With wooden churches Heritage B from Lăpuș Land.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Figure 1 the present chapter approaches a brief narration of the current state, assessed through visual inspection, of 26 wooden churches located in Lăpuș Land, belonging to Lăpuş Archdiocese, the Orthodox Diocese of Maramureş and Satu-Mare, Targu-Lăpuș, Romania. This study will present an interdisciplinary approach to the addressed topic.
Map County of Lăpuș (from
These wooden churches, of particular cultural and spiritual richness, are brought to attention in order to highlight their vulnerability in the context of such strong and obvious climate changes that are currently taking place. The wooden architecture represents one of the most magnificent examples of built heritage all over the world [3], of which, an important part is represented by the wooden churches, often found scattered throughout Eastern and Northern Europe, and Northern Asia.
Built on the present grounds or relocated, their workmanship is established to be between 200 and 400 years old. The majority of those churches still existing today were built between 17th and 19th centuries and are represented by one type of church, namely “Orthodox church”, built for the Romanian Orthodox communities [4, 5, 6, 7].
Environmental impact on the wooden churches in Lăpuș Land is caused by the extreme weather events that have been taking place in the recent years. Climate change is continually increasing the likelihood, magnitude, and frequency of these processes which endanger these hard-to-keep values over the years [8].
The fragile paintings found inside these churches are particularly vulnerable to environmental changes. Structures, which have been standing for hundreds of years, are at risk from extreme wetting, drying, and temperature fluctuation [9].
Among the factors that significantly influence the state of degradation and endanger the future of these architectural and cultural wonders are:
The rise in temperature, which is already notable. There is a general upward trend in global average temperature since the late nineteenth century; temperatures rose just below 1°C. Although it does not seem to be too much, it must be taken into account that a global increase in the average temperature of 2°C has not existed for over 100,000 years. This increase in temperature, changes the indoor conditions that have existed so far, favoring the appearance of mold and micro bacteria.
The abundance of rainwater and extreme weather have become commonplace. Anticipated changes in seasonal rainfall patterns suggest that while abundant spring and autumn rainfall may become more frequent, so may drier summers. Extreme weather events are also likely to increase in frequency, with increasing risks to the historical heritage. Both sudden heavy rainfall and the cumulative impact of less intense but repeated events can be harmful. An example in this sense is the storm of 2017, which the area with extreme force, knocked down the tower of the church in Costeni. This caused a chain reaction, allowing the rain to fall inside the church, and ultimately affecting the entire structure. The restoration of the roof, the tower, and of the whole church is still in progress and requires substantial financial aid and human resources to minimize the preservation needs of the church.
Biogeography is a topic that should not be neglected at all, because the new distribution of animals, the abundance of growing vegetation in the gardens where wooden churches are located, and the rising of pathogens, endangers the indoor and immovable heritage.
Understanding climate change’s impact on heritage in Lăpuș Land requires the identification of risks. We mention some of them: inadequate or insufficient information or experience preventing appropriate actions, damage to or loss of heritage assets, harm to heritage assets from maladaptation, damage to reputation from maladjustment, inconsistent responses or failure to respond to climate change-related impacts, geological and pedological changes causing damage to wooden churches structures, harm to heritage structures from frost fracture or harm to heritage assets from wildfire.
The consequences and scale of climate change are daunting. Although unpredictable and severe weather in the form of floods and storms is likely to be an ongoing problem, continuous change will come more regularly from less severe, yet cumulatively significant, individual impacts.
Climate change is a risk factor. It exacerbates less significant threats, creating new and unforeseen challenges. Ways to prevent significant losses are mitigation and adaptation.
Heritage is not only affected by the impact of climate change, but also by our responses to it.
It is difficult to say exactly when an art object enters an alteration process. All of a sudden we notice cracks and fissures that weren’t there before, small pieces that come off, fine dust that spreads around, and in the case of paintings there are gaps in the design and color. It is the imperative moment when the conservation problem arises, knowing the vulnerability of heritage objects in the fight against time and aging. The environment plays a major role in the alteration process. The main factors that influence the movable and immovable cultural heritage capital are biodeterioration, temperature and humidity conditions, natural and anthropogenic pollution [10].
New restoration techniques and studies for the improvement and conservation are constantly appearing, such as magnetic or new resonance techniques or even irradiation treatments of heritage wooden objects with different radioactive sources, particularly in the case of oil painting. These methods, however, cannot always be applied in the field [11, 12, 13].
In this case, heritage risk studies are a welcoming site, as an alarm signal, before the moment of alteration, in order to bring the issue to the attention of all stakeholders in due time for mitigations to be effectively executed.
According to specialized studies, the implementation and analysis of a typical diagnostic study and structural analysis are necessary to assess the main risks affecting the property in order to result in risk indicators [14, 15].
The group of factors that participate in the degradation process and can be considered as major or minor risks for construction materials and structures, is complex and includes visual documentation of disintegration, main forms/types of disintegration, disintegration mechanisms, and intrinsic and extrinsic factors of degradation [16].
For example, the protocol of decay investigation include visual observations of the building material’s state of conservation, typology of deterioration phenomena, decay mechanisms, decay intrinsic factors, and decay extrinsic factors.
In the frame of the present project, we intend to further study the extrinsic decay factors, such as structure general data, climate data, atmospheric conditions, indoor environment, biological factors, accidental actions, human impact, condition of usage, socioeconomic parameters or geotechnical frame of foundation [17].
Alteration is a common notion in relation to the passage of time. According to dictionary definition, alteration means transformation or change in the negative, involving a chemical change in the material, in the case of pigment murals, while damage involves only physical phenomena [18, 19, 20].
Degradation, a commonly used term in contemporary theory, refers to a state of actuality of the object.
Literature suggests that if the degradation occurs unintentionally, but in a positive manner, the effect is known called “patina” (involving the chemical transformation of organic or inorganic materials in the work). Over time patina has acquired a status in the aesthetic qualification of an object [18]. On the other hand, if the degradation occurs unintentionally, but in a negative manner, then we are talking about degradation [21].
From this moment, the conservation-restoration stage appears, which represents the entire action of saving a work of art from the past.
The field of restoration in Romania operates on the basis of the legislation issued in 1974, which was subsequently established by the Norms of 1982, 1993, and 2003. Following these legislative directives, the meaning of the terms Conservation and Restoration implies two distinct actions. The first involves only a preventive action on the object while the latter offers the possibility to exercise a proper curative preservation [22].
The way that conservation is carried out has suffered many changes throughout the last 50 years. There have been numerous developments in methods to measure and control environments and ways to protect objects on display and in transit [23]. But in the end, it all comes down to time and costs.
The proportion of time and effort dedicated to interventive conservation in heritage institutions appears to be decreasing. Arguments based on cost efficiency and risk reduction are sometimes employed as justification. Arguably, the situation is not straightforward and the ethical and economic arguments for doing less intervention are not always consistent or convincing [23]. Nevertheless, the degradation/alteration has been imminent over the decades due to the socio-political conditions of the times.
The conservation-restoration of some churches to be presented hereafter has been done over many years with various funding and with numerous volunteering hours from the communities, under the careful guidance of local priests. “Patina” can be observed in just a few churches. Others were left behind for socio-administrative reasons. Their importance remains the same over the centuries whether or not the villages remain sufficiently populated. Their protection is an absolutely necessary and justified act, not only from the perspective of the object as a material value in open space but from the importance of cultural value that speaks of a Romanian nation who made efforts to keep to this geographical area, regardless of the historical context and who are now facing globalization and climate change.
Obtaining funds for conservation restoration remains a sensitive and open topic.
The wooden Orthodox churches from Lăpuș Land are an example of remarkable heritage with similar architectural features and interior paintings from the same time frame and region. Their overall beauty, the language of interior ornaments, and paintings once again confirm the invaluable value of national and universal heritage, early messages of anonymous peasant artists. We find a vivid portrait of this area through the diversity of paintings, wooden decorations, and craftsmanship expressed in these medium-sized wooden buildings, equipped with a narrow bell tower erected as high as possible and protected with shingled roofs. This is a vernacular expression specific to the cultural landscape of this mountainous region of northern Romania [24].
Most churches are located on high hills, in gardens with trees, having a cemetery around them or in their close vicinity. They are medium-sized construction spanning between 20 m long and 5 m wide. Their roof is covered with
The wooden churches addressed in this chapter have been classified as heritage monuments category: Unesco, A, or B [26].
Historically dated to the 17th century (1663)
Official registration:
Rogoz village, lying on a bright plateau of the land of Lăpuș, attracts attention through its uncontested cultural richness.
Set in a small garden, in the middle of a cemetery, the church of
According to the Cyrillic inscriptions kept on the altar, the church was painted in 1785,
Currently, some scenes are fragmented while others are entirely erased. The painting includes scenes from the Old and the New Testament. In the narthex, the dominant theme is that of the
Indoor painting – wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Rogoz.
The painting has been restored and it is currently in a good state of preservation. Here we can talk about the patina of painting indeed. The fact that the church has received a superior classification, and the attention paid to careful care, lead to long-term preservation.
Historically dated to the 19th century
Official registration Cod LMI: MM-II-m-A-04515
Local sources relate that, in the northernmost village of Lăpuș Land, in the village of Poiana Botizii, at the foot of the mountains, in 1809 the construction of a new wooden church began on the old existing place, on the same spot where the old church was cremated. In 1819, when the building works were completed, the sanctuary was consecrated, receiving the patron saint of
Indoor painting – wooden church of “Saints Apostles Peter and Paul” from Poiana Botizii.
Located on top of a hill overlooking the village, surrounded by the cemetery, the church is an imposing presence, with a length of about 17 m and a width of about 5 m. It is built of oak wood, following a ship-type plan, with beams joined in a dovetail. The wooden soles are placed on stone vaults, which form a solid foundation. The upper beams, by extension, form consoles, on which a hipped roof is placed, covered with
Historically dated to the 18th–19th century
Official registration Cod LMI: MM-II-m-A-04754
The exact date of construction of this church remains uncertain. There are some sources declaring its construction around 1860 while other sources send us far behind, in the eighteenth century. This church is built on top of a hill, from where one can see the Stoiceni village. Local sources and tradition tell us that it was built on the site of a previous church (it is unknown why it was replaced), but the initial
Adam and Eva in the garden of haven – wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Stoiceni.
Half-vault painting – wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Stoiceni.
The hierarchs and
The interior painting is in very good condition, taking into account the normal aging. Perhaps one reason for this good preservation would be the fact that the roof is covered with galvanized metal sheets, which led to better protection of the interior environment. One other hypothesis would be the geographical location. The bell tower rises above the roof. Unlike the body of the church, the tower is covered with
Outside the church, the Mass of the Elders is still preserved.
Historically dated to the 18th century
Official registration Cod LMI: MM-II-m-A-04788
“
The beheading of St. John the Baptist – wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Ungureni.
Historically dated to the 18th century
Official registration Cod LMI: MM-II-m-A-04795
The architectural peculiarities of this church place its foundation in the second part of the 18th century. It is located on a beautiful plateau inside the village of Vima Mică. The
Jacob’s dream – wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Vima Mică.
The door is also decorated in a special style. The scenes from Passion on the western wall are very well preserved compared to the opposite wall and vault where the painting shows signs of deterioration. When passing between the nave and the narthex, the walls at the joint is in a severe degradation state, which gradually led to the alteration of the painting. The intact painted scenes appear clearly and have a high chance to be saved for perpetuity (Figure 8). There is a file pending for the rehabilitation of the church. The wooden structure and the roof are to be rebuilt and consolidated.
Myrrh-bearing women – wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Vima Mică.
Historically dated to the 18th century
Official registration Cod LMI: MM-II-m-A-04610
The church is located at the base of a hill, with the northern wing very close to the slope with vegetation. Several sources and hypotheses place its foundation before 1730. Other sources speak of the initial construction somewhere on the bank of the Lăpuș river, in 1759 being relocated to its current location. Writings found indoors mention this year as the year the interior walls were painted. The church has a porch from where we enter the narthex, nave, and altar. The porch is supported on three pillars attached to the crown. The most important exterior decoration of the church is represented by the geometric motifs found on the porch structure. The entrance door to the church has an ingeniously worked wooden lock. The roof has a bell tower, which has a gazebo over which is placed the roof with a square base, rounded to the top, flanked by four turrets with a gazebo, and simple crosses finished with crescents. The wooden interior proves the mastery of the craftsman who remains unknown.
The painter
The entrance to the underground galleries of a non-ferrous mine use to be at a very short distance from the church. We hypothesize that the long years of mining exploitation, with heavy traffic and underground works, weakened the wooden structure of the church, which implicitly led to the deterioration of the indoor painting (Figure 9).
Indoor painting – Iconostas – wooden church of “Saints
Historically dated to the 18th century
Official registration Cod LMI: MM-II-m-A-04596;
Entering through a wooden gate specific to this northern part of the country, we encounter the wooden church located in a beautiful garden that also serves as a cemetery. A fading inscription on the door places it back to 1671. There are local sources that speak of it having been built in 1761, but others show that it was erected in 1811. However the case, the villagers support the story passed down from generation to generation that it was brought to Libotin from Remetea Chioarului. This seems to be a very plausible scenario, the transshipment of an old construction being a normal habit in those times. This scenario would also be supported by the fact that it is a small, ship-shaped structure, made of elmwood. The roof is covered with
The bell tower, located above the narthex, has a square shape, with a gallery and a planked railing, with the lower ends of the planks decorated with heart motifs, a symbol of eternal love. The tower has a pyramidal steeple, which ends with a simple metal cross resting on an onion-shaped bulb. The frame of the entrance portal to the narthex is decorated with the trefoiled cross motif, repeated on the vertical pillars of the door.
The interior walls of the church preserve the old painting that presents biblical scenes. The semi-cylindrical vault of the apse and the ceiling of the narthex have been restored, and the semi-cylindrical vault of the nave presenting a restored representation of the first chapters of
Indoor painting – Libotin’s wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel”.
Saint Hristofor – wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel ” from Libotin.
Historically dated to the 19th century
Official registration Cod LMI:: MM-II-m-A-04594;
The wooden church from Larga village is located on a hill surrounded by the old cemetery, with a wide glade at its base. Probably hence came the name of the village (Larga – tr. wide). Above the entrance one can see the following Cyrillic inscription from 1802:
The wheel of life – wooden church of “Saint Dimitrie” from Larga.
The northern wall of the nave is painted with saints in vaulted frames and scenes from the New Testament and the Passion. The iconostasis is in an advanced state of degradation, yet the faces of
Saint on the wall – the wooden church of “Saint Dimitrie” from Larga.
Historically dated to the 17th century
Official registration Cod MM-II-m-A-04589;
The wooden church from Inău village is located on a hill with a slight slope, between the hills that form the village. Some sources say that it was originally built in 1689 in Baia-Mare, from where it was bought by the villagers from Rus, and later moved to Inău. Other sources indicate the year 1778 as its foundation. It is a beautiful, robust construction including a porch, narthex, nave, and altar. The roof covered in
During the years of modernization, electricity was introduced, and the old wooden chandelier was now equipped with electric lights. Scenes such as
Narthex painting – wooden church of “Saint Archangels Michael and Gabriel ” from Inău.
Historically dated to the 18th century
Official registration Cod MM-II-m-A-04569;
The church was built in 1706 on a hill, surrounded by the cemetery, as it was the local custom. The ground it was built on belonged to the local Radu family. It had the opportunity to be rehabilitated as a structure (see chapter “
Angel – wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Drăghia.
High Priest Melchizedek-wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Drăghia.
Unfortunately, the inside painting is in an advanced state of degradation, despite all the maintenance efforts [26].
Historically dated to the 18th century
Official registration Cod MM-II-m-A-04568;
The church is known by the locals as
It is a medium-sized construction, built of oak beams on a stone foundation. The entrance, without a porch, is made through the southern part directly in the narthex followed by the nave and the altar. A beautiful strip, with the rope of life carved in wood, surrounds the church. In 1930, the shingle roof was rebuilt with a
Saint Paraskeva – wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Dobric.
Entire scenes are preserved in both the narthex and the nave, such as the
The wheel of life and the Revelation (Apocalypse) – wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Dobric.
Historically dated to the 18th century
Official registration Cod LMI: MM-II-m-A-04562
The church, located like the others on a hill belonging to the village, has an uncertain historical date. Official data acknowledge it has existed since 1733. On the altar, we find a partially erased inscription announcing the historical dating of the painting:
Iconostasis – wooden church of “Saint Elijah the prophet” from Cupșeni.
A number of 14 wooden churches (Table 1) spread throughout the same geographical area also bring their heritage contribution. Presently there are only classified as being of local interest. The future might bring the chance, for some of them, to be ranked higher. Similar to those in heritage category A, they are built of wood, keeping the same typical architecture. The date of construction is between the 18th and 20th centuries. They are located on plateaus or hills of the villages from Lăpușului Land. Being later put to use, they receive electricity and plastered indoor walls, which has led to better preservation over time. Some of them were painted on the inside plastered walls or on the wooden vaults, keeping with the spiritual charm of the area. An eloquent example is the painting, with a beautiful patina, from the wooden church of “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Jugăstreni (Figure 20).
Nr. | Name of the church | Location | Historically dated | Official registration COD |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel | Boiereni | 18th century | LMI: MM-II-m-B-04526 |
2 | Saint Nicholas | Costeni | 19th century | LMI: MM-II-m-B-04554 |
3 | Saints Apostles Peter and Paul | Costeni | 19th century | LMI: MM-II-m-B-04555 |
4 | Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel | Cufoaia | 19h century | LMI MM-II-m-B-04560 |
5 | Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel | Cupșeni | 18th century | LMI MM-II-m-B-04563 |
6 | Entrance in the Church | Dobric | 18th century | LMI: MM-II-m-B-04567 |
7 | Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel | Dumbrava | 18th century | LMI MM-II-m-B-04571 |
8 | Saint Mary | Fântânele | 18th century | LMI MM-II-m-B-04573 |
9 | Saints Apostles Peter and Paul | Groape | 19th century | LMI: MM-II-m-B-04582 |
10 | Saint Paraskeva | Izvoarele | 20th century | LMI MM-II-m-B-04591 |
11 | Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel | Jugăstreni | 19th century | LMI MM-II-m-B-04593 |
12 | Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel | Peteritea | 18th century | LMI MM-II-m-B-04602 |
13 | Saint Dimitrie | Răzoare | 18th century | LMI MM-II-m-B-04611 |
14 | The born of Saint Mary | Vălenii Lăpușului | 18th century | LMI MM-II-m-B-04792 |
With wooden churches Heritage B from Lăpuș Land.
Inside painting – wooden church “Saints Archangels Michael and Gabriel” from Jugăstreni.
At the same time, they had been fortunate with tin roofs. Many of them are still used as churches of worship, on Sundays and religious holidays over the year. This is also the reason why they have been equipped with heating systems by the parishes (Table 1).
The wooden churches of Maramureș are perhaps the most significant visual symbol of the area. Considering that they have been around for several hundred years in these conditions, we can say that they did their job and played their role quite well.
However, their further survival depends on a few essential factors. Given that wood itself is not a weatherproof material par excellence and undergoes a natural process of degradation, it requires continuous specialized care and restoration, done with maximum awareness and knowledge of the work process. This process must involve substantial funds dedicated to these operations. Today’s changing climatic conditions add up to our call for attention to the need for restoration work. Climatic conditions have been demonstrated to affect the art inside religious buildings, with painting suffering the most. Of course, we consider not only the perishability of wood as a material but also other factors that affect the structure of these constructions, such as displacement and changes in soil structure.
Perhaps the most important step for the preservation and further existence of this heritage of inestimable value must lead us beyond the actual preservation, which of course is essential and should be the starting point. Most of all, an educational campaign to make people aware of the spiritual and aesthetic value of this heritage in everyday life is absolutely necessary. Special attention should be paid to the learning and dissemination of this very special craft. If the craft of woodwork were still desirable and learned by young people in educational institutions if churches would continue to be built respecting the proportions and simple materials if the church painting would be executed in line with the values of simplicity and humiliation of the Maramures peasant and especially if the religious courts, Orthodox dioceses, would order works in this style, tradition, and heritage would not represent only an elitist concern or of those that are part of a museum context but would return to the circuit of everyday life. We must learn today how to build this type of edifice that represents our spiritual essence.
This work was supported by a grant from the Romanian Ministery of Research and Innovation, CCCDI – UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P1-1.2-PCCDI-2017-0476/51-PCCDI/2018, within PNCDI III, ACRONIM: ARHEOCONS.
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