion.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tKhoo (2009) compares various waste conversion technologies in Singapore.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of the study is to compare various waste conversion technologies in Singapore. The scope of the study includes a total of eight waste treatment options for converting an assortment of waste types, including MSW, scrap wood and tyres, organic wastes and RDF into synthetic gas or product gas. All of the technologies are based on pyrolysis and gasification.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: 1 ton of product gas produced from the assortment of waste materials
\n\t\t\tLCI: Data for the 8 technologies are compiled from various reports
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: None
\n\t\t\tLCIA: based on the EDIP 2003 methodology, the following impact categories are reported: global warming potential, acidification potential, terrestrial eutrophication and ozone photochemical formation.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: Pyrolysis-gasification of MSW and the steam gasification of wood are the most favourable candidates in terms of environmental performance.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tWittmaier et al. (2009) apply LCA in waste utilization systems in an unnamed region in Northern Germany
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of the study was the assessment of the thermal treatment of waste in respect to climate change for various waste treatment systems. The scope included 2 scenarios.
\n\t\t\tScenario 1 was a conventional thermal treatment, i.e. a waste incineration plant with stroker-fired furnace and multistage flue gas cleaning.
Scenario 2 was termed as optimized energy recovery and included the specific preliminary separation of the waste materials through mechanical treatment, followed by a subsequent conventional thermal treatment of the separated lower calorific waste fraction as described in Scenario 1. In both scenarios, the landfilling of combustion residues was defined as a further element of the system.
Functional unit: The treatment of 198,000 tonnes of MSW which correspond to the annual amount generated in the district
\n\t\t\tLCI: Data were compiled from literature and actual operations in Germany
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: GaBi 4
\n\t\t\tLCIA: The only impact category studied was the global warming potential
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: The analyses presented in this study show that the thermal treatment of waste in a waste incineration plant can reduce emissions of greenhouse gases compared with depositing the same amount in a landfill, by half. Moreover, a further reduction of the greenhouse gases emissions can be achieved by the energetic utilization of waste with increased calorific value, which could not otherwise be advantageously used in a waste incineration plant.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tRives et al. (2010) compare container systems in MSW. The authors state that the selection of a particular type of waste container by an institution corresponds, in the majority of the cases, to economic or aesthetic criteria, but never to environmental ones. Therefore, the aim of their study is to analyse the potential environmental impact of fourteen MSW container systems, using LCA. The difference among the systems lies in the individual characteristics of the containers, especially the volume and weight of the manufactured materials.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The objective as to compare and quantify the environmental impact of different MSW waste collection containers, based on their volume and manufacturing material.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: The storage of collected and unsorted municipal solid waste (MSW) during the day, in an average neighbourhood of 1000 inhabitants, with a Spanish average waste generation of 1.47 kg/inhabitant/day and a density of waste container of 106 kg/m3.
\n\t\t\tLCI: Nine HDPE and five steel containers were studied, ranging in volumes of 60 l to 2400 l.
\n\t\t\tAssumptions:
\n\t\t\tMSW containers were completely full, containing identical composition of MSW,
unsorted waste collection was carried out on a daily basis, and
all waste generated was collected unsorted.
Software used: SimaPro 7.1
\n\t\t\tLCIA: Based on the CML 2 baseline 2000 method. The impact categories considered are: Abiotic depletion potential (ADP), Global warming potential (GWP), Ozone layer depletion potential (OLDP), Acidification potential (AP), Eutrophication potential (EP), Photochemical oxidation potential (POP), Human toxicity potential (HTP), Terrestrial ecotoxicity potential (TEP)
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: A steady reduction in materials was observed as the volume of the waste container increases, for both the HDPE and steel containers. More specifically, the analysis showed that in order to satisfy the functional unit, the smaller volume HDPE container systems (60 l and 80 l) had the greatest environmental impact. This was true for the majority of the impact categories, except for the EP and HTP categories in which the 660 l and 770 l steel containers had the greatest impact.
\n\t\t\tA comparison of MSW containers of the same volume and different materials was carried out too. It was observed that HDPE container systems have 1.5-9 times greater environmental impact than the steel containers in most of the category impacts except in the EP, POP and HTP categories. Collection systems that use 2400 l steel waste containers have the least environmental impact.
\n\t\t\tFinally, sensitivity analysis showed that there is a direct dependence among the filling percentage of waste container, the waste collection frequency, the waste generation per capita and the density of the waste container’s contents.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tChen & Christensen (2010) assessed the environmental profile of two MSW incineration technologies that are commonly used in China.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of the study is the comparison between two incineration technologies with semi-dry flue gas cleaning for treating MSW in southern China, namely grated firing and fluidized bed. The scope of the study included nine different scenarios based on the aforementioned incineration technologies.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: 1 ton of waste arrived at the incineration plant
\n\t\t\tLCI: based on the databases of the software used
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: EASEWASTE
\n\t\t\tLCIA: Based on the EDIP 1997 method. The important impact categories related to incineration are: global warming (100 years), acidification, nutrient enrichment, human toxicity via soil, water and air, ecotoxicity, bulky waste, photochemical ozone formation, slag and ashes.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: for MSW with Lower Heating Value high enough for self-maintained combustion (e.g. as high as 6.05 MJ/kg) the fluidized bed incineration without coal consumption saves more potential impacts than grate furnace incineration technology for most of the evaluated impact categories.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAbduli et al. (2010) compare 2 different MSW management scenarios in Tehran, Iran.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of the study was to compare the environmental impacts of two MSW management practices. The scope was to compare landfill (scenario 1) and composting plus landfill (scenario 2) for the management of MSW in the city of Tehran.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: 1 ton of MSW
\n\t\t\tLCI: Data gathered from actual applications in Tehran, literature and the database of LandGem model are used
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: None
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: Landfill has a gas collection system with 50% collection efficiency
\n\t\t\tLCIA: Seven impact categories are considered to be representative of the potential environmental impact of MSW management in Tehran: climate change, acidification, respiratory effect, carcinogenesis, ecotoxicity, ozone layer depletion and surplus energy for future extraction.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: The study shows that scenario 2 (composting plus landfill) has a higher environmental impact compared to landfilling, despite the fact that the fraction of organic waste in MSW is quite high (67.8%)
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tMiliūtė & Staniškis (2010) apply LCA on the MSW management systems in Lithuania.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal of the study was to compare different waste management options for the MSW in the region of Alytus, Lithuania. The scope of the study included 5 different scenarios:
\n\t\t\tScenario 1 was based on landfilling;
scenario 2 included recycling, composting and landfilling;
scenario 3 was based on recycling, composting, MBT and incineration;
scenario 4 was based on recycling and incineration while
scenario 5 included recycling, MBT and incineration.
Functional unit: the MSW generated in one year (2005): 45,150 tonnes
\n\t\t\tLCI: waste composition data were extracted from empirical studies in the region of Alytus. Data were also extrapolated from official Lithuanian statistics. The data on incineration processes are based on the average Swedish technologies.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: WAMPS
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: The time boundary of the study was set at 10 years. Assumptions are made for all the waste management options (incineration, landfilling, composting, recycling) of the study.
\n\t\t\tLCIA: based on 4 impact categories: global warming, acidification, eutrophication and photo-oxidant formation
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: Landfilling gives the worst environmental results compared to the other waste management options. Furthermore, when it comes to the biodegradable waste fraction, aerobic composting is not a better option compared to incineration with energy recovery in all impact categories.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tMorris (2010) compares waste-to-energy (WTE) and landfill (LF) gas for electricity generation in North America in terms of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: there are two goals in the study: the first one is to compare WTE and LF in terms of their climate impact; the second one is to compare MSW, natural gas and coal for power production in terms of climate impact.
\n\t\t\tFunctional unit: for the comparison of Waste-to-energy and landfilling the FU is 1 metric ton of MSW shipped from a transfer facility to LF or WTE for disposal; for the comparison of the GHG releases for power production from MSW, natural gas and coal the FU is the amount of fuel required to produce 1 kilowatt hour (kWh)
\n\t\t\tLCI: data are based on three different levels of North American geographic specificity: the city of Seattle, the metropolitan area of Vancouver and the state of Massachusetts.
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: None
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: GHG emissions from construction of capital and operating equipment are not included in either inventory.
\n\t\t\tLCIA: the only impact category considered is climate change
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: The author defines the “crossover rate” as the LFG capture rate at which burning and burying have equal GHG emissions. Above the crossover rate, LF has lower GHG emissions than WTE. Below the crossover rate, WTE is better for the climate. Seattle and Massachusetts crossover rates are higher than Metropolitan Vancouver, mainly due to to Seattle and Massachusetts MSW having lower fossil carbon content, which results in lower WTE fossil CO2 emissions. Regarding the comparison for power generation, natural gas is the best option. WTE emissions are lower if LCA system boundaries are expanded to include offsets for recovering scrap metals from WTE bottom ash.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tFruergaard & Astrup (2011) compare waste-to-energy technologies in Denmark.
\n\t\t\tGoal and scope: The goal was to compare two different waste-to-energy technologies (co-combustion in coal-fired power plants and anaerobic digestion) with mass burn incineration with and without energy recovery. The scope of the study included two different waste fractions:
\n\t\t\ta high calorific fraction (SRF) suitable for co-combustion and
organic waste suitable for biological treatment. In total 7 different combinations of WTE technologies and waste fractions were examined.
Functional unit: utilization of 1 tonne of SRF/organic waste for energy purposes, including collection and pre-treatment.
\n\t\t\tLCI: data were collected from refereed literature and operation of incinerators in Denmark
\n\t\t\tSoftware used: EASEWASTE
\n\t\t\tAssumptions: production of capita; goods was not included as their impacts were assumed to be of minor importance per tone of waste throughout the life cycle of the plants
\n\t\t\tLCIA: Based on the EDIP 1997 method. The impact categories are: global warming, acidification, nutrient enrichment, photochemical ozone formation, human toxicity via soil, water and air, ecotoxicity in water and in soil.
\n\t\t\tMain conclusions: Overall, waste incineration with efficient energy recovery proved to be a very environmentally competitive solution based on Danish conditions. Co-combustion of SRF at modern power plants appeared fully comparable provided that sufficiently well flue gas cleaning systems are installed. Anaerobic digestion of organic waste materials appeared less preferable overall.
\n\t\tBased on the 21 references reviewed in the chapter, the following conclusions can be drawn: LCA has been applied to various MSW management stages covering the whole MSW life cycle: 3 publications refer to collection (Rives et al., 2010; Iriarte et al., 2009; Beigl & Salhofer, 2004); 10 publications refer to integrated MSW management (Abduli et al., 2010; Miliūtė & Staniškis, 2010; Banar et al., 2009; Cherubini et al., 2009; De Feo & Malvano, 2009; Khoo, 2009; Liamsanguan & Gweewala, 2008; Buttol et al., 2007; Hong et al., 2006, Özeler et al., 2006); 6 publications refer to waste-to-energy schemes (Fruergaard & Astrup, 2011; Chen & Christensen, 2010; Moris, 2010; Wittmaier et al., 2009; Chaya & Gweewala, 2007; Wanichpongpan & Gweewala, 2007); Finally, there are 2 publications that deal with specific MSW streams: 1 for WEEE (Hischier et al., 2005) and 1 for the biodegradable fraction of MSW (Mendez et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\tRegarding the collection and storage of MSW, LCA revealed the following conclusions: smaller volume containers have the greatest environmental impact (Rives et al., 2010); HDPE containers have greater impact compared to steel (Rives et al., 2010); the multi container collection system has the least environmental impact while the door-to-door system has the greatest (Iriarte et al., 2009); kerbside collection is environmentally better than collection in the bring system (Beigl & Salhofer, 2004).
\n\t\t\tComing now to the integrated MSW management, the following conclusions were identified: landfills are the worst management options (Miliūtė & Staniškis, 2010; Cherubini et al., 2009; Wanichpongpan & Gweewala, 2007; Hong et al., 2006; Mendes et al., 2004); significant environmental savings are achieved from energy recovery (Fruergaard & Astrup, 2011; Cherubini et al., 2009; Khoo, 2009; Wittmaier et al., 2009; Liamsanguan & Gweewala, 2008; Buttol et al., 2007; Wanichpongpan & Gweewala, 2007); the same is true for material recovery, especially metals (Morris, 2010; Banar et al., 2009; Buttol et al., 2007; Özeler et al., 2006; Hischier et al., 2005); the selection of the best scenario depends on the impact category examined (De Feo & Malvano, 2009).
\n\t\t\tFinally, the waste-to-energy case studies, in addition to the aforementioned conclusions, reveal the following: energetic utilisation of waste with increased calorific value should be pursued (Wittmaier et al., 2009); the fluidized bed incineration without coal consumption saves more potential impacts than grate furnace incineration technology (Chen & Christensen, 2010); electricity from waste-to-energy incineration is not better than electricity from natural gas (Morris, 2010); waste incineration is preferable to anaerobic digestion for Fruergaard & Astrup (2011); however, the opposite is reported by Chaya & Geweewala (2007).
\n\t\tIt has been demonstrated that both asbestos and talc can and does cause diseases of the pleura [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Asbestos has been shown to cause the development of benign lesions in pleura termed pleura plaques [10]. These plaques have become a hallmark for asbestos exposure [10, 11, 12]. These lesions correlated with interstitial fibrosis of the lung parenchyma [2] and the development of lung tumors [13]. These lesions allow for attribution of asbestos as a causative factor in the development of lung tumors in the absence of interstitial fibrosis [12]. Pleural plaques is also a lesion that indicates asbestos exposure in the absence of interstitial fibrosis and/or lung tumors [12]. Asbestos has been shown to be the cause of tumors of the pleural lining, mesotheliomas [2]. It has been shown that mesotheliomas in men were mostly seen in those men with occupational histories of exposure to asbestos [14]. Similarly, it was demonstrated that the wives of these men that were exposed and women that worked with asbestos also developed the pleural plaques, interstitial fibrosis and mesotheliomas [4, 8, 15, 16]. It was understandable how the asbestos caused the lesions in the pleura of women working with the asbestos, however, it was not initially understood how the wives or children of workers developed these lesions until investigators looked at the clothing of the husbands and determined that they were bringing the asbestos home and the wives or children were exposed cleaning their clothes [15, 16]. However, only about 30% of all the mesotheliomas found in women could be attributed to exposure to asbestos [17]. The remainder of women with mesotheliomas were considered idiopathic because they could not be attributed to a specific asbestos exposure.
With that in mind, I will turn to talc as a cause of pleural diseases. It has been shown that talc causes pneumoconiosis [1]. In some people exposed to talc via inhalation, they have been shown to develop granulomatous lesions in the lung [1]. It was determined that these lesions were developed from a macrophage response directly due to the talc by finding the talc with the macrophages and giant cells in the lesions [18]. Based on the knowledge that the talc will cause a granulomatous reaction with fibrosis, pharmaceutical talc was being used in patients with pleural mesotheliomas who developed pleural effusions. The patients almost always developed pleural effusions with pleural mesotheliomas which had to be drained frequently. It was then determined and that by injecting the pharmaceutical talc into the pleural space, it would insight a granulomatous response which would fill the space between the visceral and parietal pleura with a granulomatous response followed by fibrosis alleviating the need to drain this fluid [19]. This occurred in 100% of the individuals that the talc was injected, as compared with a very low percentage of people getting talc granulomas from breathing talc [19].
It is the purpose of this chapter to further describe the effects of talc, particularly cosmetic talcum powders in the causation of diseases of the pleura. This includes the development of pleura plaques, granulomas and mesotheliomas.
It is important to understand how foreign materials such as cosmetic talcum powder can get to the pleura to cause diseases. For the particles contained in the cosmetic talcum powder to get to the pleura under normal circumstances after inhalation would be that these particles are phagocytized by macrophages of the lung and these macrophages enter the lymphatic system and are carried in two directions based on the drainage of the lymphatic system of the lung [20]. The macrophages are carried to the regional lymph nodes along the respiratory bronchial tree and up along the trachea. Alternatively, the lymph drains to the pleura. Another route, although not as good in distributing to the pleura is if the macrophages should enter the blood stream, mainly into the capillaries of the alveolar septa, at the peripheral gas exchange surfaces of the lung [20]. Under those situations, the talc can be taken anywhere in the body. The last way is that it is injected directly into the pleura, termed pleurodesis [21].
Once in the lung, lymph nodes or pleura, the particles induce reactions within cells which result in the production of cytokines, chemokines and oxidants, all of which are responsible for the inducing an inflammatory response and the mechanistic steps in the process of compensated healing or fibrosis [21]. The size of the talc particles appear to be critical to the type of response the cells and the tissue mount [22]. The particle size of cosmetic talc is significantly smaller than that used for talc pleurodesis and therefore the response is very different [22]. The inhalation or injection of this smaller cosmetic talc has a much greater detrimental effect by the inflammatory response it elicits [22].
Similarly, these same cells produce oxidants following activation by the presence of the components of the cosmetic talc powder in addition to producing cytokines, chemokines, IL-6 & 8; TGF-beta, which attract inflammatory cells as well as cells that produce fibrosis [23]. Oxidants are extremely reactive and have the ability to do significant damage to resident cells to cause injury to cells, stress the cells, and cause DNA damage [24]. Such DNA damage can and will cause mutations which can result in cancer development [24]. However, the release of chemokines which stimulate and attract other inflammatory cells, neutrophils, which further release similar factors as the macrophages and but most importantly, additional oxidants. Such mechanisms of injury has been shown over and over again to correlate with the development of cancer, specifically, the resident cells and therefore mesotheliomas [25]. These mesotheliomas in response to the talc has been attributed to contaminating asbestos [25, 26, 27]. However, in all the studies, whether looking at mortalities and percentage of mesotheliomas based on exposure to talc or epidemiological studies, there have been none in the past that actually put together all the components of age, sex, amount of exposure and documentation of tissue digestions of lungs, respiratory lymph nodes or abdominal organs, including ovaries to attribute the finding of talc and/or asbestos together. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude that asbestos was the only contributing factor. The talc may well be a contributing factor in both the development of the pleural plaques, mesotheliomas and abdominal mesotheliomas and ovarian cancers.
The author has now had the opportunity to evaluate approximately 100 plus cases of mesothelioma, pleural and abdominal, of both men and women with only a history of exposure to cosmetic talcum powder, some with exposure to a single cosmetic powder and others to multiple types. However, none of these patients have indicated, based on extensive histories, that there was exposure to occupational or para-occupational to a commercial asbestos or products containing added asbestos. There are a few cases where there may have been brief, single exposures to possible sources of products that may have contained asbestos. It is important to emphasize “brief” as compared to everyday if not multiple times per day exposure to cosmetic talcum powder. The logic only reflects that the cosmetic talcum powder would represent the overall, great majority of particles and fibers found in the lungs and lymph nodes in these patients and would dictate the source of these structures would be from the cosmetic talc rather than the brief potential exposure to another questionable unproven source. The findings of digestions of the lungs and the lymph nodes of the patients show basically all the same structures. Some of the cases are reported as a case study, which is currently under review. One study where that has been published describes the case and what was found in the digested tissue as well as the testing of the cosmetic talc and to correlate it with the potential to breathe both the asbestos fibers and the talc [28]. All of the patients have talc particles, aluminum silicates, some with magnesium, some with iron and some with both. There can also be silica crystals and fibers, silica, talc and aluminum silicates. Further, most of the patients also have asbestos fibers, primarily anthophyllite and tremolite. Even though it has been shown that many of the cosmetic talcum powder containers sold by at least one company also contained chrysotile type asbestos the chrysotile was never found. Based on the ability of the human cells to break the chrysotile down and dissolve it and or move it out of the initial sites, it would not be found in digestions done many years after exposure. The presence of either type of asbestos or both are reflective of the types and time frame of the cosmetic talcum powder used. The source of the talcum powder, meaning the mine source and location of the talc may result in the presence of the particles and fibers that contaminate the cosmetic talcum powders as it solidified millions of years before. It is not uncommon that over many years of use and exposure that it is possible for such exposures to be from multiple sources, mines. Therefore, it is not uncommon to find all of the particles and fibers present in most of these patients.
It is important to address the issue of what has been termed intergrowths. Some asbestos analysis laboratories do not confirm or report fibers that can be termed intergrowths. These intergrowths are attributed mostly to anthophyllite fibers. The most common source of such intergrowths has frequently been stated in courts across our country by lawyers and their expert witnesses that suggest the only source of these intergrowths occur where anthophyllite veins meet with talc deposits. This can be true, but more commonly talc is an integral component of anthophyllite all the time [29]. If a mineralogist looks at anthophyllite fibers by what has been termed zone-axis analyses where the anthophyllite is analyzed by tilting and rotating to find possible co-mingling of some talc with the anthophyllite and therefore making the false claim that it is an intergrowth making the fiber non-asbestos. This is also true for transitional fibers because portions of the fibers are anthophyllite. If that portion of the fiber is broken off there would be no way to distinguish it from any other frank anthophyllite fiber. However, it could be interpreted that the combination of primarily an anthophyllite fiber with the talc between the fibrils may be the perfect carcinogen based on action of both types of crystalline structures being present. It is also based on their abilities to cause inflammation by release of chemokines, the development of fibrosis by the release of cytokines and the development of cancer by direct mutation or the production of oxidants which can cause injury or mutation. Therefore, in spite of the fact that most every asbestos analysis laboratory uses selected area electron diffraction (SAED) as the gold standard for defining asbestos type and distinguishing it from a nonasbestos fibers, in this particular case, spending hours manipulating a fiber to show it may have a talc component is a ridiculous exercise knowing that the primary features of this structure represent an anthophyllite fiber and even if it has a small talc component, from a biologic standpoint the cell will see it as an anthophyllite asbestos fiber. This entire concept of an intergrowth is just detraction of reality by a laboratory trying to, in most cases, satisfy a defendant company trying to misrepresent other laboratory findings. However, from a mineralogic standpoint they are fine attributing such a fiber to that of an intergrowth, but it should never be excluded from being called an anthophyllite asbestos fiber. Therefore, the combination of morphology, EDS and flat plane SAED is sufficient to identify an anthophyllite fiber for the purposes of asbestos analysis in human tissues.
There have been many studies linking the use of cosmetic talc and the development of both mesotheliomas, plural and abdominal and ovarian cancer [10, 13, 30, 31]. Most of these studies are based on the patients’ reporting significant exposure to cosmetic talcum powder and no exposure to any other asbestos containing product. This leads us to two additional issues that have yet to be resolved: (1) Was the cosmetic talcum powder adequately contaminated with asbestos for the asbestos to be the causative factor all on its own or does the talc itself contribute to the process of tumor development? (2) In the past, there has been an extremely high rate of mesotheliomas in women, as much as 70%, that have been termed idiopathic. Clearly these women when questioned about their medical histories have indicated no evidence or history of asbestos exposure. However, it has become clear that in the past most physicians were not considering cosmetic talcum powder an asbestos product nor were they considering it a source of asbestos that would account for the development of a mesothelioma. Yet again, that appears to exclude the talc itself or its other contaminating components such as fibrous and platy aluminum silicates and fibrous and crystalline silica particles.
To support this concept that other components in the talcum powder may be carcinogenic, are reports attributing fibrous aluminum silicates to the development of mesotheliomas in the form of algorskite (palygorskite) [32]. We already know and understand how talc, silica and aluminum silicates can cause the development of granulomas in the lungs and GI tracts of humans. This again is an inflammatory/immunologic mechanism predominantly in patients that are genetically predisposed. However, predisposed or not if these particles are in a large enough concentration it will produce these inflammatory responses in 100% of the patients. This type of reaction is now well documented as a contributing factor to the development of cancer as a promoter, but possibly as a carcinogen or co-carcinogen as well.
With the above in mind, this author has looked directly at the interaction of the particles present in cosmetic talcum powder taken from a container previous extensively tested for the presence of asbestos, tremolite; anthophyllite; and chrysotile, and which no asbestos was found. The experiment was designed to put the cosmetic talc at a very low concentration 0.001 grams per ml distilled water into primary macrophage control cultures differentiated from human blood monocytes. The macrophages were cultured with the cosmetic talcum powder for 12, 24 hours and 3 days. At that point the cultures were fixed with glutaraldehyde and duplicate dishes were processed for observation by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) on the cover slips and the other dish was rubber policed to yield a cell pellet so it could be routinely processed for embedding in epon, ultrathin sectioned double stained and observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The SEM allowed me to determine how the macrophages were collecting and engulfing the particles. The TEM made it possible to see in what structures the particles were contained and how the particles were interacting with the macrophage organelles and how they differ from normal differentiated macrophages.
The results of this preliminary study show that the macrophages engulf/phagocytize the particles (Figure 1). In many instances, the particles are just too large for the cells to completely engulf and they extend out of the cell (Figure 2). If these cells are observed in thin sections by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) it is difficult to determine if the particles are completely within the cells or partially in and partially outside (Figure 3). This is similar to what is seen with asbestos fibers that are longer than 10 micrometers. This is very much like inflammatory cell attempting to phagocytize deposits in the kidney glomeruli and just cannot because the deposits are in the basement membrane. This is termed frustrated phagacytosis and results in the leakage of lysosomal enzymes and many other chemokines, cytokines and oxidants from the macrophages. TEM analysis of the cells exhibited particles in the cytoplasm of the cells and they were not completely enclosed by a single membrane in the 12, 24 or 72 hours specimen (Figure 4). The most interesting finding is that these particles as they break down within the cell cytoplasms due to enzyme activity or not do not exhibit being membrane bound (Figures 5A, B). Remnants of membrane, presumably plasma membranes, can be seen but the talc particles are found mostly free in the cytoplasm of these cells (Figures 5A, B). It was possible to see smaller particles completely engulfed into the cell that were free, not membrane bound (Figure 6). These particles can be seen very close to the nucleus of the cell making direct mechanical interaction with or without cell division possible (Figure 7). The significance of this has very detrimental implications for alterations of cellular function. If and when these particles enter mesothelial cells or even lung cells and are free to interact with surrounding organelles and other cellular components, the cells may be stimulated to divide and in doing so during division the chromosomes and DNA are exposed to these particles which can alter the DNA and chromosomes mechanically by charge distribution or any other mechanism including direct oxidant injury to the DNA. This can lead to mutations that will lead or result in the development of tumors.
Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of a cultured human monocytes differentiated in macrophages collecting and engulfing the talc particles (T).
This SEM shows a cell after 3 days with talc (T) and the particle cannot be completely engulfed in the cell. During this process it is possible to see how intracellular molecules such as the chemokines, cytokines and oxidants can easily leak around the particles outside the cell.
In this transmission electron micrograph (TEM), it is possible to see the talc particle within the cell. However, because the section of the cell is so thin, it is not possible to determine if the particle has been completely engulfed or not. However, based on what was visualized by SEM, it is likely that the larger talc (T) particles are not completely engulfed.
Normally anything that is endocytosed by macrophages or phagocytic cells are surrounded by the plasma membrane as it endocytoses something. What is very interesting with the talc is that there is no complete membrane surrounding the particle. The membrane is discontinuous within the cell (arrow).
(A and B) When one observes even the smaller particles that are presumed to be completely within the cell, it is not possible to identify a complete membrane surrounding the particles. It appears that the particles unlike other components taken up by cells, these apparently can be found naked in the cytoplasm.
The larger particles clearly exhibit an absence of membrane and it presence in the cytoplasm where lysosomes and other molecules within the cell can directly interact with the talc particles causing injury to the and leaking components into the media in this case or in tissue to adjacent cells.
These small particles and possibly even the larger particles make their way right to the nucleus (arrow).
Support for the morphologic criteria is the biochemical and immunologic criteria showing that cytokines, chemokines and oxidants are released in response to the frustrated phagocytosis. Figures 8 and 9 support the cytokine up regulation. These are similar, if not exactly the same criteria that had been reported for the interaction of asbestos fibers and macrophages over the years. Based on these preliminary in vitro results, it is not a far reach to implicate talc and its contaminating silica and aluminum silicates as a causative agent in the development of mesotheliomas, lung tumors, gastrointestinal tumors, and ovarian tumors.
This is a bar graph exhibiting the results of the IL-6 measurements from the 2 patients under the 3 conditions of control, cultures without talc and with talc added.
This is a bar graph exhibiting the results of the IL-8 measurements from the 2 patients under the 3 conditions of control, cultures without talc and with talc added.
Further, the proof of these basic facts and the epidemiologic study of cases that this author has done of asbestos fiber and particle analyses on over 200 cases of men and women who have only exposure to talcum powder with no exposure to any other source of asbestos, and have developed mesotheliomas, pleural and abdominal, and ovarian cancer of epithelial origin. It should be noted here that the outer lining of the ovaries that give rise to the tumors are basically mesothelial cells, just on the surface of ovaries. The correlation of finding significant amounts of talc, aluminum silicates, crystalline silica and in more than half the cases asbestos fibers as compared to background controls with none of the fibers and particles discussed above, supports the concept that cosmetic talcum powder is the causative factor in the development of the mesotheliomas and ovarian cancer. This applies to both abdominal, pleural and ovarian cancer, however, the abdominal mesotheliomas and ovarian cancer represent a cleaner model since analyses of lung and pulmonary lymph nodes frequently contain some talc, aluminum silicates and crystalline silica from the environment and nonasbestos containing materials. However, these components are in relatively small quantities as compared to those individuals that have used cosmetic talcum powder on a regular basis.
There is now significant growing evidence based on basic scientific studies and epidemiologic studies of those patients exposed to cosmetic talcum powders on a regular basis with correlation of isolation of talcum powder components in significantly greater concentration than the contaminating asbestos, that the talc or other aluminum silicate components found in high concentration in the talcum powders strongly implicate the talc itself as a causative factor in the development of all the same lesions: granulomas, fibrosis and tumors, as seen with asbestos. Due to the relatively small amount or absence of an iron oxidant component in the talc and aluminum silicates, it is likely that without a tremendous load the detrimental effects may take years to develop in patients that are predisposed genetically to the actions of these talc particles. This phenomenon may be very much correlated to the development of similar lesions by chrysotile asbestos, having a longer latency from that of commercial amphiboles amosite and crocidolite.
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