",isbn:"978-1-83881-119-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-118-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-120-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8bd4f03c89e63ef15984ee1b7f1485c4",bookSignature:"Prof. Andrew James Manning",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10407.jpg",keywords:"Hydrodynamics, Suspension/Saltation/Bedload, Numerical Modeling / CFD, Deposition, Flocculation, Sediment Types, Regional/Temporal Variability, Turbidity Currents, Dust Storms, Socio-Economic Effects, Contaminants, Storm / Severe Weather Effects",numberOfDownloads:205,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 27th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 11th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 10th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 30th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Manning is a highly published and world-renowned scientist in the field of depositional sedimentary flocculation processes.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"23008",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew James",middleName:null,surname:"Manning",slug:"andrew-james-manning",fullName:"Andrew James Manning",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/23008/images/system/23008.jpeg",biography:"Professor Andrew J. Manning is a Principal Scientist (Rank Grade 9) in the Coasts & Oceans Group at HR Wallingford (UK) and has over 23 years of scientific research experience (in both industry and academia) examining natural turbulent flow dynamics, fine-grained sediment transport processes, and assessing how these interact, (including both field studies and controlled laboratory flume simulations). Andrew also lectures in Coastal & Shelf Physical Oceanography at the University of Plymouth (UK). Internationally, Andrew has been appointed Visiting / Guest / Adjunct Professor at five Universities (Hull, UK; Delaware, USA; Florida, USA; Stanford, USA; TU Delft, Netherlands), and is a highly published and world-renowned scientist in the field of depositional sedimentary flocculation processes. Andrew has contributed to more than 100 peer-reviewed publications in marine science, of which more than 60 have been published in international scientific journals, plus over 180 articles in refereed international conference proceedings, and currently has an H-index of 24. He supervises graduates, postgraduates and doctoral students focusing on a range of research topics in marine science. Andrew has led numerous research projects investigating sediment dynamics in aquatic environments around the world with locations including: estuaries, tidal lagoons, river deltas, salt marshes, intertidal, coastal waters, and shelf seas.",institutionString:"HR Wallingford",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"HR Wallingford",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"74115",title:"Formulae of Sediment Transport in Unsteady Flows (Part 2)",slug:"formulae-of-sediment-transport-in-unsteady-flows-part-2",totalDownloads:91,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"75062",title:"Prof.",name:"Shu-Qing",surname:"Yang",slug:"shu-qing-yang",fullName:"Shu-Qing Yang"}]},{id:"74481",title:"Study of Water and Sediment Quality in the Bay of Dakhla, Morocco: Physico-Chemical Quality and Metallic Contamination",slug:"study-of-water-and-sediment-quality-in-the-bay-of-dakhla-morocco-physico-chemical-quality-and-metall",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74483",title:"Activated Flooded Jets and Immiscible Layer Technology Help to Remove and Prevent the Formation of Bottom Sediments in the Oil Storage Tanks",slug:"activated-flooded-jets-and-immiscible-layer-technology-help-to-remove-and-prevent-the-formation-of-b",totalDownloads:95,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"304",title:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0eb11af1d03ad494253c41e1d3c998e9",slug:"sediment-transport-in-aquatic-environments",bookSignature:"Andrew J. Manning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/304.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"23008",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew James",surname:"Manning",slug:"andrew-james-manning",fullName:"Andrew James Manning"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3100",title:"Sediment Transport",subtitle:"Processes and Their Modelling Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a1aae9d236b0fa1150b6bc2a98fd0ce0",slug:"sediment-transport-processes-and-their-modelling-applications",bookSignature:"Andrew J. Manning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3100.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"23008",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew James",surname:"Manning",slug:"andrew-james-manning",fullName:"Andrew James Manning"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5219",title:"Greenhouse Gases",subtitle:"Selected Case Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"edf0ad164729f5ce157c34f9978fcc61",slug:"greenhouse-gases-selected-case-studies",bookSignature:"Andrew J. Manning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5219.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"23008",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew James",surname:"Manning",slug:"andrew-james-manning",fullName:"Andrew James Manning"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7746",title:"Lagoon Environments Around the World",subtitle:"A Scientific Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"372053f50e624aa8f1e2269abb0a246d",slug:"lagoon-environments-around-the-world-a-scientific-perspective",bookSignature:"Andrew J. Manning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7746.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"23008",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew James",surname:"Manning",slug:"andrew-james-manning",fullName:"Andrew James Manning"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5962",title:"Estuary",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"43058846a64b270e9167d478e966161a",slug:"estuary",bookSignature:"William Froneman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5962.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109336",title:"Prof.",name:"William",surname:"Froneman",slug:"william-froneman",fullName:"William Froneman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66552",title:"Toxicity of Cranial and Spinal Cord Irradiation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85396",slug:"toxicity-of-cranial-and-spinal-cord-irradiation",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Treatment of central nervous system (CNS) tumors involves surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, or a combination of these modalities. Radiation therapy is a highly effect treatment that plays a role in the management of brain metastases, gliomas, primary central nervous system lymphomas, and meningiomas among other brain tumors.
\n
Radiation toxicity can be divided into three subcategories including acute toxicities, usually arising within 6 weeks of treatment, early-delayed effects (up to 4 months post-irradiation) and late delayed starting 4 months after completion of radiation therapy to several years later.
\n
Central nervous system toxicity can be better understood by compartmentalizing toxicities based on cell biology. Injury to brain parenchyma effected by radiation includes neuronal cells, glial cells, and vasculature. Surprisingly, side effects of radiation are likely not due to damage directly to neuronal cells [1]. This is in part due to the paucity of cell replication of most neurons. As such, radiation toxicity primarily effects glial oligodendrocytes which are the insulating myelin producing cells and glial astrocytes responsible for the essential blood brain barrier. Endothelial vasculature of post-capillary venules within brain parenchyma are also highly susceptible to damaging effects of ionizing radiation. Increased cranial pressure and edema caused by radiation is deemed to be related to damage to endothelial cells [2]. In addition to direct damage to the endothelia, the tight junctions of endothelial cells are another component of the blood-brain barrier. The saliency of the blood brain barrier and the susceptibility to damage by irradiation, makes it a point of focus when discussing CNS toxicity.
\n
Not all neuronal cells are uniformly resilient to ionizing radiation. Recent studies have shown extreme sensitivity to even low-dose irradiation to the hippocampus. This is due to damage to highly proliferative neuronal progenitor cells. Specifically, the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus has been shown to be extremely susceptible to damage to progenitor cells. Research for why these phenomena exists is ongoing. In addition to direct damage to neural progenitor cells, recent studies have linked neuronal damage to endothelial vasculature within the SGZ. Loss of integrity of inter-endothelial tight junctions (and eventually the blood brain barrier) causes edema and an inflammatory response that prevents the proliferation of neuronal progenitor cells. Clinical manifestations of impairment within this very crucial part of the CNS (the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus which is responsible for transitioning short term memories into long term memories) is linked to the irreversible late delayed side effect of cognitive dysfunction [3, 4, 5]. It is worth mentioning that these sequelae of radiation to the hippocampus can manifest even with doses as low as 2 Gy or less [6, 7]. Strategies to preserve neurocognitive function in patients receiving whole brain radiation therapy now include hippocampal sparing techniques [8, 9]. Hippocampal avoidance is one of many creative strategies postulated by radiation oncologists to aid in minimizing toxicity. Modern radiation delivery techniques are beyond the scope of this chapter. Some of these modalities used to avoid sensitive anatomic regions and decrease healthy tissue exposure include IMRT, stereotactic radiosurgery, and proton therapy. These novel modalities of radiation therapy continue to be refined in hopes of decreasing brain injury and increasing local control.
\n
Astrocytes also play an important role in support and function of neurons. The cell line responsible for proliferation and differentiation of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes is the oligodendrocyte type-2 astrocyte progenitor cell (O-2A) [2]. In addition to being a crucial component of the BBB, astrocytes have been shown to be homeostatic regulators providing multiple heterogeneous functions including protecting brain parenchyma from reactive oxygen species [10]. Neuroinflammation and reactive astrogliosis caused by irradiation to astrocytes and O-2A, disrupt the BBB and likely play a role in edema.
\n
Therapeutic techniques investigating the loss of neurogenesis are also underway. Inflammation is primarily instigated by microglial cells. Decreasing the inflammatory load within the SGZ by using a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory, namely indomethacin in this case, helped preserve neuronal progenitor cells [6]. Reducing the inflammatory load caused by radiation may decrease CNS toxicity which in this study was cognitive decline. Prophylactic nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are not currently standard of care in preventing radiation side effects.
\n
As mentioned earlier, glial cells are by far the most abundant types of cells within the CNS and responsible for neuronal support and protection. Glial progenitor cells which gives rise to oligodendrocytes and astrocytes are vulnerable targets of damage induced by radiation. In addition to glial progenitors, fully differentiated oligodendrocytes are also known to be sensitive to radiation. Enough damage to the DNA of oligodendrocytes can induce a P53 dependent apoptosis [2, 11]. Taking these two cell lines into consideration, damage to myelin producing oligodendrocytes in addition to glial progenitor cells responsible for generating new oligodendrocytes and astrocytes leads to CNS toxicity [2]. Treatment strategies to ameliorate CNS toxicity focused on re-establishing the efficacy of glial progenitor cells are ongoing. To date, optimal treatment for CNS toxicity is still unknown and strategies for managing side effects have yet to be delineated.
\n
When considering the source of CNS toxicities, it is important to take into consideration the timeframe of manifestations, the specific presentation of symptoms, as well as whether the volume treated and dose deliver are compatible with side effects to the CNS. Other modalities of treatment including chemotherapy and immunotherapy as well as tumor progression can also have adverse effects on brain parenchyma on a cell biologic level. Deciphering the cause of CNS injury is not completely understood but should be taken into consideration in guiding treatment options.
\n
\n
\n
2. Acute and early-delayed toxicities of cranial irradiation
\n
Early side effects of radiation treatment are considered to manifest during or within 6 weeks of completion of radiation therapy. Acute side effects are usually transient and self-limiting, due to transient demyelination [3]. Symptoms are rare but may include fatigue, nausea, vomiting, headache, and focal neurologic deficits. These reported side effects were historically common with patients receiving doses >2 Gy per fraction. Reflected in current NCCN guidelines, most clinicians do not deliver conventional doses that exceed 2 Gy in one fraction as to avoid side effects. Acute radiation toxicities are rare with modern techniques with reports of grade 3 and 4 acute toxicities occurring in <5% of patients and are usually self-limiting [12].
\n
Side effects occurring within 4 months of radiation treatment are considered early delayed effects and most commonly involve transient demyelination and somnolence. Similar to acute toxicities, early to late side effects are usually reversible and resolve spontaneously.
\n
\n
2.1 Fatigue
\n
One of the most common side effect of radiation therapy to the central nervous system is fatigue and lethargy. Similar to patterns of irradiation outside of the CNS, side effects are cumulative and initially start to present 2 weeks into therapy [13, 14]. Fatigue usually starts around 2 weeks of therapy, peaks at or around completion of therapy, and resolves within several months. A severe form of fatigue, lethargy, and lack of concentration is known as somnolence syndrome (SS). SS typical occurs as an early delayed toxicity approximately 5–6 weeks after completion of radiation therapy. In one study, patients receiving a hypofractionated treatment plan compared to conventional fractionation experienced more severe fatigue [15].
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Alopecia and radiation dermatitis
\n
Another common side effect of acute radiation toxicity is hair loss. Alopecia from radiation only occurs in areas where hair follicles are exposed to radiation and therefore can be sparse depending on scalp exposure. Alopecia can be permanent or temporary with higher doses to the scalp signifying permanent hair loss [16]. Radiation dermatitis is a desquamating rash that can occur to areas of the scalp exposed to radiation. Most cases are mild and are treated with moisturizing ointments. In severe rare cases of moist desquamation, topical antibiotic ointment may be used.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Late-delayed toxicities of cranial irradiation
\n
Late-delayed side effects are of the most concern when discussing radiation toxicity. These effects occur starting after 4 months of treatment up to decades later. Unlike acute and early-delayed side effects, late-delayed side effects are largely irreversible and progressive.
\n
\n
3.1 Cumulative effects
\n
Decline in neurocognitive function in patients with brain tumors is a multifactorial phenomenon. The connection between radiation toxicity and cognitive decline has been well documented. Nevertheless, it is important, however, to consider other factors as well as cumulative effects contributing to cognitive decline. Many patients treated with radiation are also treated in combination with chemotherapy. Multiple new targeted therapies have also been approved for use. Given that each of these individually may cause CNS side effects, it is of utmost importance for healthcare providers to be able to recognize toxicity and delineate whether symptoms are indeed being caused by treatments (either in combination or individually). Furthermore, there are multiple other reasons for why patients may have CNS complications, including tumor progression and advancement of pathologies unrelated to malignancy (dementia, depression, polypharmacy, anxiety, etc.).
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Long term delayed effects
\n
There exist patients who have undergone radiation treatment with an overall survival of multiple years and even decades. For many, cognitive deficits have not arisen even after 6 years of follow-up [6, 13]. Most patients even after 6 years have maintained a stable neurocognitive status. Differences in cognitive deficits were seen, however, in patients with low-grade gliomas who received radiation compared to patients who were radiation naïve after a 12 year follow up [6]. It is worth mentioning however that patients who do receive adjuvant radiation in low grade gliomas are more likely to have local control, better progression free survival and overall survival [14]. Multiple considerations should be taken into account when deciding the correct treatment plan for each individual patient. In the case of low grade gliomas, radiation and chemotherapy with procarbazine, CCNU, and vincristine is recommended by current NCCN guidelines. Given that neurocognitive effects are being reported over a decade after radiation treatment and less so at 6 years, additional long term delayed effects are of more trepidation now compared to years prior.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Stereotactic radiosurgery
\n
Advances in the technique and technology of radiation treatment to the brain has given rise to stereotactic radiosurgery. The use of localized radiosurgery in the setting of metastatic disease compared to whole-brain radiotherapy is an ongoing and complex discussion. In general, brain metastases arise from hematologic dissemination and have a poor overall prognosis [17]. Whole brain radiation has been utilized given the assumed likelihood of “seeding” or micrometasis to areas of the brain outside of visible metastasis seen on imaging. As mentioned earlier however, whole brain radiation therapy has high rates of toxicity, the most serious being cognitive impairment without the added benefit of overall survival [18, 19, 20]. It is worth mentioning that the concept of oligometastases has arisen among oncologists whereby disease may in fact be truly limited and treated as such. SRS alone, or in combination with whole brain radiation therapy, has thus become a viable option in single lesions or oligometastases. Being a localized modality of treatment, SRS alone has a higher likelihood of intracranial progression when compared with SRS in combination with WBRT. There has not been shown an increase in overall survival nor a better side effect profile with the addition WBRT to SRS vs. SRS alone [19, 20]. Researchers have also concluded that the addition of WBRT results in excess morbidity and a decreased quality-of-life resulting in a 35% increase in neurocognitive deficit compared to SRS alone at 12 months. In one study, there was also a non-statistically significant survival benefit with SRS alone compared to SRS with WBRT [20]. Even with the better distant control of the addition of WBRT to SRS, the increase in morbidity does not outweigh the benefits and thus SRS alone is preferred.
\n
Another viable option for limited brain metastases is surgical resection. Given similar outcomes in overall survival with surgical resection, decreased cost and, most importantly, less invasive nature of treatment compared to neurosurgery, SRS treatment of metastasis is being widely used [19, 21, 22].
\n
The most common long term side effect of SRS is radionecrosis. While in certain cases radionecrosis can cause serious neurocognitive deficits requiring steroids or even surgical resection, certain patients remain asymptomatic and are diagnosed on imaging studies. Only about one third of patients with radionecrosis present with symptomatic neurologic deficits [23, 24]. Image based diagnoses can be difficult to distinguish from other phenomena including self-limiting inflammation [25]. There is a wide range of reported data on the rate of actuarial radionecrosis. In recent studies with adequate follow-up, rates vary from as low as 1.5% [26] to as high 34% [19, 25, 27] The main risk factor of radionecrosis are total dose, maximum tumor diameter and treated volume [25, 27, 28].
\n
Given the variability in data and to help gain a better understanding of risk factors for radionecrosis, it may be salient to delineate the setting in which SRS is being administered. Prevalence of radionecrosis can be divided based on single fraction treatments, hypo fractionated treatments (usually three fractions), and adjuvant SRS after resection.
\n
In patients receiving single fractionation SRS, the risk of radionecrosis are reported to be higher compared to hypofractionated [24]. Additionally, local control in hypofractionated regimens have had similar outcomes. Current NCCN guidelines recommend either single fraction or multi-fractionated SRS for the treatment of brain metastases, with multiple fractions utilized more commonly in patients with larger lesions [25, 29].
\n
Not all patients radiologically diagnosed with radionecrosis are symptomatic. For patients that are symptomatic common manifestations include headache, seizures, motor deficits, sensory deficits, ataxia, and speech deficits [25].
\n
In the past decade, SRS has more frequently been utilized in the post-resection adjuvant setting of brain metastases rather than WBRT. In hopes of optimizing local control and overall survival, SRS is administered to the tumor bed with the goal of covering subtotal resections and unrevealed disease that may have been left behind. In this setting, the prevalence of radionecrosis is varied with trends towards decreased toxicity with hypofractionated schedules compared to single fraction SRS [23, 26, 30]. The region of the brain being irradiated may have implications of morbidity as well. Infratentorial metastases are particularly problematic in that they portend worse outcomes and have a higher rate of radionecrosis [30]. Patients with higher risk of radionecrosis, including large tumors >3 cm, should be considered for hypofractionated treatment.
\n
Another method of predicting radionecrosis in patients being treated with SRS is looking at volumes of brain parenchyma receiving a specific dose. Specifically, volumes receiving 10 Gy (V10) and 12 Gy (V12) have demonstrated strong predictive value in single fraction SRS [24, 25, 31]. The risk of radionecrosis can be predicted using specific volumes that receive certain doses. For example, risk of radionecrosis for V12 of less than 10 cm3 is 22% compared to more than 10 cm3which more than doubles the risk to 55% [32]. Novel studies have proposed using V12 as the standard method of reporting dose to assess toxicity [25]. For patients receiving V12 of <8.5 cm3, the risk of radionecrosis increase to >10% and patients should be considered for hypofractionated rather than single fraction SRS [25].
\n
Options in the treatment of radionecrosis includes steroids, hyperbaric oxygen, and surgery. There exist novel therapies such as bevacizumab and focused interstitial laser thermal therapy with variable efficacy in treatment [33].
\n
Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) is usually well-tolerated and risks of high grade toxicity are low. The most important sequelae of SRS is radiation necrosis. Risks and benefits must be weighed out on an individualized basis using an evidence based and patient centered approach.
\n
\n
\n
5. Hypopituitarism induced by radiation
\n
Endocrine deficiencies have also been reported in lesions irradiated near the hypothalamic-pituitary axis or pituitary gland. The prevalence of endocrinopathies are higher with nasopharyngeal cancers compared to intracerebral tumors, yet there were no differences in the rate of endocrine dysfunction based on underlying tumor type [34]. Endocrinopathies may include panhypopituitarism, hypothalamic hypothyroidism, and hypothalamic hypogonadism among others. A significant portion of the pediatric population treated with radiation therapy are vulnerable to pituitary dysfunction, most commonly growth hormone deficiency revealing short stature and retarded growth [35].
\n
Patients with the pituitary adenomas are commonly treated with either single fraction SRS or hypofractionated SRS with similar rates of efficacy in tumor control and prevalence in new-onset hypopituitarism. Rates of hypopituitarism vary but are reported to be as high as 66% in conventional radiotherapy and significantly lower with stereotactic radiosurgery 5–37% [35, 36, 37, 38, 39].
\n
Endocrine dysfunction is considered a late-delay side effect, but current literature is lacking in predicting a timeline for when hypopituitarism can occur. Follow up with dynamic serum hormonal values is of paramount importance given higher likelihood of developing endocrinopathies with longer follow up [35, 37].
\n
\n
\n
6. Radiation induced optic neuropathy and stereotactic radiosurgery
\n
Certain tumor types treated with SRS expose the optic nerves to high doses of radiation that may induce a decrease in visual acuity and blindness. Deterioration of vision may be reversible in an acute setting and is more likely to be permanent >6 months after treatment. Optic neuropathy from radiation is usually painless and can be monocular or biocular depending on whether optic nerves or the optic chiasm are exposed to radiation. Doses of radiation to optic nerves are closely monitored and circumvented as best as possible for patients receiving treatment for meningiomas, pituitary adenomas, and craniopharyngiomas.
\n
Significant risk factors for radiation-induced optic neuropathy include prior radiation re-exposure to the optic chiasm. Prior EBRT and SRS are both risk factors for radiation induced optic neuropathy. Although multiple centers consider <8 Gy to be the upper limit of acceptable tolerability, single fractions of <12 Gy have been validated by recent literature [40, 41, 42]. A large recent analysis of pooled data consider the risk of radiation induced optic neuropathy to be 0–2% in patients with no prior irradiation to the optic apparatus and a single fraction <12 Gy [42] and even lower (<1%) for patients with a single fraction of <10 Gy [43].
\n
\n
\n
7. Toxicities of spinal cord irradiation
\n
Radiation myelopathy is the term commonly used for side effects of radiation toxicity to the spinal cord. Late effects of radiation myelopathy are a serious concern for radiation oncologists during treatment planning of CNS as well as extra-neural tumors within the treatment field. This is, in part, due to higher doses of radiation required for certain tumors (lung, certain head and neck, mediastinal tumors). Moreover, metastatic disease to the spine often requires radiation therapy and is becoming more common thanks to the advent of immunotherapy [44]. Long term effects may cause life limiting sequelae and are of paramount concern to radiation planning and treatment.
\n
Adverse facts of spinal cord irradiation are largely determined by the radiation treatment field and can affect both the central and peripheral nervous system. Just as side effects can be subdivided by timeframe in radiation toxicity to the brain, toxicities of spinal cord irradiation are classified as early toxicity, early-delayed effects, and long term effects. Accordingly, the durations are during treatment and up to a couple weeks after treatment, within 3 months of treatment, and more than 3 months after treatment. Although acute central nervous system damage has been reported following acute brain irradiation, there is no clinical or experimental evidence that radiation induces acute spinal cord toxicity. Single doses of up to 100 Gy have been given without acute effects [32].
\n
Significant advances have been made in the treatment of spinal malignancies extrapolating progress made from cranial stereotactic techniques of within millimeter precision high dose focal treatment plans. Recently, SRS has also been utilized for metastasis to the spinal cord. It is important to note that metastasis to the spinal bone, although extremely painful at times, does not carry the risk of neurologic compromise posed by spinal cord tumors or spinal impingement.
\n
Side effects using SRS are extremely rare for spinal tumors. Short-term toxicity although more common, are still at low rates and are usually self-limiting [45]. One study showed no long term side effects with SRS patients with spinal metastasis.
\n
It seems as if long-term toxicity from radiation using SRS and dose sparing techniques to organs at risk is extremely rare with modern treatment techniques and attention to dose volume parameters. The complication of vertebral compression fracture (VCF) is multifactorial including older age portending to higher incidences osteoporosis but may be attributed to, in part, radiation therapy [46]. Doses above 20 Gy in a single fraction have been implicated as a risk factor. The risk of VCF tends to occur in the acute period of toxicity [47].
\n
The main factors associated with risk of neurologic deficit relate to total dose, length of spinal cord irradiated, fractionation scheme and total duration of treatment. An absolute threshold for development of myelopathy cannot be stated. There has not been an established threshold; however the risk of myelopathy varies from 0.2 to 5% at 5 years [39]. Another side effects or radiation to the spine is characterized by acute paralysis presumably secondary to ischemia. Brown-Séquard syndrome is another rare syndrome that has been documented and is characterized by paralysis and loss of proprioception to the ipsilateral side and loss of pain and temperature to the contralateral side. Similar to irradiation to the brain, the greatest concern is delayed-onset radionecrosis of the spinal cord.
\n
Common types of side effects for single dose SRS with 10–16 Gy include: neurologic signs of motor weakness and sensory changes of the extremities [48]. There was no detectable acute or subacute radiation toxicity in this series noted clinically during the maximum follow-up time of 24 months. Other more disabling manifestations of radiation injury, including acute paralysis secondary to ischemia, hemorrhage within the spinal cord, and a lower motor neuron syndrome, are much less common, with only a few case reports in the literature. The treatment of radiation myelopathy has not been well studied. High dose corticosteroids are considered first line therapy.
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusions
\n
Radiation therapy is highly effective in CNS malignancies. Nevertheless, the rate limiting step in treatment is associated with adverse side effects to healthy tissue. As the treatment of CNS malignancies advance with novel therapies and ever evolving therapeutic combinations, the goal of minimizing treatment side effects remains the same. Significant progress has been made in attempting to understand the dynamic mechanisms of brain injury caused by irradiation to healthy tissue. As patients continue to live longer, central nervous system side effects are of utmost importance to recognize and treat. Radiation oncologists among other cancer specialists are putting keen focus and effort towards increasing and optimizing quality-of-life in addition to overall survival in cancer patients.
\n
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
\n
Authors do not have conflicts of interest to declare.
\n
\n',keywords:"cranial irradiation, CNS toxicity, stereotactic radiosurgery, radionecrosis, radiation induced brain toxicity",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66552.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66552.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66552",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66552",totalDownloads:311,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 19th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 23rd 2019",datePrePublished:"April 3rd 2019",datePublished:"January 29th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Along with surgery and chemotherapy, radiation therapy is an essential treatment option for metastatic and primary tumors of the central nervous system. Radiation toxicity may be compartmentalized into three subcategories including acute toxicities, early-delayed and late delayed effects. Radiation induced toxicity spans from self-limiting fatigue to more serious delayed side effects of radionecrosis. Stereotactic radiosurgery has recently emerged as a highly focused delivery method of tumoricidal irradiation with promising results compared to whole brain irradiation in many cases. Recognizing and understanding toxicity from cranial irradiation can help guide therapy as ever evolving new technologies develop within this integral component of cancer treatment.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66552",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66552",book:{slug:"brain-and-spinal-tumors-primary-and-secondary"},signatures:"Jason Naziri and Steven J. DiBiase",authors:[{id:"285921",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"DiBiase",fullName:"Steven DiBiase",slug:"steven-dibiase",email:"sed9088@med.cornell.edu",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286304",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Naziri",fullName:"Jason Naziri",slug:"jason-naziri",email:"jnaziri2@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Acute and early-delayed toxicities of cranial irradiation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Fatigue",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Alopecia and radiation dermatitis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Late-delayed toxicities of cranial irradiation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Cumulative effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Long term delayed effects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Stereotactic radiosurgery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Hypopituitarism induced by radiation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Radiation induced optic neuropathy and stereotactic radiosurgery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Toxicities of spinal cord irradiation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Li YQ , Jay V, Wong CS. Oligodendrocytes in the adult rat spinal cord undergo radiation-induced apoptosis. Cancer Research. 1996;56(23):5417-5422'},{id:"B2",body:'Belka C et al. Radiation induced CNS toxicity—Molecular and cellular mechanisms. British Journal of Cancer. 2001;85(9):1233-1239'},{id:"B3",body:'Kim JH et al. Mechanisms of radiation-induced brain toxicity and implications for future clinical trials. Journal of Neuro-Oncology. 2008;87(3):279-286'},{id:"B4",body:'Limoli CL et al. Redox changes induced in hippocampal precursor cells by heavy ion irradiation. Radiation and Environmental Biophysics. 2007;46(2):167-172'},{id:"B5",body:'Fike JR, Rola R, Limoli CL. Radiation response of neural precursor cells. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America. 2007;18(1):115-127, x'},{id:"B6",body:'Mizumatsu S et al. Extreme sensitivity of adult neurogenesis to low doses of X-irradiation. Cancer Research. 2003;63(14):4021-4027'},{id:"B7",body:'Douw L et al. Cognitive and radiological effects of radiotherapy in patients with low-grade glioma: Long-term follow-up. Lancet Neurology. 2009;8(9):810-818'},{id:"B8",body:'Robin TP, Rusthoven CG. Strategies to preserve cognition in patients with brain metastases: A review. Frontiers in Oncology. 2018;8:415'},{id:"B9",body:'Gondi V et al. Preservation of memory with conformal avoidance of the hippocampal neural stem-cell compartment during whole-brain radiotherapy for brain metastases (RTOG 0933): A phase II multi-institutional trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2014;32(34):3810-3816'},{id:"B10",body:'Baxter PS, Hardingham GE. Adaptive regulation of the brain’s antioxidant defences by neurons and astrocytes. Free Radical Biology & Medicine. 2016;100:147-152'},{id:"B11",body:'Chow BM, Li YQ , Wong CS. Radiation-induced apoptosis in the adult central nervous system is p53-dependent. Cell Death and Differentiationr. 2000;7(8):712-720'},{id:"B12",body:'Gore EM et al. Phase III comparison of prophylactic cranial irradiation versus observation in patients with locally advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: Primary analysis of radiation therapy oncology group study RTOG 0214. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2011;29(3):272-278'},{id:"B13",body:'Harjani RR, Gururajachar JM, Krishnaswamy U. Comprehensive assessment of somnolence syndrome in patients undergoing radiation to the brain. Reports of Practical Oncology and Radiotherapy. 2016;21(6):560-566'},{id:"B14",body:'Powell C et al. Somnolence syndrome in patients receiving radical radiotherapy for primary brain tumours: A prospective study. Radiotherapy and Oncology. 2011;100(1):131-136'},{id:"B15",body:'Faithfull S, Brada M. Somnolence syndrome in adults following cranial irradiation for primary brain tumours. Clinical Oncology (Royal College of Radiologists). 1998;10(4):250-254'},{id:"B16",body:'Lawenda BD et al. Permanent alopecia after cranial irradiation: Dose-response relationship. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2004;60(3):879-887'},{id:"B17",body:'Nieder C et al. Postoperative treatment and prognosis of patients with resected single brain metastasis: How useful are established prognostic scores? Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 2011;113(2):98-103'},{id:"B18",body:'Chang EL et al. Neurocognition in patients with brain metastases treated with radiosurgery or radiosurgery plus whole-brain irradiation: A randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Oncology. 2009;10(11):1037-1044'},{id:"B19",body:'Aoyama H et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery plus whole-brain radiation therapy vs stereotactic radiosurgery alone for treatment of brain metastases: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2006;295(21):2483-2491'},{id:"B20",body:'Brown PD et al. Effect of radiosurgery alone vs radiosurgery with whole brain radiation therapy on cognitive function in patients with 1 to 3 brain metastases: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016;316(4):401-409'},{id:"B21",body:'Frazier JL et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery in the management of brain metastases: An institutional retrospective analysis of survival. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2010;76(5):1486-1492'},{id:"B22",body:'Rades D et al. A matched-pair analysis comparing whole-brain radiotherapy plus stereotactic radiosurgery versus surgery plus whole-brain radiotherapy and a boost to the metastatic site for one or two brain metastases. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2009;73(4):1077-1081'},{id:"B23",body:'Dore M et al. Stereotactic radiotherapy following surgery for brain metastasis: Predictive factors for local control and radionecrosis. Cancer Radiothérapie. 2017;21(1):4-9'},{id:"B24",body:'Minniti G et al. Single-fraction versus multifraction (3 × 9 Gy) stereotactic radiosurgery for large (>2 cm) brain metastases: A comparative analysis of local control and risk of radiation-induced brain necrosis. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2016;95(4):1142-1148'},{id:"B25",body:'Minniti G et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery for brain metastases: Analysis of outcome and risk of brain radionecrosis. Radiation Oncology. 2011;6:48'},{id:"B26",body:'Ahmed KA et al. Fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy to the post-operative cavity for radioresistant and radiosensitive brain metastases. Journal of Neuro-Oncology. 2014;118(1):179-186'},{id:"B27",body:'Kohutek ZA et al. Long-term risk of radionecrosis and imaging changes after stereotactic radiosurgery for brain metastases. Journal of Neuro-Oncology. 2015;125(1):149-156'},{id:"B28",body:'Korytko T et al. 12 Gy gamma knife radiosurgical volume is a predictor for radiation necrosis in non-AVM intracranial tumors. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2006;64(2):419-424'},{id:"B29",body:'National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Central Nervous System Cancer. 2018. Version 2.2018'},{id:"B30",body:'Keller A et al. Risk of radionecrosis after hypofractionated stereotactic radiotherapy targeting the postoperative resection cavity of brain metastases. Cancer Radiothérapie. 2017;21(5):377-388'},{id:"B31",body:'Blonigen BJ et al. Irradiated volume as a predictor of brain radionecrosis after linear accelerator stereotactic radiosurgery. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2010;77(4):996-1001'},{id:"B32",body:'Petrovich Z et al. Survival and pattern of failure in brain metastasis treated with stereotactic gamma knife radiosurgery. Journal of Neurosurgery. 2002;97(5 Suppl):499-506'},{id:"B33",body:'Chao ST et al. Challenges with the diagnosis and treatment of cerebral radiation necrosis. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2013;87(3):449-457'},{id:"B34",body:'Lam KS et al. Effects of cranial irradiation on hypothalamic-pituitary function—A 5-year longitudinal study in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma. The Quarterly Journal of Medicine. 1991;78(286):165-176'},{id:"B35",body:'Appelman-Dijkstra NM et al. Pituitary dysfunction in adult patients after cranial radiotherapy: Systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2011;96(8):2330-2340'},{id:"B36",body:'Li X et al. Safety and efficacy of fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy and stereotactic radiosurgery for treatment of pituitary adenomas: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 2017;372:110-116'},{id:"B37",body:'Toogood AA. Endocrine consequences of brain irradiation. Growth Hormone & IGF Research. 2004;14(Suppl A):S118-S124'},{id:"B38",body:'Paek SH et al. Integration of surgery with fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy for treatment of nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenomas. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2005;61(3):795-808'},{id:"B39",body:'Stereotactic Radiosurgery and Radiotehrapy of Pituitary Adenomas Clinical White Paper. 2014'},{id:"B40",body:'Leavitt JA et al. Long-term evaluation of radiation-induced optic neuropathy after single-fraction stereotactic radiosurgery. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2013;87(3):524-527'},{id:"B41",body:'Stafford SL et al. A study on the radiation tolerance of the optic nerves and chiasm after stereotactic radiosurgery. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2003;55(5):1177-1181'},{id:"B42",body:'Milano MT et al. Single- and multi-fraction stereotactic radiosurgery dose tolerances of the optic pathways. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 2018'},{id:"B43",body:'Hiniker SM et al. Dose-response modeling of the visual pathway tolerance to single-fraction and hypofractionated stereotactic radiosurgery. Seminars in Radiation Oncology. 2016;26(2):97-104'},{id:"B44",body:'Thariat J et al. Advances in radiation oncology for metastatic bone disease. Bulletin du Cancer. 2013;100(11):1187-1197'},{id:"B45",body:'Rock JP et al. The evolving role of stereotactic radiosurgery and stereotactic radiation therapy for patients with spine tumors. Journal of Neuro-Oncology. 2004;69(1-3):319-334'},{id:"B46",body:'Wenger M. Vertebroplasty for metastasis. Medical Oncology. 2003;20(3):203-209'},{id:"B47",body:'Faruqi S et al. Vertebral compression fracture after spine stereotactic body radiation therapy: A review of the pathophysiology and risk factors. Neurosurgery. 2018;83(3):314-322'},{id:"B48",body:'Yin FF et al. Dosimetric characteristics of Novalis shaped beam surgery unit. Medical Physics. 2002;29(8):1729-1738'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jason Naziri",address:"Jnaziri2@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian, New York, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Steven J. DiBiase",address:null,affiliation:'
Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian, New York, USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7864",title:"Brain and Spinal Tumors",subtitle:"Primary and Secondary",fullTitle:"Brain and Spinal Tumors - Primary and Secondary",slug:"brain-and-spinal-tumors-primary-and-secondary",publishedDate:"January 29th 2020",bookSignature:"Lee Roy Morgan and Feyzi Birol Sarica",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7864.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158053",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee Roy",middleName:null,surname:"Morgan",slug:"lee-roy-morgan",fullName:"Lee Roy Morgan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"65642",title:"Principles of Neuropharmacodynamics: As Applied to Neuro-Oncology",slug:"principles-of-neuropharmacodynamics-as-applied-to-neuro-oncology",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Andrew H. Rodgers",authors:[{id:"193557",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Rodgers",fullName:"Andrew Rodgers",slug:"andrew-rodgers"}]},{id:"65823",title:"IDH-Mutant Gliomas",slug:"-em-idh-em-mutant-gliomas",totalDownloads:1087,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Kensuke Tateishi and Tetsuya Yamamoto",authors:[{id:"280036",title:"Dr.",name:"Kensuke",middleName:null,surname:"Tateishi",fullName:"Kensuke Tateishi",slug:"kensuke-tateishi"},{id:"291758",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsuya",middleName:null,surname:"Yamamoto",fullName:"Tetsuya Yamamoto",slug:"tetsuya-yamamoto"}]},{id:"66498",title:"Intradural Extramedullary Spinal Tumors",slug:"intradural-extramedullary-spinal-tumors",totalDownloads:311,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Saleh Rasras and Arash Kiani",authors:[{id:"141937",title:"Dr.",name:"Saleh",middleName:null,surname:"Rasras",fullName:"Saleh Rasras",slug:"saleh-rasras"}]},{id:"66402",title:"Jugular Foramen Paragangliomas",slug:"jugular-foramen-paragangliomas",totalDownloads:294,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Breno Nery, Rodrigo Antônio Fernandes Costa, Eduardo Quaggio, Ricardo Lopes Araújo, Bernardo Alves Barbosa, Diogo Fabricio Coelho de Melo, Carolina Salviano de Abreu Nery, Fred Bernardes Filho and George Peter Stevens",authors:[{id:"222671",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Breno",middleName:null,surname:"Nery",fullName:"Breno Nery",slug:"breno-nery"},{id:"227518",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo Antônio Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",fullName:"Rodrigo Antônio Fernandes Costa",slug:"rodrigo-antonio-fernandes-costa"},{id:"227520",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Quaggio",fullName:"Eduardo Quaggio",slug:"eduardo-quaggio"},{id:"239608",title:"Dr.",name:"Fred",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardes Filho",fullName:"Fred Bernardes Filho",slug:"fred-bernardes-filho"},{id:"239609",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:"Peter",surname:"Stevens",fullName:"George Stevens",slug:"george-stevens"},{id:"289084",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Araújo",fullName:"Ricardo Araújo",slug:"ricardo-araujo"},{id:"289085",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernardo",middleName:null,surname:"Barbosa",fullName:"Bernardo Barbosa",slug:"bernardo-barbosa"},{id:"289086",title:"Dr.",name:"Diogo",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",fullName:"Diogo Melo",slug:"diogo-melo"},{id:"289087",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",middleName:null,surname:"Nery",fullName:"Carolina Nery",slug:"carolina-nery"}]},{id:"67933",title:"Surgery for Recurrent Glioblastoma",slug:"surgery-for-recurrent-glioblastoma",totalDownloads:230,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Vamsi Krishna Yerramneni, Ramanadha Reddy Kanala, Vasundhara S. Rangan and Thirumal Yerragunta",authors:[{id:"287789",title:"Dr.",name:"Vamsi",middleName:null,surname:"Yerramneni",fullName:"Vamsi Yerramneni",slug:"vamsi-yerramneni"},{id:"300267",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramanadha",middleName:null,surname:"Reddy",fullName:"Ramanadha Reddy",slug:"ramanadha-reddy"},{id:"300268",title:"Dr.",name:"Tirumal",middleName:null,surname:"Yerragunta",fullName:"Tirumal Yerragunta",slug:"tirumal-yerragunta"},{id:"306545",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasundhara",middleName:null,surname:"S Rangan",fullName:"Vasundhara S Rangan",slug:"vasundhara-s-rangan"}]},{id:"66808",title:"Surgical Principles for Spinal and Paraspinal Neurofibromas",slug:"surgical-principles-for-spinal-and-paraspinal-neurofibromas",totalDownloads:549,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Feyzi Birol Sarica",authors:[{id:"45313",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Feyzi Birol",middleName:null,surname:"Sarica",fullName:"Feyzi Birol Sarica",slug:"feyzi-birol-sarica"}]},{id:"65737",title:"The Role of Radiotherapy in the Treatment of Primary Central Nervous System Lymphomas",slug:"the-role-of-radiotherapy-in-the-treatment-of-primary-central-nervous-system-lymphomas",totalDownloads:471,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Meral Kurt, Candan Demiröz Abakay and Ali Altay",authors:[{id:"280071",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Kurt",fullName:"Meral Kurt",slug:"meral-kurt"},{id:"289494",title:"Dr.",name:"Candan",middleName:null,surname:"Demiröz Abakay",fullName:"Candan Demiröz Abakay",slug:"candan-demiroz-abakay"},{id:"289496",title:"MSc.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Altay",fullName:"Ali Altay",slug:"ali-altay"}]},{id:"66552",title:"Toxicity of Cranial and Spinal Cord Irradiation",slug:"toxicity-of-cranial-and-spinal-cord-irradiation",totalDownloads:311,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jason Naziri and Steven J. DiBiase",authors:[{id:"285921",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"DiBiase",fullName:"Steven DiBiase",slug:"steven-dibiase"},{id:"286304",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Naziri",fullName:"Jason Naziri",slug:"jason-naziri"}]},{id:"66348",title:"Pediatric Medulloblastoma: A Radiation Oncologist Perspective",slug:"pediatric-medulloblastoma-a-radiation-oncologist-perspective",totalDownloads:814,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Meenu Gupta and Mushtaq Ahmad",authors:[{id:"258451",title:"Dr.",name:"Meenu",middleName:null,surname:"Gupta",fullName:"Meenu Gupta",slug:"meenu-gupta"},{id:"282805",title:"Dr.",name:"Mushtaq",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Mushtaq Ahmad",slug:"mushtaq-ahmad"}]},{id:"67645",title:"Laser Ablation for Gliomas",slug:"laser-ablation-for-gliomas",totalDownloads:308,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Alexa Semonche, Daniel Eichberg, Ashish Shah and Michael E. Ivan",authors:[{id:"290981",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael E.",middleName:null,surname:"Ivan",fullName:"Michael E. Ivan",slug:"michael-e.-ivan"},{id:"300431",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Eichberg",fullName:"Daniel Eichberg",slug:"daniel-eichberg"},{id:"300436",title:"BSc.",name:"Alexa",middleName:null,surname:"Semonche",fullName:"Alexa Semonche",slug:"alexa-semonche"}]},{id:"67421",title:"Neoplastic Brain, Glioblastoma, and Immunotherapy",slug:"neoplastic-brain-glioblastoma-and-immunotherapy",totalDownloads:265,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Annabelle Trojan, Heliodor Kasprzak, Oscar Gutierrez, Pedro Penagos, Ignacio Briceno, Heber O. Siachoque, Donald D. Anthony, Alvaro Alvarez and Jerzy Trojan",authors:[{id:"160811",title:"Dr.",name:"Jerzy",middleName:null,surname:"Trojan",fullName:"Jerzy Trojan",slug:"jerzy-trojan"}]},{id:"66718",title:"Advances in the Systemic Treatment of Melanoma Brain Metastases",slug:"advances-in-the-systemic-treatment-of-melanoma-brain-metastases",totalDownloads:322,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Philip Friedlander",authors:[{id:"294359",title:"Dr.",name:"Philip",middleName:null,surname:"Friedlander",fullName:"Philip Friedlander",slug:"philip-friedlander"}]},{id:"65549",title:"Angiogenesis in Malignant Gliomas and Bevacizumab Resistance",slug:"angiogenesis-in-malignant-gliomas-and-bevacizumab-resistance",totalDownloads:303,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Scott G. Turner",authors:[{id:"181611",title:"Dr.",name:"Scott",middleName:null,surname:"Turner",fullName:"Scott Turner",slug:"scott-turner"}]},{id:"67611",title:"Innovations in Metastatic Brain Tumor Treatment",slug:"innovations-in-metastatic-brain-tumor-treatment",totalDownloads:342,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Caleb Stewart, Brody Stewart and Marcus L. Ware",authors:[{id:"193559",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:null,surname:"Ware",fullName:"Marcus Ware",slug:"marcus-ware"},{id:"290613",title:"Mr.",name:"Caleb",middleName:null,surname:"Stewart",fullName:"Caleb Stewart",slug:"caleb-stewart"},{id:"290615",title:"Mr.",name:"Brody",middleName:null,surname:"Stewart",fullName:"Brody Stewart",slug:"brody-stewart"}]},{id:"65627",title:"A Nutrition Perspective on the Ketogenic Diet as Therapy for Malignant Brain Cancer",slug:"a-nutrition-perspective-on-the-ketogenic-diet-as-therapy-for-malignant-brain-cancer",totalDownloads:818,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Meredith Morgan",authors:[{id:"280157",title:"Ms.",name:"Meredith",middleName:null,surname:"Morgan",fullName:"Meredith Morgan",slug:"meredith-morgan"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3820",title:"Tumors of the Central Nervous System",subtitle:"Primary and Secondary",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7d48165285bf02f0ea063d2610993d3",slug:"tumors-of-the-central-nervous-system-primary-and-secondary",bookSignature:"Lee Roy Morgan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3820.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158053",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee Roy",surname:"Morgan",slug:"lee-roy-morgan",fullName:"Lee Roy Morgan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"46786",title:"High Grade Glioma — Standard Approach, Obstacles and Future Directions",slug:"high-grade-glioma-standard-approach-obstacles-and-future-directions",signatures:"Siddharth K. Joshi and Richard Zuniga",authors:[{id:"52882",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Zuniga",fullName:"Richard Zuniga",slug:"richard-zuniga"},{id:"170393",title:"Dr.",name:"Siddharth",middleName:null,surname:"Joshi",fullName:"Siddharth Joshi",slug:"siddharth-joshi"}]},{id:"46949",title:"Paediatric Brainstem Cancers — Where We Have Been; Where We Are; Where We Are Going",slug:"paediatric-brainstem-cancers-where-we-have-been-where-we-are-where-we-are-going",signatures:"Adrianna Ranger, Navjot Chaudhary and Jonathan Lau",authors:[{id:"40865",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrianna",middleName:null,surname:"Ranger",fullName:"Adrianna Ranger",slug:"adrianna-ranger"},{id:"170267",title:"Dr.",name:"Navjot",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",fullName:"Navjot Chaudhary",slug:"navjot-chaudhary"},{id:"170268",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Lau",fullName:"Jonathan Lau",slug:"jonathan-lau"}]},{id:"46515",title:"Spatial Relationships of MR Imaging and Positron Emission Tomography with Phenotype, Genotype and Tumor Stem Cell Generation in Glioblastoma Multiforme",slug:"spatial-relationships-of-mr-imaging-and-positron-emission-tomography-with-phenotype-genotype-and-tum",signatures:"Davide Schiffer, Consuelo Valentini, Antonio Melcarne, Marta\nMellai, Elena Prodi, Giovanna Carrara, Tetyana Denysenko, Carola\nJunemann, Cristina Casalone, Cristiano Corona, Valentina Caldera,\nLaura Annovazzi, Angela Piazzi, Paola Cassoni, Rebecca Senetta,\nPiercarlo Fania and Angelina Cistaro",authors:[{id:"50128",title:"Prof.",name:"Davide",middleName:null,surname:"Schiffer",fullName:"Davide Schiffer",slug:"davide-schiffer"},{id:"170605",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Annovazzi",fullName:"Laura Annovazzi",slug:"laura-annovazzi"}]},{id:"46196",title:"New Application of 123I-Iodoamphetamine SPECT for the Diagnosis of Primary Central Nervous System Lymphoma",slug:"new-application-of-123i-iodoamphetamine-spect-for-the-diagnosis-of-primary-central-nervous-system-ly",signatures:"Yasushi Shibata",authors:[{id:"157064",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Shibata",fullName:"Yasushi Shibata",slug:"yasushi-shibata"}]},{id:"46516",title:"Biochemical and Surgical Aspects of Epilepsy Related to Brain Tumors — Appraising Redox Biology and Treatments",slug:"biochemical-and-surgical-aspects-of-epilepsy-related-to-brain-tumors-appraising-redox-biology-and-tr",signatures:"Pinar Atukeren, Taner Tanriverdi and M. Ramazan Yigitoglu",authors:[{id:"54960",title:"Dr.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Atukeren",fullName:"Pınar Atukeren",slug:"pinar-atukeren"},{id:"170714",title:"Dr.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Tanriverdi",fullName:"Taner Tanriverdi",slug:"taner-tanriverdi"},{id:"170715",title:"Prof.",name:"M.Ramazan",middleName:null,surname:"Yigitoglu",fullName:"M.Ramazan Yigitoglu",slug:"m.ramazan-yigitoglu"}]},{id:"46605",title:"Alterations in TP53 gene – Implications in Tumorigenesis Process and Prognosis in Central Nervous System Cancer",slug:"alterations-in-tp53-gene-implications-in-tumorigenesis-process-and-prognosis-in-central-nervous-syst",signatures:"Igor Andrade Pessôa, Fabio P. Estumano da Silva, Nilson Praia\nAnselmo and Edivaldo Herculano C. de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"158040",title:"Dr.",name:"Edivaldo",middleName:"Herculano Correa",surname:"De Oliveira",fullName:"Edivaldo De Oliveira",slug:"edivaldo-de-oliveira"},{id:"158042",title:"MSc.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva",fullName:"Fabio Da Silva",slug:"fabio-da-silva"},{id:"169255",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Pessoa",fullName:"Igor Pessoa",slug:"igor-pessoa"},{id:"170163",title:"Dr.",name:"Nilson",middleName:null,surname:"Anselmo",fullName:"Nilson Anselmo",slug:"nilson-anselmo"}]},{id:"46306",title:"Anti-Angiogenesis, Gene Therapy, and Immunotherapy in Malignant Gliomas",slug:"anti-angiogenesis-gene-therapy-and-immunotherapy-in-malignant-gliomas",signatures:"Paula Province, Alexis Bashinski Shaefer, Benjamin McCullough and\nHassan M Fathallah-Shaykh",authors:[{id:"50232",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:"Mahmoud",surname:"Fathallah-Shaykh",fullName:"Hassan Fathallah-Shaykh",slug:"hassan-fathallah-shaykh"},{id:"170397",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Province",fullName:"Paula Province",slug:"paula-province"}]},{id:"46603",title:"Erlotinib in Glioblastoma – A Current Clinical Perspective",slug:"erlotinib-in-glioblastoma-a-current-clinical-perspective",signatures:"Georg Karpel-Massler and Marc-Eric Halatsch",authors:[{id:"35177",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc-Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Halatsch",fullName:"Marc-Eric Halatsch",slug:"marc-eric-halatsch"},{id:"35183",title:"Dr.",name:"Georg",middleName:null,surname:"Karpel-Massler",fullName:"Georg Karpel-Massler",slug:"georg-karpel-massler"}]},{id:"46752",title:"Comparative Preclinical Pharmacology and Toxicology for 4- demethyl-4-cholesteryloxycarbonylpenclomedine (DM-CHOCPEN) — A Potential Neuro-Alkylating Agent for Glioblastoma (GBM) and Metastatic Cancers Involving the Central Nervous System",slug:"comparative-preclinical-pharmacology-and-toxicology-for-4-demethyl-4-cholesteryloxycarbonylpenclomed",signatures:"Lee Roy Morgan, Andrew H. Rodgers, Gerard Bastian, Edmund\nBenes, William S. Waud, Christopher Papagiannis, Dan Krietlow,\nBranko S. Jursic, Robert F. Struck, Gerald LaHoste, Melissa Thornton,\nMelody Luttrell, Edward Stevens and Rodger Thompson",authors:[{id:"158053",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee Roy",middleName:null,surname:"Morgan",fullName:"Lee Roy Morgan",slug:"lee-roy-morgan"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"70919",title:"Antimicrobial Effect of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90891",slug:"antimicrobial-effect-of-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
The incidence of microbial attack in different sectors such as food, textiles, medicine, water disinfection, and food packaging leads to a constant trend in the search for new antimicrobial substances. The increased resistance of some bacteria to some antibiotics and the toxicity to the human body of some organic antimicrobial substances has increased the interest in the development of inorganic antimicrobial substances. Among these compounds, metal and metal oxide compounds have attracted significant attention due to their broad-spectrum antibacterial activities. On the other hand, nanoscale materials are well known thanks to their increased properties due to their high surface area-to-volume ratio. Antimicrobial NPs have shown excellent and different activities from their bulk properties [1, 2].
\n
During last decades, metal oxide nanoparticles, such as zinc oxide (ZnO), manganese oxide (MgO), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and iron oxide (Fe2O3), have been extensively applicable thanks to their unique physiochemical properties in biological applications. Among metal oxide antimicrobial agents, TiO2 is a valuable semiconducting transition metal oxide material and shows special features, such as easy control, reduced cost, non-toxicity, and good resistance to chemical erosion, that allow its application in optics, solar cells, chemical sensors, electronics, antibacterial and antifungal agents [3]. In general, TiO2 nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) present large surface area, excellent surface morphology, and non-toxicity in nature. Several authors have reported that TiO2 NPs have been one of the most studied NPs thanks to their photocatalytic antimicrobial activity, exerting excellent bio-related activity against bacterial contamination [4, 5, 6, 7].
\n
Antimicrobial activity of nanoparticles is highly influenced by several intrinsic factors such as their morphology, size, chemistry, source, and nanostructure [8, 9, 10, 11]. Specifically, antimicrobial activity of TiO2 NPs is greatly dependent on photocatalytic performance of TiO2, which depends strongly on its morphological, structural, and textural properties [12]. Several TiO2 NPs have been developed through different methods of synthesis. Specifically, in this chapter, eco-friendly synthesis based on biological sources, such as natural plant extracts and metabolites from microorganisms, which have resulted in TiO2 NPs with different size, shape, morphology, and crystalline structures will be presented. Titanium dioxide produces amorphous and crystalline forms and primarily can occur in three crystalline polymorphous: anatase, rutile, and brookite. Studies on synthesis have stated that the crystalline structure and morphology of TiO2 NPs is influenced by process parameters such as hydrothermal temperatures, starting concentration of acids, etc. [13]. The crystal structures and the shape of TiO2 NPs are both the most important properties that affect their physicochemical properties, and therefore their antimicrobial properties [14]. Regarding the crystal structures, anatase presents the highest photocatalytic and antimicrobial activity. Some works have shown that anatase structure can produce OH˙ radicals in a photocatalytic reaction, and as it will be clearly explained below, bacteria wall and membranes can be deadly affected [15, 16].
\n
\n
\n
2. Antimicrobial activity of titanium dioxide NPs
\n
\n
2.1 Latest tendencies on TiO2 nanoparticle synthesis
\n
The potential health impact and toxicity to the environment of NPs is currently an important matter to be addressed. Several works have confirmed that metal oxide NPs conventionally synthesized using chemical methods, such as sol–gel synthesis and chemical vapor deposition, have shown different levels of toxicity to test organisms [17, 18, 19, 20]. In recent years, researchers have emphasized on the development of nanoparticles promoted through environmental sustainability and processes characterized by an ecological view, mild reaction conditions, and non-toxic precursors. Due to this growing sensitivity toward green chemistry and biological processes, ecological processes are currently being investigated for the synthesis of non-toxic nanoparticles.
\n
These biological methods are considered safe, cost-effective, biocompatible, non-toxic, sustainable, and environmentally friendly processes [20]. Furthermore, it has been described that chemically synthesized NPs have exhibited less stability and added agglomeration, resulting in biologically synthesized NPs that are more dispersible, stable in size, and the processes consuming less energy [21].
\n
These biosynthetic methods, also called “green synthesis,” use various biological resources available in nature, including live plant [22], plant products, plant extracts, algae, fungi, yeasts [23], bacteria [24], and virus for the synthesis of NPs. Among these methods, the processes that use plant-based materials are considered the most suitable for large-scale green synthesis of NPs with respect to their ease and safety [25]. On the other hand, the reduction rate of metal ions in the presence of the plant extract is much faster compared to microorganisms, and provides stable particles [26]. Plants contain biomolecules that have been highly studied by researchers like phenols, nitrogen compounds, terpenoids, and other metabolites. It is well known that the hydroxyl and carboxylic groups present in these biocompounds act as stabilizers and reducing agents due to their high antioxidant activity [12]. Thus, plant extracts have been studied as one of the best green alternatives for metal oxide nanoparticles synthesis [27]. In recent years, TiO2 nanoparticles have been obtained by using different plant extracts, but not all of them have been studied for their antimicrobial activity. Table 1 presents a compilation of synthesized TiO2 nanoparticles from green synthesis by using plant extracts that were tested against different microorganisms.
\nE. faecalis, S. aureus, S. faecalis, B. subtilis., Y. enterocolitica, P. vulgaris, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, and C. albicans (agar diffusion)
Different factors need to be evaluated in this research field in order to obtain TiO2 NPs with better properties and to maintain their biocompatibility. It has been shown that nanoparticles obtained from green synthesis can have a better morphology and size translated into better antimicrobial activity. Mobeen and Sundaram have obtained TiO2 NPs from titanium tetrachloride precursor through a chemical and a green synthesis method. Sulfuric acid and ammonium hydroxide were used in the chemical-based method and, in the green synthesis, those chemical reagents were replaced by an orange peel extract [32]. The nanoparticles obtained by using the natural extract presented a well-defined and smaller crystalline nature (approx. 17.30 nm) compared to the nanoparticles synthesized through the chemical method (21.61 nm). Both methods resulted in anatase crystalline structures, and, when evaluating the antimicrobial activity, the more eco-friendly NPs revealed higher bactericidal activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria compared to the chemically synthesized nanoparticles.
\n
Bavanilatha et al. have also detailed TiO2 NPs green synthesis with Glycyrrhiza glabra root extract. Antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumonia were investigated and in vivo toxicity tests using the zebrafish embryonic model (Danio rerio) were also carried out [33]. Results have demonstrated their biocompatibility because healthy embryos of adult fish to different variations of NP and no distinctive malformations were observed at every embryonic stage with respect to embryonic controls.
\n
Subhapriya and Gomathipriya have biosynthesized TiO2 NPs by using a Trigonella foenum-graecum leaf extract, obtaining spherical NPs and their size varied between 20 and 90 nm, and their antimicrobial activity was evaluated through the standard method of disc diffusion [21]. The NPs showed significant antimicrobial activity against Yersinia enterocolitica (10.6 mm), Escherichia coli (10.8 mm), Staphylococcus aureus (11.2 mm), Enterococcus faecalis (11.4 mm), and Streptococcus faecalis (11.6 mm). Results confirmed developed TiO2 NPs as an effective antimicrobial drug that can lead to the progression of new antimicrobial drugs.
\n
Spherical TiO2 NPs were synthesized from plants, in particular by applying a Morinda citrifolia leaf extract, and through advanced hydrothermal method [31]. Developed TiO2 NPs showed a size between 15 and 19 nm in an excellent quasispherical shape. In addition, their antimicrobial activity was tested against human pathogens, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger. TiO2 NPs exhibited interesting antimicrobial activity, principally against Gram-positive bacteria.
\n
In addition to plants, other organisms can produce inorganic compounds at an intra or extracellular level. The synthesis of TiO2 NPs through microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and yeasts, also meets the requirements and the exponentially growing technological demand toward eco-friendly strategies, by avoiding the use of toxic chemicals in the synthesis and protocols [34]. The metabolites generated by microorganism present bioreducing, capping, and stabilizing properties that improve the NPs synthesis performance. Jayaseelan et al. have stated glycyl-L-proline, one of the most abundant metabolite from Aeromonas hydrophilia bacteria, as the main compound that acted as a capping and stabilizing agent during TiO2 NPs green synthesis [35]. Moreover, the interest in fungi in green synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles has increased over last years. Fungi enzymes and/or metabolites also present intrinsically the potential to obtain elemental or ionic state metals from their corresponding salts [34, 36]. Different works based on the green synthesis of TiO2 NPs from bacteria and fungus are presented in Table 2. Some of them have been synthesized with antimicrobial and antifungal purposes, and their target microorganisms are also declared.
Examples of TiO2 NPs synthesis through microorganisms, both bacteria and fungus strains.
\n
Two important factors that affect NPs synthesis are the type of microorganisms and their source. Some microorganisms widely used in the food industry are Lactobacillus, a bacterium used in dairy products and as a probiotic supplement, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a yeast commonly used in bakery. Jha et al. have investigated the effectiveness of both microorganisms to synthesize TiO2 NPs. A comparison between synthesis through Lactobacillus from yogurt and probiotic tablets resulted in different NP sizes: a particle size of 15–70 nm for yogurt, and 10–25 nm for tablets. This difference was due to the purity of the bacteria [40]. In general, TiO2 NP synthesis through microorganisms has not provided stable sizes, being not industrially scalable compared to the synthesis of nanoparticles from plants.
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Antimicrobial activity of TiO2 NPs
\n
Harmful bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Burkholderia cepacia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium difficile, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Acinetobacter baumannii, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, are responsible for bacterial infections that can cause serious diseases in humans year after year [40]. The principal solution is the use of antibiotics, antimicrobial and antifungal agents. Nevertheless, in recent years there has been an increase in the resistance of several bacterial strains to these substances, and therefore there is currently a great interest in the search for new antimicrobial substances. The antimicrobial nanoparticles have been studied due to their high activity, specifically the metal oxide nanoparticles [41, 42, 43]. In this sense, titanium dioxide nanoparticles are one of the antimicrobial NPs whose study has gained interest during last years.
\n
TiO2 is a thermally stable and biocompatible chemical compound with high photocatalytic activity and has presented good results against bacterial contamination [44]. Table 3 presents some research including the antimicrobial capacity of TiO2 NPs.
TiO2 nanoparticles against different microorganisms and their antimicrobial activities.
\n
The principal factors differentiating the antimicrobial activity between TiO2 NPs were their morphology, crystal nature, and size. According to López de Dicastillo et al. [11], hollow TiO2 nanotubes presented interesting antimicrobial reduction thanks to the enhancement of specific surface area. This fact can be explained by the nature of titanium dioxide, and one of the main mechanisms of its action is through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on its surface during the process of photocatalysis when it exposed to light at an appropriate wavelength. It is important to highlight that some research works have evidenced antimicrobial activity of TiO2 NPs increased when they were irradiated with UV-A light due to the photocatalytic nature of this oxide. The time of irradiation varied between 20 min [45] and 3 hours [50].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Understanding the antimicrobial mechanism of TiO2 NPs toward bacteria
\n
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) are one of the most studied materials in the area of antimicrobial applications due to its particular abilities, such as bactericidal photocatalytic activity, safety, and self-cleaning properties. The mechanism referred to the antimicrobial action of TiO2 is commonly associated to reactive oxygen species (ROS) with high oxidative potentials produced under band-gap irradiation photo-induces charge in the presence of O2 [51]. ROS affect bacterial cells by different mechanisms leading to their death. Antimicrobial substances with broad spectrum activity against microorganisms (Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and fungi) are of particular importance to overcome the MDR (multidrug resistance) generated by traditional antibiotic site-specific.
\n
The main photocatalytic characteristic of TiO2 is a wide band gap of 3.2 eV, which can trigger the generation of high-energy electron–hole pair under UV-A light with wavelength of 385 nm or lower [52]. As mentioned above for bulk powder, TiO2 NPs have the same mechanism based on the ROS generation with the advantage of being at nanoscale. This nanoscale nature implies an important increase of surface area-to-volume ratio that provides maximum contact with environment water and oxygen [53] and a minimal size, which can easily penetrate the cell wall and cell membrane, enabling the increase of the intracellular oxidative damage.
\n
Bacteria have enzymatic antioxidant defense systems like catalases and superoxide dismutase, in addition to natural antioxidants like ascorbic acid, carotene, and tocopherol, which inhibit lipid peroxidation or O-singlet and the effects of ROS radicals such as OH2˙− and OH˙. When those systems are exceeded, a set of redox reactions can lead to the death cell by the alteration of different essential structures (cell wall, cell membrane, DNA, etc.) and metabolism routes [54]. In the following sections, several ways that cellular structures were affected in the presence of TiO2 NPs will be described. In order to understand the genome responses of bacteria to TiO2-photocatalysis, some biological approaches related to expression of genes encoding to defense and repair mechanism of microorganism will explained below. Different mechanisms and processes of antimicrobial activity of TiO2 NPs are represented as a global scheme in Figure 1.
\n
Figure 1.
Scheme of main antimicrobial activity-based processes.
\n
\n
3.1 Cell wall
\n
ROS are responsible for the damage by oxidation of many organic structures of microorganisms. One of them is the cell wall, which is the first defense barrier against any injury from the environment, thus being the first affected by oxidative damage. Depending on the type of microorganism, the cell wall will have different composition; that is, in fungi and yeast, cell walls are mainly composed of chitin and polysaccharides [55], Gram-positive bacteria contain many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acid, and Gram-negative bacteria present a thin layer of peptidoglycan surrounded by a secondary lipid membrane reinforced with transmembrane lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins [56]. Thus, the effect of TiO2 NPs will be slightly different depending type of microorganism.
\n
It has been studied that the composition of the cell wall in Pichia pastoris (yeast) changed in the presence of TiO2, increasing the chitin content in response to the ROS effects [57]. The cell wall of Escherichia coli (Gram-negative) composed of lipo-polysaccharide, phosphatidyl-ethanolamine, and peptidoglycan has been reported to be sensitive to the peroxidation caused by TiO2 [58]. The damage can be quantified by assessing the production of malondialdehyde (MDA), which is a biomarker of lipid peroxidation, or through ATR-FTIR of the supernatant of cell culture, which evidenced the way that porins and proteins on the outer membrane were affected, probably as a result of greater exposure to the surface of TiO2 [59]. In fungi, the release of OH˙ captured hydrogen atoms from sugar subunits of polysaccharides, which composed the cell wall, leading to the cleavage of polysaccharide chain and the exposition of cell membrane [60].
\n
In terms of genetic issues, there is evidence that the bacteria change the level expression of certain genes encoding for proteins involved in lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan metabolism, pilus biosynthesis, and protein insertion related to the cell wall which values were lower-expressed after exposition to TiO2 NPs [61].
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Cell membrane
\n
The second usual cellular target of most of antibiotics is the cell membrane mainly composed by phospholipids, which grant the cell a non-rigid cover, permeability, and protection. Most of the studies with TiO2 NPs have been focused to the loss of membrane integrity caused by oxidation of phospholipids due to ROS such hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide [62, 63], which led to an increase in the membrane fluidity, leakage of cellular content, and eventually cell lysis.
\n
Gram-positive bacteria present only one membrane protected by many layers of peptidoglycan, whereas Gram-negative bacteria are composed by two membranes, inner and outer, and a thin layer of peptidoglycan between them. The outer membrane is exposed, thus, more liable to mechanical breakage due to the lack of peptidoglycan protective cover, like in Gram-positive bacteria [64]. Some studies have demonstrated a better antimicrobial performance of TiO2 NPs against Gram-positive bacteria [65] while others reported that Gram-negative bacteria were more resistant [66, 67]. It can be concluded that the bacterial inactivation effectiveness depends mainly on the resistant capacity of cell wall structures and the damage level of ROS generation [68].
\n
In contrast with the lower expression of genes related to the cell wall seen before, the level expression of genes encoding for enzymes involved in metabolism of lipid essential for the cell membrane structure, are over-expressed [61]. It would be concluded that cells compensate the initial cell wall damage by reinforcing the second defense barrier, the cell membrane, in a way to provide support against the oxidation produced by ROS.
\n
In fungi, the biocidal effect is not quite different. In the presence of TiO2 NPs and UV light, hydroxyl radicals, hydrogen peroxide, and superoxide anions initially promote oxidation of the membrane, leading to an unbalance in the cell permeability, even decomposition of cell walls [69]. This oxidation can inhibit cell respiration by affecting intracellular membranes in mitochondria. Studies have demonstrated biocidal effects on Penicillium expansum [70], but there is still research on other strains.
\n
Beyond the relatively well-studied initial lipoperoxidation attack of TiO2 NPs on the outer/inner cell membrane of the microorganism, specific mechanisms are still aimed of being solved.
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Inhibition of respiratory chain
\n
As the oxidative damage generates lipoperoxidation of cell membranes due to their lipid nature, the respiratory chain, which takes place in the double-membrane mitochondria, is also affected. This organelle is a natural source of ROS in aerobic metabolism because superoxide anions are produced in the electron transfer respiratory chain process. Mitochondria can control this fact by converting them into H2O2 by superoxide dismutase (SOD), and finally into water by glutathione peroxidase and catalase [71]. The presence of TiO2 NPs increases the production of ROS at levels that this enzymatic defense mechanism cannot attenuate the damage, even a dysregulation in electron transfer through the mitochondrial respiratory chain implies an increase in ROS generation [72].
\n
The genetic approaches have indicated that changes in level expression in genes related to the energy production in mitochondria prioritize the most efficient pathway to uptake oxygen, which is through ubiquinol coenzyme [61]. This coenzyme presented a higher capacity to exchange electrons, while the coenzyme-independent oxygen uptake pathways were expressed at lower level.
\n
\n
\n
3.4 DNA
\n
Damage at molecular level in DNA affects all regulatory microorganism metabolism, replication, transcription, and cell division. DNA is particularly sensitive to oxidative damage because oxygen radicals, specially OH˙ produced by Fenton reaction [73], may attack the sugar-phosphate or the nucleobases and cause saccharide fragmentation aimed to the strand break [74].
\n
DNA strand modifications are more lethal than base modifications (punctual mutation). Mitochondrial DNA is more vulnerable to oxidative damage than nuclear DNA because it is closer to a major cellular ROS source [75].
\n
Besides the enzymatic detoxification system (SOD, glutathione and catalase), DNA injuries are covered by a set of structures related to post-translational modification, protein turnover, chaperones (related to folding), DNA replication and repair, which are significantly over-expressed in the presence of TiO2 NPs [61].
\n
\n
\n
3.5 Assimilation and transport of iron and inorganic phosphate (Pi)
\n
Iron is an essential ion for cell growth and survival, but it can turn potentially toxic if some malfunction in homeostatic regulation occurs (i.e., Fenton reaction that produces ROS). Bacteria are able to regulate iron concentration in order to maintain it in a physiological range [76]. This regulation involves directly siderophores to active transport of iron in cell [77], whose coding genes related to siderophore synthesis and iron transport protein are significantly lower-expressed in the presence of TiO2 NPs, decreasing the ability to assimilate and transport it, leading to cell death [61]. The loss of homeostasis regulation was confirmed by ICP-MS analysis, which revealed that the presence of TiO2 NPs significantly reduced the cellular iron level in Pseudomonas brassicacearum, directly proportional to the cell viability [78].
\n
Regarding the functions related to Pi group (PO4\n3−) uptake, major differences were found in the expression of set of genes contained in Pho regulon, which were significantly lower when compared to the control [61]. The Pho regulon is a regulatory network in bacteria, yeast, plants, and animals, related to assimilation of inorganic phosphate, merely available in nature, and essential to nutritional cross-talk, secondary metabolite production, and pathogenesis [79].
\n
This suggested that the microorganisms were highly deficient in phosphorus uptake and metabolism in the presence of TiO2 NPs. It should be also noted that the Pho regulon has been reported to regulate biofilm synthesis capacity and pathogenicity [80].
\n
\n
\n
3.6 Cell-to-cell communication
\n
TiO2 NPs can directly oxidize components of cell signaling pathways and even change the gene expression by interfering with transcription factors [81]. There is evidence to confirm the interference of TiO2 NPs in biosynthesis pathways of signaling molecules that bind lipopolysaccharide, stabilize and protect the cell wall against oxidative damage [82]. Moreover, a significant decrease in the synthesis of quorum-sensing signal molecule related to functions like pathogenesis and biofilm development was observed. This was corroborated through Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of bacteria (P. aeruginosa) growth in the presence of TiO2 NPs without UV irradiation. Cells appeared mainly non-aggregated and dispersed in the substratum, compared with controls without NPs where cells were mainly aggregated by lateral contact. This suggested that TiO2 NPs not only affected microorganisms by oxidative damage, but also bacteria aggregation and biofilm formation, which directly influenced in pathogenicity [83].
\n
In plants and algae, ROS can act as signaling intermediates in the process of transcription factor controlling stress response by H2O2, which is activated by a GSH peroxidase, and not by peroxides directly. But there is still lack of research in this area [84].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusions
\n
The control of morphology and crystal structure of TiO2 NPs is the most important factor to enhance their antimicrobial activity. The appropriate design based on desirable surface properties given by shaped nanoparticles can improve effectiveness that is also dependent on the type of bacteria. The route of synthesis of TiO2 NPs is also a key factor. Recent works have revealed more eco-friendly synthesis methods, principally based on plant-based compounds and microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungus. Antimicrobial activity of different TiO2 NPs against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria including antibiotic-resistant strains has been confirmed in different works.
\n
Specific studies on antimicrobial mechanisms have evidenced that microorganism exposed to photocatalytic TiO2 NPs exhibited cell inactivation at regulatory network and signaling levels, an important decrease in the activity of respiratory chain, and inhibition in the ability to assimilate and transport iron and phosphorous. These processes with the extensive cell wall and membrane alterations were the main factors that explain the biocidal activity of TiO2 NPs.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors acknowledge the financial support of CONICYT through the Project Fondecyt Regular 1170624 and “Programa de Financiamiento Basal para Centros Científicos y Tecnológicos de Excelencia” Project FB0807, and CORFO Project 17CONTEC-8367.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"titanium dioxide, nanoparticles, green synthesis, antimicrobial activity",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70919.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70919.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70919",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70919",totalDownloads:688,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"August 31st 2019",dateReviewed:"December 18th 2019",datePrePublished:"January 27th 2020",datePublished:"March 3rd 2021",dateFinished:"January 27th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The widespread use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, and therefore a current concern for food safety and human health. The interest for new antimicrobial substances has been focused toward metal oxide nanoparticles. Specifically, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been considered as an attractive antimicrobial compound due to its photocatalytic nature and because it is a chemically stable, non-toxic, inexpensive, and Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) substance. Several studies have revealed this metal oxide demonstrates excellent antifungal and antibacterial properties against a broad range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These properties were significantly improved by titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) synthesis. In this chapter, latest developments on routes of synthesis of TiO2 NPs and antimicrobial activity of these nanostructures are presented. Furthermore, TiO2 NPs favor the inactivation of microorganisms due to their strong oxidizing power by free radical generation, such as hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals, showing reductions growth against several microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Understanding the main mechanisms of antimicrobial action of these nanoparticles was the second main purpose of this chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70919",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70919",signatures:"Carol López de Dicastillo, Matias Guerrero Correa, Fernanda B. Martínez, Camilo Streitt and Maria José Galotto",book:{id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A One Health Perspective",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",publishedDate:"March 3rd 2021",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"244902",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez De Dicastillo",fullName:"Carol Lopez De Dicastillo",slug:"carol-lopez-de-dicastillo",email:"analopez.dediscastillo@usach.cl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"315494",title:"Mr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Correa",fullName:"Matias Guerrero Correa",slug:"matias-guerrero-correa",email:"matias.guerreroc@usach.cl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"315495",title:"Ms.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"B. Martínez",fullName:"Fernanda B. Martínez",slug:"fernanda-b.-martinez",email:"fernanda.bustos@usach.cl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"315496",title:"Mr.",name:"Camilo",middleName:null,surname:"Zuñiga",fullName:"Camilo Zuñiga",slug:"camilo-zuniga",email:"antiman.camilo@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"315497",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria José",middleName:null,surname:"Galotto",fullName:"Maria José Galotto",slug:"maria-jose-galotto",email:"maria.galotto@usach.cl",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Antimicrobial activity of titanium dioxide NPs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Latest tendencies on TiO2 nanoparticle synthesis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Antimicrobial activity of TiO2 NPs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Understanding the antimicrobial mechanism of TiO2 NPs toward bacteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Cell wall",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Cell membrane",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 Inhibition of respiratory chain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4 DNA",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.5 Assimilation and transport of iron and inorganic phosphate (Pi)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.6 Cell-to-cell communication",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nHajipour MJ, Fromm KM, Akbar Ashkarran A, Jimenez de Aberasturi D, de Larramendi IR, Rojo T, et al. Antibacterial properties of nanoparticles. Trends in Biotechnology. 2012;30:499-511. DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2012.06.004\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nWhitesides G. Nanoscience, nanotechnology, and chemistry. Small. 2005;1:172-179. DOI: 10.1002/smll.200400130\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nKhan SUM, Al-Shahry M, Ingler WB. Efficient photochemical water splitting by a chemically modified n-TiO2. Science. 2002;297:2243-2245. DOI: 10.1126/science.1075035.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nChung IM, Park I, Seung-Hyun K, Thiruvengadam M, Rajakumar G. Plant-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Their characteristic properties and therapeutic applications. Nanoscale Research Letters. 2016;11:1-14. DOI: 10.1186/s11671-016-1257-4\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nBui AKT, Bacic A, Pettolino F. Polysaccharide composition of the fruit juice of Morinda citrifolia (noni). Phytochemistry. 2006;67:1271-1275. DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2006.04.023\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nRavikumar P, Kumar SS. Antifungal activity of extracellularly synthesized silver nanoparticles from Morinda citrifolia L. International Journal of Technical Research and Applications. 2014;2:108-111\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nInbathamizh L, Ponnu TM, Mary EJ. In vitro evaluation of antioxidant and anticancer potential of Morinda pubescens synthesized silver nanoparticles. Journal of Pharmacy Research. 2013;6:32-38. DOI: 10.1016/j.jopr.2012.11.010\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nDe Oliveira RC, de Foggi CC, Teixeira MM, Da Silva MDP, Assis M, Francisco EM, et al. Mechanism of antibacterial activity via morphology change of α-AgVO3: Theoretical and experimental insights. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 2017;9:11472-11481. DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b00920\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nPal S, Tak YK, Song JM. Does the antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles depend on the shape of the nanoparticle? A study of the gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2007;73:1712-1720. DOI: 10.1128/AEM.02218-06\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nGilbertson LM, Albalghiti EM, Fishman ZS, Perreault F, Corredor C, Posner JD, et al. Shape-dependent surface reactivity and antimicrobial activity of nano-cupric oxide. Environmental Science & Technology. 2016;50:3975-3984. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05734\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nLópez de Dicastillo C, Patiño C, Galotto MJ, Palma JL, Alburquenque D, Escrig J. Novel antimicrobial titanium dioxide nanotubes obtained through a combination of atomic layer deposition and electrospinning technologies. Nanomaterials. 2018;8:128. DOI: 10.3390/nano8020128\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nHe Z, Cai Q , Fang H, Situ G, Qiu J, Song S, et al. Photocatalytic activity of TiO2 containing anatase nanoparticles and rutile nanoflower structure consisting of nanorods. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2013;25:2460-2468. DOI: 10.1016/S1001-0742(12)60318-0\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nSarkar D, Ghosh CK, Chattopadhyay KK. Morphology control of rutile TiO2 hierarchical architectures and their excellent field emission properties. CrystEngComm. 2012;14:2683-2690. DOI: 10.1039/c2ce06392a\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nBurda C, Chen X, Narayanan R, El-Sayed MA. Chemistry and properties of nanocrystals of different shapes. Chemical Reviews. 2005;105:1025-1102. DOI: 10.1021/cr030063a\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nZhang Q , Yan X, Shao R, Dai H, Li S. Preparation of nano-TiO2 by liquid hydrolysis and characterization of its antibacterial activity. Journal Wuhan University of Technology, Materials Science Edition. 2014;29:407-409. DOI: 10.1007/s11595-014-0930-7\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nVimbela GV, Ngo SM, Fraze C, Yang L, Stout DA. Antibacterial properties and toxicity from metallic nanomaterials. International Journal of Nanomedicine. 2017;12:3941-3965. DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S134526\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nPuzyn T, Rasulev B, Gajewicz A, Hu X, Dasari TP, Michalkova A, et al. Using nano-QSAR to predict the cytotoxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles. Nature Nanotechnology. 2011;6:175-178. DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2011.10\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nHe X, Fu P, Aker WG, Hwang HM. Toxicity of engineered nanomaterials mediated by nano–bio–eco interactions. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part C Environmental Carcinogenesis and Ecotoxicology Reviews. 2018;36:21-42. DOI: 10.1080/10590501.2017.1418793\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nHwang HM, Ray PC, Yu H, He X. Toxicology of designer/engineered metallic nanoparticles. In book: Sustainable preparation of metal nanoparticles. 2012:190-212. Chapter 8. DOI: 10.1039/9781849735469-00190\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nShah M, Fawcett D, Sharma S, Tripathy SK, Poinern GEJ. Green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles via biological entities. Materials. 2015;8:7278-7308. DOI: 10.3390/ma8115377\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nSubhapriya S, Gomathipriya P. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles by Trigonella foenum-graecum extract and its antimicrobial properties. Microbial Pathogenesis. 2018;116:215-220. DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2018.01.027\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nBali R, Razak N, Lumb A, Harris AT. The synthesis of metallic nanoparticles inside live plants. In: Proc. 2006 Int. Conf. Nanosci. Nanotechnology, ICONN. 2006. pp. 224-227. DOI: 10.1109/ICONN.2006.340592\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nMoghaddam AB, Moniri M, Azizi S, Rahim RA, Bin AA, Saad WZ, et al. Biosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles by a new Pichia kudriavzevii yeast strain and evaluation of their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Molecules. 2017;22(6):872. DOI: 10.3390/molecules22060872\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nJha Z, Behar N, Narayan Sharma S, Chandel G, Sharma D, Pandey MP, et al. Nanotechnology: Prospects of agricultural advancement. Nano Vision. 2011;1:88-100\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nJose Varghese R, Zikalala N, Sakho EHM, Oluwafemi OS. Green synthesis protocol on metal oxide nanoparticles using plant extracts. Colloidal Metal Oxide Nanoparticles. 2020:67-82. Chapter 5. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-813357-6.00006-1\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nNasrollahzadeh M, Maham M, Mohammad Sajadi S. Green synthesis of CuO nanoparticles by aqueous extract of Gundelia tournefortii and evaluation of their catalytic activity for the synthesis of N-monosubstituted ureas and reduction of 4-nitrophenol. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 2015;455:245-253. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2015.05.045\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nNadeem M, Tungmunnithum D, Hano C, Abbasi BH, Hashmi SS, Ahmad W, et al. The current trends in the green syntheses of titanium oxide nanoparticles and their applications. Green Chemistry Letters and Reviews. 2018;11:492-502. DOI: 10.1080/17518253.2018.1538430\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nThakur BK, Kumar A, Kumar D. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Azadirachta indica leaf extract and evaluation of their antibacterial activity. South African Journal of Botany. 2019;124:223-227. DOI: 10.1016/j.sajb.2019.05.024\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nSanthoshkumar T, Rahuman AA, Jayaseelan C, Rajakumar G, Marimuthu S, Kirthi AV, et al. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Psidium guajava extract and its antibacterial and antioxidant properties. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2014;7:968-976. DOI: 10.1016/S1995-7645(14)60171-1\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nAmbika S, Sundrarajan M. [EMIM] BF 4 ionic liquid-mediated synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles using Vitex negundo Linn extract and its antibacterial activity. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2016;221:986-992. DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2016.06.079\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nSundrarajan M, Bama K, Bhavani M, Jegatheeswaran S, Ambika S, Sangili A, et al. Obtaining titanium dioxide nanoparticles with spherical shape and antimicrobial properties using M. citrifolia leaves extract by hydrothermal method. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology. 2017;171:117-124. DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2017.05.003\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nMobeen Amanulla A, Sundaram R. Green synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles using orange peel extract for antibacterial, cytotoxicity and humidity sensor applications. Materials Today Proceedings. 2019;8:323-331. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2019.02.118\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nBavanilatha M, Yoshitha L, Nivedhitha S, Sahithya S. Bioactive studies of TiO2 nanoparticles synthesized using Glycyrrhiza glabra. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology. 2019;19:101131. DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2019.101131\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nRajakumar G, Rahuman AA, Roopan SM, Khanna VG, Elango G, Kamaraj C, et al. Fungus-mediated biosynthesis and characterization of TiO2 nanoparticles and their activity against pathogenic bacteria. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2012;91:23-29. DOI: 10.1016/J.SAA.2012.01.011\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nJayaseelan C, Rahuman AA, Roopan SM, Kirthi AV, Venkatesan J, Kim SK, et al. Biological approach to synthesize TiO2 nanoparticles using Aeromonas hydrophila and its antibacterial activity. Spectrochimica Acta - Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2013;107:82-89. DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2012.12.083\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nBansal V, Rautaray D, Bharde A, Ahire K, Sanyal A, Ahmad A, et al. Fungus-mediated biosynthesis of silica and titania particles. Journal of Materials Chemistry. 2005;15:2583. DOI: 10.1039/b503008k\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nÓrdenes-Aenishanslins NA, Saona LA, Durán-Toro VM, Monrás JP, Bravo DM, Pérez-Donoso JM. Use of titanium dioxide nanoparticles biosynthesized by Bacillus mycoides in quantum dot sensitized solar cells. Microbial Cell Factories. 2014;13:90. DOI: 10.1186/s12934-014-0090-7\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nDhandapani P, Maruthamuthu S, Rajagopal G. Bio-mediated synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles and its photocatalytic effect on aquatic biofilm. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology. 2012;110:43-49. DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2012.03.003\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nSinica DP, Annadurai G. Pelagia research library novel eco-friendly synthesis of titanium oxide nanoparticles by using Planomicrobium sp. and its antimicrobial evaluation. Der Pharmacia. 2013;4:59-66\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nJha AK, Prasad K. Biosynthesis of metal and oxide nanoparticles using lactobacilli from yoghurt and probiotic spore tablets. Biotechnology Journal. 2010;5:285-291. DOI: 10.1002/biot.200900221\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nRaja S, Ramesh V, Thivaharan V. Green biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using Calliandra haematocephala leaf extract, their antibacterial activity and hydrogen peroxide sensing capability. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 2017;10:253-261. DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2015.06.023\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nMüller JC, Botelho GGK, Bufalo AC, Boareto AC, Rattmann YD, Martins ES, et al. Morinda citrifolia Linn (noni): In vivo and in vitro reproductive toxicology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2009;121:229-233. DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.019\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nPai AR, Kavitha S, Shweta Raj S, Priyanka P, Vrinda A, Vivin TS, et al. Green synthesis and characterizations of silver nanoparticles using fresh leaf extract of Morinda citrifolia and its anti-microbial activity studies. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2015;7:459-461\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nMa W, Li J, Liu Y, Ren X, Gu ZG, Xie Z, et al. Preparation and characterization of excellent antibacterial TiO2/N-halamines nanoparticles. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2016;506:284-290. DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2016.06.055\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nChen W-J, Tsai P-J, Chen Y-C. Functional Fe3O4/TiO2 core/shell magnetic nanoparticles as photokilling agents for pathogenic bacteria. Small. 2008;4:485-491. DOI: 10.1002/smll.200701164\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nPodporska-Carroll J, Panaitescu E, Quilty B, Wang L, Menon L, Pillai SC. Antimicrobial properties of highly efficient photocatalytic TiO2 nanotubes. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2015;176-177:70-75. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2015.03.029\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nYuan Y, Ding J, Xu J, Deng J, Guo J. TiO2 nanoparticles co-doped with silver and nitrogen for antibacterial application. Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. 2010;10:4868-4874. DOI: 10.1166/jnn.2010.2225\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nWu B, Huang R, Sahu M, Feng X, Biswas P, Tang YJ. Bacterial responses to Cu-doped TiO2 nanoparticles. Science of the Total Environment. 2010;408:1755-1758. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.11.004\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nTsuang Y-H, Sun J-S, Huang Y-C, Lu C-H, Chang WH-S, Wang C-C. Studies of photokilling of bacteria using titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Artificial Organs. 2008;32:167-174. DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-1594.2007.00530.x\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nLópez de Dicastillo C, Patiño C, Galotto MJ, Vásquez-Martínez Y, Torrent C, Alburquenque D, et al. Novel hollow titanium dioxide nanospheres with antimicrobial activity against resistant bacteria. Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology. 2019;10:1716-1725. DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.10.167\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nVerdier T, Coutand M, Bertron A, Roques C. Antibacterial activity of TiO2 photocatalyst alone or in coatings on E. coli: The influence of methodological aspects. Coatings. 2014;4:670-686. DOI: 10.3390/coatings4030670\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nXie J, Hung YC. Methodology to evaluate the antimicrobial effectiveness of UV-activated TiO2 nanoparticle-embedded cellulose acetate film. Food Control. 2019;106:106690. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.06.016\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nKaladhar Reddy A, Kambalyal PB, Shanmugasundaram K, Rajesh V, Donthula S, Patil SR. Comparative evaluation of antimicrobial efficacy of silver, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles against streptococcus mutans. Pesquisa Brasileira Em Odontopediatria e Clinica Integrada. 2018;18:1-8. DOI: 10.4034/PBOCI.2018.181.88\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nKiwi J, Rtimi S. Mechanisms of the antibacterial effects of TiO 2 -FeO x under solar or visible light: Schottky barriers versus surface plasmon resonance. Coatings. 2018;8:391. DOI: 10.3390/coatings8110391\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nGow NAR, Latge J-P, Munro CA. The fungal Cell Wall: Structure, biosynthesis, and function. Microbiology Spectrum. 2017;5(3):1-25. DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0035-2016\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nSalton MRJ, Kim K-S. Structure. Galveston: University of Texas Medical Branch; 1996\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nLiu Z, Zhang M, Han X, Xu H, Zhang B, Yu Q , et al. TiO2 nanoparticles cause cell damage independent of apoptosis and autophagy by impairing the ROS-scavenging system in Pichia pastoris. Chemico-Biological Interactions. 2016;252:9-18. DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2016.03.029\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nPulgarin C, Kiwi J, Nadtochenko V. Mechanism of photocatalytic bacterial inactivation on TiO2 films involving cell-wall damage and lysis. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2012;128:179-183. DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2012.01.036\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nCarré G, Hamon E, Ennahar S, Estner M, Lett MC, Horvatovich P, et al. TiO2 photocatalysis damages lipids and proteins in Escherichia coli. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2014;80:2573-2581. DOI: 10.1128/AEM.03995-13\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nHammel KE, Kapich AN, Jensen KA, Ryan ZC. Reactive oxygen species as agents of wood decay by fungi. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 2002;30:445-453. DOI: 10.1016/S0141-0229(02)00011-X\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nKubacka A, Diez MS, Rojo D, Bargiela R, Ciordia S, Zapico I, et al. Understanding the antimicrobial mechanism of TiO 2 -based nanocomposite films in a pathogenic bacterium. Scientific Reports. 2014;4:1-9. DOI: 10.1038/srep04134\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nPavlović VP, Vujančević JD, Mašković P, Ćirković J, Papan JM, Kosanović D, et al. Structure and enhanced antimicrobial activity of mechanically activated nano TiO2. Journal of the American Ceramic Society. 2019;102:7735-7745. DOI: 10.1111/jace.16668\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nKhezerlou A, Alizadeh-Sani M, Azizi-Lalabadi M, Ehsani A. Nanoparticles and their antimicrobial properties against pathogens including bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses. Microbial Pathogenesis. 2018;123:505-526. DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2018.08.008\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nJameel ZN, Mahmood OA, Ahmed FL. Studying the effect of synthesized nano-titanium dioxide via two phases on the Pseudomonas aeruginosa and portus bacteria as antimicrobial agents. International Journal of Nanoelectronics and Materials. 2019;12:329-338\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nCheigh C-I, Park M-H, Chung M-S, Shin J-K, Park Y-S. Comparison of intense pulsed light- and ultraviolet (UVC)-induced cell damage in Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli O157:H7. Food Control. 2012;25:654-659. DOI: 10.1016/J.FOODCONT.2011.11.032\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nDunlop PSM, Sheeran CP, Byrne JA, McMahon MAS, Boyle MA, McGuigan KG. Inactivation of clinically relevant pathogens by photocatalytic coatings. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry. 2010;216:303-310. DOI: 10.1016/J.JPHOTOCHEM.2010.07.004\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nvan Grieken R, Marugán J, Pablos C, Furones L, López A. Comparison between the photocatalytic inactivation of Gram-positive E. faecalis and Gram-negative E. coli faecal contamination indicator microorganisms. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2010;100:212-220. DOI: 10.1016/J.APCATB.2010.07.034\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nZhu Z, Cai H, Sun DW. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) photocatalysis technology for nonthermal inactivation of microorganisms in foods. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2018;75:23-35. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.02.018\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nLi J, Yu H, Wu Z, Wang J, He S, Ji J, et al. Room temperature synthesis of crystalline anatase TiO2 on bamboo timber surface and their short-term antifungal capability under natural weather conditions. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2016;508:117-123. DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2016.08.045\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nManeerat C, Hayata Y. Antifungal activity of TiO2 photocatalysis against Penicillium expansum in vitro and in fruit tests. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2006;107:99-103. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2005.08.018\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nStaerck C, Gastebois A, Vandeputte P, Calenda A, Larcher G, Gillmann L, et al. Microbial antioxidant defense enzymes. Microbial Pathogenesis. 2017;110:56-65. DOI: 10.1016/J.MICPATH.2017.06.015\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nXue C, Li X, Liu G, Liu W. Evaluation of mitochondrial respiratory chain on the generation of reactive oxygen species and cytotoxicity in HaCaT cells induced by Nanosized titanium dioxide under UVA irradiation. International Journal of Toxicology. 2016;35:644-653. DOI: 10.1177/1091581816661853\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nGogniat G, Dukan S. TiO2 photocatalysis causes DNA damage via Fenton reaction-generated hydroxyl radicals during the recovery period. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2007;73:7740-7743. DOI: 10.1128/AEM.01079-07\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nImlay J, Linn S. Damage and oxygen radical. Science. 1988;240:1302-1309\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nŠevců A, El-Temsah YS, Joner EJ, Černík M. Oxidative stress induced in microorganisms by zero-valent iron nanoparticles. Microbes and Environments. 2011;26:271-281. DOI: 10.1264/jsme2.me11126\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nAndrews SC, Robinson AK, Rodríguez-Quiñones F. Bacterial iron homeostasis. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 2003;27:215-237. DOI: 10.1016/S0168-6445(03)00055-X\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nNeilands JB. Siderophores of bacteria and fungi. Microbiological Sciences. 1984;1:9-14\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nLiu W, Bertrand M, Chaneac C, Achouak W. TiO2 nanoparticles alter iron homeostasis in: Pseudomonas brassicacearum as revealed by PrrF sRNA modulation. Environmental Science: Nano. 2016;3:1473-1482. DOI: 10.1039/c6en00316h\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nSantos-Beneit F. The pho regulon: A huge regulatory network in bacteria. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2015;6:402. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00402\n'},{id:"B80",body:'\nHaddad A, Jensen V, Becker T, Hãussler S. The pho regulon influences biofilm formation and type three secretion in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Environmental Microbiology Reports. 2009;1:488-494. DOI: 10.1111/j.1758-2229.2009.00049.x\n'},{id:"B81",body:'\nApel K, Hirt H. Reactive oxygen species: Metabolism, oxidative stress, and signal transduction. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 2004;55:373-399. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.55.031903.141701\n'},{id:"B82",body:'\nJohnson L, Mulcahy H, Kanevets U, Shi Y, Lewenza S. Surface-localized Spermidine protects the Pseudomonas aeruginosa outer membrane from antibiotic treatment and oxidative stress. Journal of Bacteriology. 2012;194:813-826. DOI: 10.1128/JB.05230-11\n'},{id:"B83",body:'\nKubacka A, Serrano C, Ferrer M, Lunsdorf H, Bielecki P, Cerrada ML, et al. High-performance dual-action polymer-TiO2 nanocomposite films via melting processing. Nano Letters. 2007;7:2529-2534. DOI: 10.1021/nl0709569\n'},{id:"B84",body:'\nLedford HK, Niyogi KK. Singlet oxygen and photo-oxidative stress management in plants and algae. Plant, Cell and Environment. 2005;28:1037-1045. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2005.01374.x\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Carol López de Dicastillo",address:"analopez.dediscastillo@usach.cl",affiliation:'
Center of Innovation in Packaging (LABEN), CEDENNA (Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology), University of Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago, Chile
Center of Innovation in Packaging (LABEN), CEDENNA (Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology), University of Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago, Chile
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Fernanda B. Martínez",address:null,affiliation:'
Center of Innovation in Packaging (LABEN), CEDENNA (Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology), University of Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago, Chile
Center of Innovation in Packaging (LABEN), CEDENNA (Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology), University of Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago, Chile
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Maria José Galotto",address:null,affiliation:'
Center of Innovation in Packaging (LABEN), CEDENNA (Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology), University of Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago, Chile
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A One Health Perspective",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",publishedDate:"March 3rd 2021",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"98932",title:"Dr.",name:"Iulian",middleName:null,surname:"Comanescu",email:"iuliancomanescu@yahoo.de",fullName:"Iulian Comanescu",slug:"iulian-comanescu",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Universitatea Petrol Si Gaze Ploiesti",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Stationary Phases",slug:"stationary-phases",abstract:null,signatures:"Vasile Matei, Iulian Comănescu and Anca-Florentina Borcea",authors:[{id:"98932",title:"Dr.",name:"Iulian",surname:"Comanescu",fullName:"Iulian Comanescu",slug:"iulian-comanescu",email:"iuliancomanescu@yahoo.de"},{id:"98942",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasile",surname:"Matei",fullName:"Vasile Matei",slug:"vasile-matei",email:"vmateiph@yahoo.com"},{id:"137736",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca-Florentina",surname:"Borcea",fullName:"Anca-Florentina Borcea",slug:"anca-florentina-borcea",email:"anca_florentina@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Advanced Gas Chromatography",slug:"advanced-gas-chromatography-progress-in-agricultural-biomedical-and-industrial-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"88729",title:"Dr",name:"Xinghua",surname:"Guo",slug:"xinghua-guo",fullName:"Xinghua Guo",position:"Specialist",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/88729/images/system/88729.jpg",biography:"Xinghua Guo obtained his Ph.D. in Mass Spectrometry/Chemistry at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, China, before he moved to Germany (Alexander von-Humboldt Foundation fellow), the Netherlands and Austria. He has been working in the field of instrumental analysis, using a broad range of MS, LC-MS and GC-MS, with interests in various method developments, ranging from instrumental fundamentals, applications and organic sample preparation. Since 2006 he has worked as Assistant Professor at the Graz University of Technology (Austria), where he obtained the habilitation status (Uni. Doz.) in Analytical Chemistry, gave lectures in ‘LC-MS Bioanalysis’ and ‘Organic Instrumental Analysis’, and supervised several dissertations. Currently he is specializing in characterization of small molecules in biosimilar development in the Analytical Characterization Group at Sandoz Biopharmaceuticals, Kundl, Austria. Xinghua has (co-)authored over 70 scientific publications and 2 patents.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"90797",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian Hai",surname:"Sun",slug:"jian-hai-sun",fullName:"Jian Hai Sun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Electronics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"94007",title:"Dr.",name:"Francis",surname:"Orata",slug:"francis-orata",fullName:"Francis Orata",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kenya"}}},{id:"94240",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Mugo",slug:"samuel-mugo",fullName:"Samuel Mugo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"MacEwan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"94243",title:"Mr.",name:"Karl",surname:"Ayton",slug:"karl-ayton",fullName:"Karl Ayton",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"MacEwan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"94245",title:"Ms.",name:"Lauren",surname:"Huybregts",slug:"lauren-huybregts",fullName:"Lauren Huybregts",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"MacEwan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"98942",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasile",surname:"Matei",slug:"vasile-matei",fullName:"Vasile Matei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitatea Petrol Si Gaze Ploiesti",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"131088",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernst",surname:"Lankmayr",slug:"ernst-lankmayr",fullName:"Ernst Lankmayr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"131338",title:"Dr.",name:"Ting",surname:"Zhou",slug:"ting-zhou",fullName:"Ting Zhou",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"137736",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca-Florentina",surname:"Borcea",slug:"anca-florentina-borcea",fullName:"Anca-Florentina Borcea",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
European Commission
\\n\\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\\n\\t
Wellcome Trust
\\n\\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\\n\\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\\n\\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n
\n\t
European Commission
\n\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\n\t
Wellcome Trust
\n\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\n\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\n\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
\n\t
Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK)
\n\t
Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
\n\t
Chinese Academy of Sciences
\n\t
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
\n\t
German Research Foundation (DFG)
\n\t
Max Planck Institute
\n\t
Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
\n\t
Australian Research Council (ARC)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5775},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5239},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15810}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118378},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish",topicid:"11"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5249},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1233",title:"Plasma Dynamics",slug:"plasma-dynamics",parent:{title:"Plasma Physics",slug:"plasma-physics"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:15,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"plasma-dynamics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"1618",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"09d7dce20e1681d209ddc1e11b924999",slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",bookSignature:"Linjin Zheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1618.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103870",title:"Dr.",name:"Linjin",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"linjin-zheng",fullName:"Linjin Zheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"31466",doi:"10.5772/35729",title:"Review of the Magnetohydrodynamic Waves and Their Stability in Solar Spicules and X-Ray Jets",slug:"are-solar-spicules-and-x-ray-jets-unstable-against-the-kelvin-helmholtz-instability",totalDownloads:1791,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"Ivan Zhelyazkov",authors:[{id:"105645",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhelyazkov",slug:"ivan-zhelyazkov",fullName:"Ivan Zhelyazkov"}]},{id:"31462",doi:"10.5772/36022",title:"Sub-Fluid Models in Dissipative Magneto-Hydrodynamics",slug:"sub-fluid-models-in-dissipative-magneto-hydrodynamics",totalDownloads:1612,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"Massimo Materassi, Giuseppe Consolini and Emanuele Tassi",authors:[{id:"110570",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Consolini",slug:"giuseppe-consolini",fullName:"Giuseppe Consolini"},{id:"110571",title:"Dr.",name:"Emanuele",middleName:null,surname:"Tassi",slug:"emanuele-tassi",fullName:"Emanuele Tassi"},{id:"173629",title:"Dr.",name:"Massimo",middleName:"Fosco Dino",surname:"Materassi",slug:"massimo-materassi",fullName:"Massimo Materassi"}]},{id:"31463",doi:"10.5772/35023",title:"Implicit Numerical Methods for Magnetohydrodynamics",slug:"a-review-of-modern-implicit-numerical-methods-for-mhd",totalDownloads:2565,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"Ravi Samtaney",authors:[{id:"102649",title:"Prof.",name:"Ravi",middleName:null,surname:"Samtaney",slug:"ravi-samtaney",fullName:"Ravi Samtaney"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"31468",title:"Magnetohydrodynamic Rotating Flow of a Fourth Grade Fluid Between Two Parallel Infinite Plates",slug:"magnetohydrodynamic-rotating-flow-of-a-fourth-grade-fluid-between-two-parallel-infinite-plates",totalDownloads:2880,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"M.A. Rana, Akhlaq Ahmed and Rashid Qamar",authors:[{id:"112626",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Afzal",middleName:null,surname:"Rana",slug:"muhammad-afzal-rana",fullName:"Muhammad Afzal Rana"},{id:"113995",title:"Dr.",name:"Akhlaq",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"akhlaq-ahmed",fullName:"Akhlaq Ahmed"},{id:"113996",title:"Prof.",name:"Rashid",middleName:null,surname:"Qamar",slug:"rashid-qamar",fullName:"Rashid Qamar"}]},{id:"31465",title:"MHD Activity in an Extremely High-Beta Compact Toroid",slug:"mhd-activity-in-an-extremely-high-beta-compact-toroid",totalDownloads:2580,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"Tomohiko Asai and Tsutomu Takahashi",authors:[{id:"112456",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomohiko",middleName:null,surname:"Asai",slug:"tomohiko-asai",fullName:"Tomohiko Asai"},{id:"113922",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsutomu",middleName:null,surname:"Takahashi",slug:"tsutomu-takahashi",fullName:"Tsutomu Takahashi"}]},{id:"31461",title:"Overview of Magnetohydrodynamics Theory in Toroidal Plasma Confinement",slug:"overview-of-magnetohydrodynamics-theory-in-toroidal-plasma-confinement",totalDownloads:2622,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"Linjin Zheng",authors:[{id:"103870",title:"Dr.",name:"Linjin",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"linjin-zheng",fullName:"Linjin Zheng"}]},{id:"31467",title:"Hamiltonian Representation of Magnetohydrodynamics for Boundary Energy Controls",slug:"hamiltonian-representation-of-magnetohydrodynamics-for-boundary-energy-controls",totalDownloads:1844,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"Gou Nishida and Noboru Sakamoto",authors:[{id:"104203",title:"Dr.",name:"Gou",middleName:null,surname:"Nishida",slug:"gou-nishida",fullName:"Gou Nishida"},{id:"111487",title:"Prof.",name:"Noboru",middleName:null,surname:"Sakamoto",slug:"noboru-sakamoto",fullName:"Noboru Sakamoto"}]},{id:"31464",title:"Dynamics of Magnetic Relaxation in Spheromaks",slug:"dynamics-of-magnetic-relaxation-in-spheromaks",totalDownloads:1916,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"Pablo L. Garcia-Martinez",authors:[{id:"104855",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"García-Martínez",slug:"pablo-garcia-martinez",fullName:"Pablo García-Martínez"}]},{id:"31463",title:"Implicit Numerical Methods for Magnetohydrodynamics",slug:"a-review-of-modern-implicit-numerical-methods-for-mhd",totalDownloads:2565,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"Ravi Samtaney",authors:[{id:"102649",title:"Prof.",name:"Ravi",middleName:null,surname:"Samtaney",slug:"ravi-samtaney",fullName:"Ravi Samtaney"}]},{id:"31466",title:"Review of the Magnetohydrodynamic Waves and Their Stability in Solar Spicules and X-Ray Jets",slug:"are-solar-spicules-and-x-ray-jets-unstable-against-the-kelvin-helmholtz-instability",totalDownloads:1792,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"Ivan Zhelyazkov",authors:[{id:"105645",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhelyazkov",slug:"ivan-zhelyazkov",fullName:"Ivan Zhelyazkov"}]},{id:"31462",title:"Sub-Fluid Models in Dissipative Magneto-Hydrodynamics",slug:"sub-fluid-models-in-dissipative-magneto-hydrodynamics",totalDownloads:1612,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"topics-in-magnetohydrodynamics",title:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Topics in Magnetohydrodynamics"},signatures:"Massimo Materassi, Giuseppe Consolini and Emanuele Tassi",authors:[{id:"110570",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Consolini",slug:"giuseppe-consolini",fullName:"Giuseppe Consolini"},{id:"110571",title:"Dr.",name:"Emanuele",middleName:null,surname:"Tassi",slug:"emanuele-tassi",fullName:"Emanuele Tassi"},{id:"173629",title:"Dr.",name:"Massimo",middleName:"Fosco Dino",surname:"Materassi",slug:"massimo-materassi",fullName:"Massimo Materassi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"plasma-dynamics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/98932/iulian-comanescu",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"98932",slug:"iulian-comanescu"},fullPath:"/profiles/98932/iulian-comanescu",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()