values of abundance, dominance, relative frequency and IVI of various plants species characterizing cocoa agroforestry systems in the 3 villages.
\n\n
\n\nThe project work was funded by the European Commission (EC) 7th Framework Programme (FP7), under the 9th Call for projects on Information and Communication Technologies. The publishing of this book was funded by the EC FP7 Post-Grant Open Access Pilot programme. 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The concept of REDD+ is always limited to emissions due to deforestation and the increase of carbon sink in land use systems. In order to contribute to the fight against climate change issues in Cameroon, we should develop suitable proposals which target the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) [1]. The particularity of these projects is to reduce the emission of CO2.
Agroforestry can be defined as a collective name for land use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboo, etc.) are deliberately used on the same land management units as agricultural crops [2]. Agroforestry can provide benefits as (i) linking poor households to markets for high-value fruits, (ii) balancing improved productivity with the sustainable management of natural resources, and (iii) maintaining or enhancing the supply of environmental services in agriculture and landscapes for water, soil health, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation [3, 4]. In our land use systems, there are non-timber forest products (NTFPs). They are considered with higher potentialities as medicinal and economic values which contribute to break the chain of poverty in rural areas [5, 6]. T. conophorum (Photograph 1) is a local vine from the Euphorbiaceae family which is also called African walnut, cashew nut, conophor seeds, or conophor nuts [7, 8, 9]. This species has several properties such as cholesterol-lowering and triglyceride-lowering properties which have been reported [10]. The nutritional properties of seeds have also been fully demonstrated [11, 12, 13].
Fruits of Tetracarpidium conophorum assessed in Rionong village.
During some inventories, it was estimated that tropical forests can store more than 200 t C/ha in trees [14]. Carbon management in agroforestry systems is a new global concern to mitigate the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere in Congo Basin countries. Reforestation cover and finding low-cost methods to sequester carbon in land use systems are emerging tools. As trees grow and their biomass increases, they absorb carbon from the atmosphere and store in the plant tissues and roots. We need to contribute to the Reduction of Emissions derived from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+). Carbon stock sink varies following the type of trees, and it has been demonstrated that diameter at breast height (DBH) and height are important factors in carbon stock sink variation [15]. Several studies were carried out on the biomass and carbon stock assessment in all ecosystems all over the world [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. These aspects have been partially studied, and there is only a limited amount of work which upholds the notion of the potential of diversity and associated species with Tetracarpidium conophorum in agroforestry systems which can contribute to mitigate effects of climate change and improve livelihood options of local farmers. At this time when natural ecosystems are disappearing at an alarming rate, it is clearly necessary today to outline the carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems, so that their compensatory role in the mitigation process of climate change be made known in Cameroon.
The study was carried out in the Mbam and Inoubou department in Cameroon (Figure 1) which appears to be a transitional area covered by forest and savannah. The main cultivation of species there is cocoa plantation. This area is located between 4′39 and 4′49 north and then 11′4 and 11′19 east. Altitude varies from 600 to 900 m [21]. We choose this site because it is located near Yaounde, which includes several markets around where the conophor nuts can be found. Secondly, it is classified among the main area in terms of productivity of T. conophorum fruit in Cameroon [13]. There are many vegetal formations that belong to Sterculiaceae (Pterygota macrocarpa, Sterculia tragacantha, Cola gigantea, Cola altissima, Cola cordifolia, Triplochiton scleroxylon, Mansonia altissima, etc.) and Ulmaceae (Celtis zenkeri, Celtis tessmannii) [22].
Localization of study site.
Floristic inventories were performed in cocoa-based agroforestry plantations where the liana (T. conophorum) is introduced for several purposes. Data were collected in nine sample plots of 2000 m2 in each sample village. Trees with a DBH > 5 cm were also assessed with the aim of evaluating the typology of cocoa agroforests associated with liana cultivation. In each plot, species were identified with the use of identification tool keys using various books [23, 24, 25] and various volumes of flora of Cameroon. Figure 2 illustrates the experimental design of inventories carried out in the various cocoa agroforestry sample plots where we record the presence of T. conophorum.
Experimental design of inventories carried out in cocoa based agroforests where T. conophorum is introduced.
AGB was performed using the methodology described by measuring carbon stock manual [26]. This method illustrated by Figure 3 consists in delimiting a main plot (2000 m2) where all trees with a dbh ≥ 30 cm have been recorded. Another subplot of 40 × 5 m was designed in order to assess trees (30 < dbh < 5 cm). In the subplot 40 × 5 m, other plots of 1 × 1 m were designed in order to collect litter and herbs of understory.
Details of sampling methods according to Hairiah et al. [26].
According to the following formula, we calculated structural parameters and determined the dominant species importance value index (IVI).
Frequency was estimated for each species with the formula F = (number of plot containing × species/total number of plot) × 100.
Abundance was estimated for each species using the formula A = (ni/N) × 100, where “ni” is the number of individuals of species i and “N” is the total of the flora.
The diversity was calculated using the Shannon index to compare the data of various sample sites in terms of diversity of plant species. ISH = −Σ pi log2 (pi), where “pi” is the frequency of species i (ni/N), “ni” is the number of individuals of species i, and “N” is the number of individuals of all species.
IVI = frequency + abundance + dominance [27].
Diversity parameters were also calculated according to the following formula:
Shannon index (H′) measures uncertainty about species belonging to a randomly selected individual in the sample. It is expressed according to the proportions of each species: The formula is H′ = −Σ = pi log2 (pi) with “pi” proportion of the species “i”.
Simpson index (D’) is a measure of dominance and expresses the probability that two individuals drawn at random from an infinite population belong to the same species. It is expressed from the “pi” frequencies of species where D’ = Σpi2. The value 0 of this index indicated a maximum diversity, while value 1 represents the minimum diversity.
The methodology used in this study was described in the document [1, 28] in cocoa agroforestry systems. Biomass was estimated using allometric model. We used allometric model of Chave [29] to evaluate carbon stock sink sequestration by each tree species. The formula is AGB = Exp (−2.977 + LN (DBH2Hρ)) where “ρ” is the wood density and “DBH” is the diameter at breast height. We, respectively, use the density of all those trees which correspond to each plant species according to wood density database of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). The total carbon stock sink in the selected trees was estimated by summing the values at the level of timbers, herbs, and litters.
To determine ecosystem services derived from the use of species in agroforests, we used ratio CO2/C (44/12) molecular weight to convert carbon stocks (tC/ha) into tCO2/ha and, thus, the total CO2 sequestrated in the farmer’s agroforestry demonstration plot [1, 28]. The transaction price for conservation was estimated at 10 US$/tCO2; we used this ratio to estimate the ecological service value derived from the utilization of those land use systems [30].
The results revealed during our inventories that in different cocoa-based agroforests in the Mbam and Inoubou a total of 230 plant species were recorded belonging to 16 families. These species was distributed as follow: Mouko (86 individuals representing 36% of the total number of individuals), Rionong (53 individuals representing 22% of the total number of individuals), and Nyamsong 3 (99 individuals representing 42% of the total number of individuals). Figure 4 represents that among the plant species families inventoried in the cocoa-based agroforestry plantations, the six main dominant families are Sterculiaceae, Burseraceae, Moraceae, Anacardiaceae, Bombacaceae, and Araliaceae.
Numbers of family plants species inventoried in the sampled villages in the Mbam and Inoubou.
Inventoried cocoa-based agroforestry sampling plots allow to represent relative abundance, relative dominance, relative frequency, and importance value index of species which enable us to characterize farmer’s cocoa agroforestry systems in the Mbam and Inoubou as illustrated by Table 1. As part of the results, we obtain a Shannon index estimated at 0.62, 0.66, and 0.68, respectively, while Simpson index was 1.421, 1.409, and 0.349, respectively, for Mouko, Rionong, and Nyamsong 3.
Scientific names | RA | DR/Ha | RF | IVI |
---|---|---|---|---|
Albizia zygia | 4.80 | 4.80 | 8.33 | 17.94 |
Canarium schweinfurthii | 3.77 | 3.77 | 5.88 | 13.42 |
Ceiba pentandra | 2.32 | 2.32 | 3.63 | 8.28 |
Celtis tessmannii | 1.16 | 1.16 | 1.81 | 4.14 |
Citrus sp | 3.77 | 3.77 | 5.88 | 13.42 |
Cola acuminata | 1.92 | 1.92 | 3.33 | 7.17 |
Dacryodes edulis | 5.81 | 5.81 | 9.09 | 20.71 |
Erythrophleum suaveolens | 2.32 | 2.32 | 3.63 | 8.28 |
Ficus exasperata | 3.84 | 3.84 | 6.66 | 14.35 |
Gambeya lacourtiana | 2.32 | 2.32 | 3.63 | 8.28 |
Mangifera indica | 12.79 | 12.79 | 20,00 | 45.58 |
Milicia excelsa | 2.32 | 2.32 | 3.63 | 8.28 |
Persea americana | 3.84 | 3.84 | 6.66 | 14.35 |
values of abundance, dominance, relative frequency and IVI of various plants species characterizing cocoa agroforestry systems in the 3 villages.
Notes: RA, relative abundance; RD= relative dominance/hectare; RF, relative frequency; IVI, importance value index.
During our inventories, we recorded a total number of 230 plant species in sampling plots where T. conophorum was present. With these results, it appears that 53 fruiting species represent 23% of the total number of individuals, while 149 cocoa trees represent 65% of the total number of individuals. And the rest of 28 other trees such as medicinal plants, highly marketable trees represent 12% of the total number of individuals as detailed in Table 2. From that table, it can be concluded that Nyamsong 3 village has the highest fruit tree rate (40%) compared to Mouko (36%) and Rionong (24%). Floristic inventories reveal that Mangifera indica is the most important species according to the dominant species importance value index (IVI). Classes of diameters obtained allow us to appreciate the behavior of the vegetation and the most dominant species. But we record that trees with a diameter (9–24 cm) are highly represented in the sampled area. Producers deliberately introduced fruiting species (Dacryodes edulis, Persea americana, etc.) in order to diversify their cocoa agroforests where T. conophorum stems are also introduced. In addition, 69–84 cm class represents trees with higher diameters, and they are present in the three various villages. This class of trees is made up of species such as Mangifera indica and Dacryodes edulis which appears as to be fruiting species used by producers in order to support the heavy weight of the liana.
Villages | Mouko | Rionong | Nyamsong 3 | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fruits trees | 19 | 13 | 21 | 53 |
36% | 24% | 40% | ||
Cocoa trees | 55 | 34 | 60 | 149 |
37% | 23% | 40% | ||
Others trees | 4 | 6 | 18 | 28 |
14% | 22% | 64% | ||
Total | 78 | 53 | 99 | 230 |
Diversity of plants species in cocoa based agroforestry plantations in order to diversify farmer’s income.
Results indicated that cocoa agroforestry plantations found in selected villages during sampling permit to assess aboveground biomass through various plant species. A diversity of plants were found, and they can help to estimate the quantity of carbon sink that each tree can store to contribute to fight against the effects of climate change in Congo Basin countries especially in Cameroon. The total carbon sequestered by those sampling plots in recorded villages was estimated at 92.03, 55.18, and 46.83 tC/ha, respectively, at Mouko, Rionong, and Nyamsong 3.
Ecological services are those derived from the use and utilization of plant species in a land use system. From our results, those services can be estimated as follows. The total amount of CO2/ha per village plots was estimated at 337.46, 202.32, and 171.71 tCO2/ha, respectively, for Mouko, Rionong, and Nyamsong 3. These results could be a significant importance for targeting the reduction of effects of climate modifications in Cameroon. Then, the ecological services which should be paid according to 10 US$ per ton of carbon was evaluated at 3374.6 $, 2023.2 $, and 1717.1 $ to the owner of the farms in the Mbam and Inoubou department.
Several ecological services can be derived from the utilization of trees in cocoa-based agroforestry systems. By including trees in agricultural systems, agroforestry can increase the amount of carbon stored in lands devoted to agriculture. We can have several services notably: provision services (diverse products as food, timber, and welfare of the household), regulation services (climatic variation moderation, carbon stock assessment), and support services (biodiversity conservation, soil fertility). Agroforestry can also have an indirect effect on carbon sequestration when it helps decrease pressure on natural forests, which are the largest sink of terrestrial carbon. Another indirect avenue of carbon sequestration is through the use of agroforestry technologies for soil conservation, which could enhance carbon storage in trees and soils.
Floristic inventories revealed the presence of several multipurpose fruiting tree species associated with the cultivation of T. conophorum in the Mbam and Inoubou cocoa-based agroforestry plantations. Our floristic inventories reveal the presence of 230 plant species belonging to 16 botanic families. We equally assess an important number of fruiting species which are associated at the cultivation of African walnut. However, these data are different by the ones [31, 32]. The results from the previous authors assess a diversity of 116 and 206 species, respectively, in cocoa agroforestry systems in Cameroon. Our results are different from the previous authors because producers intensively introduce fruiting species in their plantations for several ecosystem services. Carbon stock, soil fertilization, and reconstitution are the services provided by cocoa agroforestry systems that local producers can benefit from the integration of local fruiting species. From our results, we can say that cocoa agroforestry plantations have an important diversity in terms of fruiting and associated species. Nevertheless, our findings revealed the presence of the most three important families such as Sterculiaceae, Burseraceae, and Moraceae which are different from the other results [32, 33, 34] in the same agroecological area and in the center region in cocoa agroforestry plantations. This observation can be justified by the choice of species which are introduced by the producer at the moment of selection.
Concerning plant species composition, diversity indices calculated revealed that cocoa-based agroforests are less diversified. We obtain a Shannon index of 0.62, 0.66, and 0.68, while the Simpson index as 1.421, 1.409, and 0.349, respectively, for Mouko, Rionong, and Nyamsong 3. These results are different by the ones [35, 36, 37] who obtained values such as 4.39 and 4.63 for Shannon index. The Simpson index reveals the way species are distributed or dispatched within the different sites/cocoa agroforest sample sites. And, the results indicated that these agroforests are quite little bit diversified.
According to inventories and frequency of associated species, we noted that Mangifera indica was the most used fruiting species in cocoa-based agroforestry plantations in association with T. conophorum in the Mbam and Inoubou. Fruiting species are added to cocoa plantations according to the needs and preferences of local producers and also his desire to diversify his home garden or cocoa farm for more productivity. Another reason for introducing species is to diversify the source of income in order to improve livelihood options. On the other hand, Mangifera indica tree species are specially used by local producers as tutors for the liana (Photograph 2) because when growing it has a big stem and needs to be supported by a big tree in order to grow well and provide shade for cocoa plantations.
One of the biggest stems of Tetracarpidium conophorum found in Rionong village in cocoa agroforests.
The high percentage of fruiting tree species and useful species in cocoa agroforests and their increased abundance in the more intensely used landscape in the world reflect the fact that farmers intentionally introduce useful tree species in their environment. In Cameroon, one household lives with less than 1US$ per day, and that is why the presence of fruiting species in cocoa agroforests helps farmers achieve their basic needs of food, health, energy, and housing. Results published [32, 38] demonstrated that trees with edible products were the main common tree species found in cocoa agroforests. All are considered as agroforestry tree products (AFTPs) because they are derived from agroforestry trees in the same piece of land. We can have Dacryodes edulis, Mangifera indica, Citrus spp., Theobroma cocoa, Allanblackia floribunda, etc.
For this work, the estimated percentage of carbon stock sink sequestrated per locality varies as 92.03, 55.18, and 46.83 tC/ha, respectively, to Mouko, Rionong, and Nyamsong 3. Those values represent less than one-fourths of the biomass estimated in some selected agroforestry systems around natural forest stands in the Dja biosphere reserve in the East province of Cameroon. We can say that density and number of species can greatly impact the quantity of carbon sink in some land uses systems (LUS). Diversification is an important tool which contributes to mitigate effects of climate change and climate modifications [39, 34]. Considering the fact that each plant/tree specie can store a specific quantity of carbon through leaves and roots, it is therefore recommended to plant more species in our LUS in order to gather more carbon. Our results obtained on the carbon sink potential are important like the others conducted in cocoa agroforestry systems around the world. Results obtained in our study are superior in Mouko village (92.03 tC/ha), while different from the results found in [40] where the authors revealed an amount of 68.12 tC/ha at Kédia and 76.99 tC/ha at Ediolomo. These results demonstrated that carbon stock sink in cocoa-based agroforestry plantations is higher when there is more fruiting species and other useful tree species for the local producer. It can be explained by the fact that carbon sink depends on several parameters such as the quality and quantity of species which are introduced for diversification or shade purposes. Following this, a study was conducted on carbon stocks [34], and it reveals a higher amount of carbon sink (197.5 tC/ha) in the cocoa agroforests of Bokito in the same geographical area with the sampled localities. This amount of carbon is higher because during the creation of cocoa farms and local producers/farmers introduce several species (fruiting species and medicinal, etc.) in order to provide many services in the farm and then conserve more land for land restoration and protection. The presence of several species in our LUS increases the total quantity of CO2, which appears to be very high, thus explaining an important ecological and ecosystem service provided by those cocoa agroforests to local farmers and land owners.
This study was carried out in order to assess plant diversity and carbon stock assessment by some selected cocoa-based agroforests in the Mbam and Inoubou department of Cameroon. Then, the interest in this work was to show that some tree species introduced in cocoa-based agroforests can store an important quantity of carbon which will contribute to fight, reduce climate change modifications, and diversify farmer’s income during the year in order to improve livelihood options. We also estimate ecological services which can be derived from the utilization of those land use systems depending on the trees which have been integrated or associated according to farmer’s preferences and needs. We have shown that percentage of fruiting species within the villages was very high, and this demonstrates that cocoa-based agroforestry plantations sometimes need associated trees in order to provide shade for cocoa development. Moreover, we can recommend that cocoa agroforestry systems can also play an important key role in biodiversity conservation. Also, different species were found to be more or less as reported by other studies using the same methodologies, and we can note that characterization allows us to demonstrate the various family species of trees associated with cocoa agroforestry systems in the Mbam and Inoubou department.
The Congo Basin Grant Program (CBGP) has supported this research through a fellowship awarded to M. Patrick Bustrel Choungo through the Conservation Action Research Network (CARN). The authors of this paper will like to thank IDEA WILD Foundation for research materials support and also all farmers of the Department of Mbam and Inoubou who helped us to realize this study and allow us to work in their cocoa-based agroforests. We will finally give thanks to all the farmers who have accepted to answer our questionnaire sheets during this study and anonymous reviewers for their comments in order to improve the quality of the manuscript.
Thermal management becomes increasingly important and challenging as the increase of power/heat density is taking place in many engineering applications, products, and industrial sectors. One example is the electronics industry. Advances in semiconductor manufacturing technology create more compact integrated circuits for electric devices. The latest Fin Field Effect Transistor (FinFET) technology contributes to the reduction of fabrication node from 22 nm in the year of 2012 to the current 10 nm, and even to 5 nm in 2021. Using a 10 nm FinFET manufacturing process, Apple A11 chip could contain 4.3 billion transistors on a die of ~87 mm2, which is 30% smaller than the last version A10. In addition, thermal design power of electric chips, the maximum amount of heat removal from the electric chips, shows an increasing trend. As heat power density continues to grow, heat removal, also referred to as thermal management, is important for maintaining the temperature to meet material and safety constraints. In turn, the development and maintenance of electric devices rely on how effectively the heat is dissipated from the devices. The choice of cooling technology is a complicated systems work in high-power electronic, not only for fitting in the heat removal requirement from low power density to high power density, but also for considering the cooling efficiency, power load, overall power consumption of the cooling subsystem, and the cost of cooling infrastructure. This chapter focuses on fundamental heat removal capacities of cooling technology.
\nDifferent cooling technologies vary in their heat removal capacities, which are summarized in Figure 1. For low heat flux removal requirement, air-cooling, which removes the heat from the hot surface by airflow, is widely applied. The cooling performance can be enhanced by expanding the surface area or increasing the flow of air over the surface. The first approach is known as air free convection, while the second approach is air-forced convection. In comparison with free convection, the fluid motion in forced convection is generated by external source, for enhancing the local convection. In computers, cooling fins are added to heat sink for expanding the surface area, while a fan is attached to the cooling fins to enhance air convection. Heat flux by forced air convection can reach ~35 W/cm2 while only ~15 W/cm2 by free air convection (see Figure 1). Due to the increase of power density, many micro-electronic and power electronic devices now are in the range of heat flux beyond the air cooling capacity. Effective liquid cooling solutions are needed for thermal management of the high-heat-flux devices.
\nHeat removal capacity by applying different cooling technologies that is characterized by two parameters: Highest heat flux and heat transfer coefficient [1, 2, 3, 4].
Spray cooling is one effective solution, which has the huge potential in handling the high heat fluxes in high-power electronics such as supercomputer, lasers, and radars. Spray cooling has several advantages over other cooling techniques. In comparison with air-cooling and jet impingement cooling, spray cooling owns a high heat flux removal capacity. Spray cooling can transfer heat in excess of 100 W/cm2 using fluorinerts and more than 1000 W/cm2 using water (see Figure 1). Due to high heat flux removal capacity, spray cooling allows precise temperature control with low fluid inventory [5]. Besides, spray cooling has uniform cooling temperature distribution over the entire spray-covered surface. This is because the entire spray-cooled area is receiving fresh liquid coolant droplets. For jet impingement cooling, the coolant flows radially outwards from the impingement spot. The radial flow has non-uniform temperature, and the largest subcooling and the optimal local cooling occur at the stagnation point. The non-uniform cooling results in non-uniform surface temperature in the cooling area, which could be significant for high heat fluxes.
\nHowever, there are still some barriers for applying spray cooling for engineering applications. Significant pumping power is needed to achieve large pressure drop through spray nozzle to produce fine spray, but the low cost is first priority in commercial application of cooling technologies. Another fact that the design and fabrication of spray nozzle do not follow the identical industry standard makes the unpredictable spray characterization. Hence, it is hard to get a universal correlation of spray characterization to cooling performance, which also limits the implementation of spray cooling. Additionally, in comparison with the jet nozzle, nozzle orifice through the spray coolant is even smaller, increasing the possibility of orifice clogging and the occurrence of the dry-out area on the heated surface [6]. In spite of these barriers, spray cooling is still a popular cooling technology and many successful applications were reported for supercomputer (CRAY X-1) [7], laser diode laser arrays [8], microwave source components [9] and NASA’s reduced gravity aircraft [10].
\nIn spray cooling, liquid coolant is emitted from a pressurized nozzle and breaks up into numerous droplets. The small droplets land on the cooled surface, where the flow of droplets becomes a thin liquid film radially flowing on the surface (see Figure 2a). The cooling is achieved through the convection heat transfer from the cooled surface to the film flow being impacted by continuous flow of droplets, nucleate boiling on the cooled surface, liquid conduction inside the film flow, and interfacial evaporation from the liquid film to the surrounding air. Spray cooling provides uniform cooling that can handle high heat fluxes in both single phase and two phases. The cooling performance as a function of spray characterization, flow conditions, surface conditions, and nozzle positioning was widely discussed in past decades. These studies focused on the relationship between the spray cooling performance and the entire spray flow. However, in these spray-level studies, the understanding of cooling mechanism of spray droplets is missing. At the droplet level, the impact conditions are classified into a few categories (see Figure 2b): (a) impact of single droplet on dry surface appearing in nucleate boiling, transition boiling and film boiling, (b) impact of single droplet on stationary film where the radial velocity of the film is close to zero, such as stagnation zone, (c) impact of single droplet on radially flowing film and (d) impact of droplet burst on flowing film (droplet groups that frequently impact the surface). Although spray impingement cannot be simply considered as the superposition of single droplets due to the interaction of the neighboring droplets [11], the study of local cooling performance at droplet level is still significant to the understanding of spray cooling mechanism, especially for the condition of the local film dominated by the droplet flow. Therefore, the research outcomes of spray cooling are reviewed from two aspects: the spray level and the droplet level.
\nSpray cooling mechanism at the entire spray level (a) and droplet level (b).
Spray cooling can handle high heat flux in the constrictive space of electronic package when comparing to air-cooling, pool cooling, and jet cooling. This is because numerous fresh droplets generated by spray nozzle randomly affect the entire surface, and directly transfer the heat from surface to the coolant. The difference of fluid dynamics between spray impact and other cooling methods is a key factor affecting the mechanism of local heat transfer and resulting in different cooling performance. The first step of studying spray-cooling mechanism is to observe what happened on the heated surface. Numerous fundamental studies have been conducted theoretically and experimentally, which focus on the key parameters affecting impact dynamics and the relevant heat transfer mechanism. There are four aspects that have been demonstrated to significantly affect cooling performance, including spray characterization, nozzle positioning, phase change and enhanced surface [5, 6, 9].
\nSince the earliest study on spray cooling by Toda [12, 13], many researchers put effort on spray characterization, the relevant cooling performance and the critical heat flux (CHF) in spray cooling. Spray characterization mainly involves droplet size, impact velocity, droplet flux, and volumetric flux. However, in experimental studies it is difficult to change only one parameter and isolate the remaining parameters. For example, on the cooled surface the increase of flow rate of coolant spray is accompanied with the increase of impact velocity and volumetric flux with a constant impact area. That is reason that the conclusions made on the dominant impact parameter are not consistent in previous studies of spray cooling.
\nChen et al. [14] studied effects of three spray parameters of droplet size, droplet velocity and droplet flux on CHF. By adjusting spray nozzles, operating pressures, and spray distance between the nozzle exit and the heater surface, the effect of one spray parameter was studied while the others were kept constant. It was found that the mean droplet velocity is the most dominant parameter affecting CHF followed by the mean droplet flux, while the Sauter mean droplet diameter (\n
In single-phase spray cooling, spray droplets land on a radially flowing film. Some researchers studied the property of the flowing film and its relation to spray cooling performance. Pautsch and Shedd [17] used a non-intrusive optical technique to measure the local film thickness generated by sprays. The film thickness was found to remain constant when the heat transfer mechanism was dominated by single-phase convection. Beyond the spray impact area, the dry-out phenomena appear even when the CHF is not reached. In the nucleate boiling regime, Horacek et al. [18, 19] measured the dry-out area, which was characterized by the three-phase contact line length, and measured using a Total Internal Reflectance technique. The wall heat flux was found to correlate very well with the contact line length. This contact line heat transfer mechanism was summarized by Kim [20] as one of main heat transfer mechanisms in the two-phase regime.
\nCooling performance can be influenced by changing the spray positioning. There are two significant positioning parameters in the study of spray cooling (see Figure 3): nozzle-surface distance \n
(a) The 2D geometry is on the central plane (z-x plane) of the cone perpendicular to the impacted surface (x-y plane). The positioning of the nozzle is determined by inclination angle \n\nθ\n\n and spray height \n\nH\n\n. \n\n\nH\nn\n\n\n is the required spray height by normal impact to cover a given impact length \n\nL\n\n. (b) Impact area with constant impact length \n\nL\n\n formed by the spray inclined at different angles \n\nθ\n\n [21].
Some researchers focus on the effects of spray inclination on heat transfer performance. The impact area is circular for normal impact \n
There are three reasons addressed for contradictory conclusion of spray inclination. One is regarding the different nozzle positioning. As illustrated in Figure 3, two key parameters, spray distance and inclination angle, determine the nozzle positioning. However, at a certain inclination angle some studies [23] applied the constant spray distance, while others [4, 24, 25] adjusted the distance for the constant impact length. Another reason is related to the assumption of one dimensional steady-state conduction through the neck of cartridge heater for the surface heat flux calculation. Inclined spray impact causes considerable temperature difference on the cooled surface (see Figure 4). Hence, the radial conduction should be taken into account for inclined spray cooling. The last reason is from the surface temperature measurement location. Different radial locations provide different temperature measurement due to significant temperature difference in inclined spray cooling.
\nLocal surface temperature distribution for normal impact (a1) and inclination affect with \n\nθ\n=\n\n30° (b1). Local droplet velocity and the relevant local heat transfer coefficient are plotted along the centerline in (a2) and (b2) [27].
To obtain surface temperature distribution in inclined spray, some researchers investigated local heat transfer by replacing cartridge heater with sputter-coated thin film heater, which enables infrared thermography for temperature measurement [21, 27, 28]. All of these studies found significant temperature difference on cooled surface for inclined spray cooling (one example in Figure 4b1). Gao and Li [27] compared the droplet impact velocity and heat transfer coefficient distribution along centerline for normal impact and inclined spray impact (see Figure 4a2 and b2). The impact velocity was captured by a Stereo-Particle Imaging Velocimetry system. The trend line of heat transfer coefficient and droplet velocity shows clear correlation. For both cases, the locations of maximum droplet velocity coincide with the locations of the highest heat transfer coefficient. The further study by Gao and Li [21] indicated the global cooling shows slight diminishment for small inclination angle and enhancement for large inclination angles. On the central plane of the spray cone, the enhancement and diminishment of the local cooling performance are in general agreement with the increase and decrease of the spray flux. Thin film heater is not reliable for the surface temperature greater than boiling point, and experiments are tested in single-phase region. This is the limitation of thin film heater, and the robust heater for boiling test is needed for future study.
\nSimilar to pool boiling curve, the heat transfer curve of spray cooling can be separated to four regimes: single phase regime, nucleate boiling regime, transition boiling regime and film boiling regime [12, 13]. In the single phase regime, the heat flux linearly increases with increasing surface temperature difference between heater surface and coolant. Forced convection by radially moving film and evaporation on unsteady interface of thin film layer, play dominant roles in single-phase regime [29]. In the nucleate boiling regime, bubbles begin to repeatedly occur at nucleation sites on the heated surface, and the heat flux sharply increases as compared to single-phase cooling. Once the nucleation sites cover the heated surface completely, average heat flux will reach a peak value, which is defined as Critical Heat Flux (CHF).
\nOnce reaching the CHF and coming to the transition boiling (decreasing region in the boiling curve), the efficiency of heat transfer on the heating surface significantly decreases. Liquid coolant absorbs heat from the surface and forms the vapor blanket, so the surrounding liquids are hard to get to the heater surface. That is the reason for the sharp decrease of heat flux in this regime. In the film, boiling regime an interesting phenomenon is an increasing trend of heat flux. Massive heat is generated from the heated surface and radiation heat transfer becomes a key heat transfer mechanism between the heated surface and the liquid, so the heat flux tends to increase from the Leidenfrost point. Considering the safety limit and fast implementation of electronic cooling, researchers’ attention is paid to the theoretical correlation in single phase regime and nucleation boiling regime.
\nIn the single phase regime, Rybicki and Mudawar [4] proposed the correlation for dielectric PF-5050 spray, which is
\nHere \n
The correlation has an accuracy of ±7.3% for varied pressure drops. Heieh and Tien [29] studied R-134a spray cooling, and correlated the Nusselt number to the Weber number, size distribution and sensible heat effects in the single phase regime, which is
\nIn the nucleate boiling regime of spray cooling, the heat flux increases with the surface temperature faster than that in single-phase regime. Yang et al. [31] proposed two reasons. In nucleation, boiling bubble appears and grows on nucleation sites as the liquid coolant changes to the vapor. During the phase change, a larger amount of heat is removed from the heated surface, resulting in a temperature drop on nucleation sites. The other reason is attributed to the influence of secondary nucleation and evaporation on the heat flux enhancement [32]. When the numerous droplets impinge on heated surface, air is entrained into the liquid film, forming an air layer underneath the droplets. The air layer reaches the liquid-covered surface and finally breaks up into many tiny gas nuclei, which serve as secondary nucleation sites. Hence, the number of secondary nucleation sites is proportional to the droplet flux across the surface, which was proved in Yang’s experiments [33]. Using water as coolant liquid, Mudawar and Valentine [16] proposed the CHF correlation with respect to the local volumetric flux \n
In another study by Estes and Mudawar [34], a universal CHF correlation was constructed for spray cooling by using Fluorinerts FC-72 and FC-87 as well as the water.
\nEnhancing spray cooling by changing the surface structure is one effective and low-cost approach, which benefits from optimal liquid management and enhancement of local cooling efficiency. According to the structure size, enhanced surface is classified into four categories: mini-structured surface, micro-structured surface, nano-structured surface, and hybrid-structured surface. Most of early studies of spray cooling have been conducted on flat surfaces. A few of them focus on the effects of surface roughness on cooling enhancement. Pais et al. [35] fabricated three rough surfaces using polishing grit with the size range of 0.3–22 μm and examined the roughness influence on heat removal capabilities. Tests showed that as the surface roughness decreases the CHF increases. CHF is up to 1200 W/cm2 on the surface by polishing grit of 0.3 μm while only 1000 W/cm2 on the surface by 22 μm grit. This is because the large surface roughness implies a thicker film thickness, leading to the later bubble breakup and departure, the impeding of vapor escape, the increased resistance to heat flux through evaporation on film surface, and the dampening of droplet impingement.
\nMini-textured surfaces feature structure size above 1 mm, and the structure types of cubic pin fins, pyramids, and straight fins and so on (see Figure 5a). Silk et al. [23] observed that addition of finned structure to cooled surface decreases the convective thermal resistance, and increases the convection heat transfer relative to the flat surface, since the total wetted surface area is larger on the enhanced surface. Although the cubic pin fins and straight fins have the same wetted surface area, cooling performance of straight fins surface exceeds that of the cubic pin fins surface. This is attributed to liquid management on the heated surface and cooling efficiency on the wetted surface area. Xie et al. [39] indicated that the fin arrangement is a dominant factor in enhancing heat transfer rather than the wetted surface area. The improper fin arrangement causes the thick and slow moving liquid film and thus worsens the local cooling performance. This point of view needs further validation by measuring the change of local surface temperature.
\n(a) Millimetric structured surface [23], (b) micro-structured surface [36], (c) Nano-structured surface [37], (d) hybrid micro/nano structured surface [38].
Micro/nano or hybrid structured surfaces have been attracted huge attention to spray cooling as micro fabrication technology advances new micro-/nano-engineered surface in the last decade (see Figure 5b, c, d). The experimental studies [36, 39, 40, 41] applied micro-textured surfaces with surface feature size from 25 to 480 μm, which is close to liquid film thickness but larger than average droplet size. Micro-textured surfaces showed slight effect on heat transfer enhancement in the flooded region, but greatly enhancing cooling performance in the thin film and partial dry-out regions as compared to the flat surface. The study by Zhang et al. [37] showed that nanostructured surface has better cooling performance since the contact angle is smallest on the nanostructured surface as compared to micro-structured surfaces and flat surfaces. Recently, Chen et al. [38] developed a hybrid micro/nano structured surface by growing the ZnO nanowire arrays on the top of etched micro-structured silicon wafer. Test results showed that cooling performance of hybrid surface is better than the micro-structured surface in boiling regime because of its great wetting capacity and reduction in dry-out surface area. If comparing performance of nanostructured surface [37] and hybrid surface [38], there is no significant difference in heat flux enhancement relative to the smooth surface.
\nThe impact dynamics during spray cooling is complicated as it involves many liquid phenomena, such as spreading, receding, splashing, droplet collision, generation of stationary film and radially flowing film, and liquid flooding. All of these impact phenomena result from the interaction of droplet flow and film flow on the impact surface. Droplet flow includes three types: single droplet, droplet train (continuous droplets formed from jet breakup), and droplet burst (portion of droplet train selected at a certain frequency). Similarly, film flow conditions involve dry surface (no film), stationary film, radially flowing film, or their combination on the cooling surface (see Figure 6).
\nSingle water droplets with same velocity and diameter (\n\n\nU\n0\n\n\n= 1.85 m/s, \n\n\nD\n0\n\n\n=3.2 mm) impact three different surface conditions: (a) dry surface, (b) stationary water film, (c) flowing water film [42].
The droplet and film flow conditions are two flow parameters directly determining the heat transfer mechanism of spray cooling. Coolant droplets bring significant temperature difference between the expanding droplet flow and flowing film, which contributes to the reduction of thermal resistance inside the film layer and enhancement of heat transfer from the heated surface to the flowing flow. Fluid dynamics on the impact surface is responsible for the local convection heat transfer. The fast flowing film transfers more heat to downstream. Thin film thickness reduces the thermal boundary layer and encourages evaporation from the liquid interface. Therefore, the fluid dynamics study of droplet affecting film enables us to get insight into thermal results of droplet impact on the film-cooled hot surface, and further understand spray cooling performance. The relevant literature is reviewed based on the droplet flow condition: single droplet impact, droplet train impact, and droplet burst impact.
\nThe dry surface usually appears in two-phase spray cooling, which is shown by the change of contact line length. The researchers reported that the critical heat flux in spray cooling is achieved at the greatest contact line length. On dry surface, droplet impact dynamics on droplet-covered surface area is essential to local cooling performance. The process of a liquid droplet impact was divided by Rioboo et al. [43] into five successive phases: kinematic, spreading, relaxation, wetting, and equilibrium. Most research work has been focused on spreading and relaxation. In the spreading phase, contact line expands radially until reaching a maximum spreading, which is determined by droplet initial diameter, impact velocity, surface tension, viscosity, and wettability of the solid surface (Li et al. [44]). The maximum spread diameter is of critical importance in spreading phase. Clanet et al. [45] found that on a super-hydrophobic surface the maximal spread is significantly dependent on the viscosity of liquid droplets and scales as a function of Weber number~We1/4. van Dam and Clerc [46] found a significant difference of maximum spread between substrates with small and large contact angles, showing the significant influence of wettability in the later stage of impact. A lower air pressure was found to suppress the droplet spreading, leading to a smaller maximum spread [47].
\nSome analytical models were proposed to predict impact process, most of which were based on the energy conservation of the impact droplet. Chandra and Avedisian [48] developed an empirical correlation of viscous dissipation, including estimated spreading time, simplified dissipation function, and estimated volume of viscous dissipation. Gao and Li [49] proposed a theoretical model based on the actual dynamic shape of the droplet that could successfully predict the maximum spreading diameter and receding diameter during the recoiling process. Some of the researchers put efforts on the investigation of splash using varied dry surfaces. Surface roughness and textures were demonstrated to influence the splash limit [50, 51]. Droplet impact on a moving surface was found to show different splash and non-splash phenomena as compared to stationary surfaces [52]. Previous studies on splash threshold under different surface conditions are summarized in Table 1.
\nSurface conditions | \nThreshold parameter K | \nCritical value Kc | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
Dry surface | \n(WeRe1/2)1/2 | \n57.7 | \nMundo et al. [50] | \n
We0.5Re−0.391 | \n0.8458 | \nVander Wal et al. [53] | \n|
Moving dry surface | \nWeRe1/2(1−2.5\n | \n5700 | \nBird et al. [52] | \n
Stationary liquid film | \n(WeRe1/2)0.8 | \n2100 | \nCossali et al. [54] | \n
We0.5Re0.17 | \n63 | \nVander Wal et al. [53] | \n|
Flowing liquid film | \nWeRe1/2(1 + \n | \n3378 | \nGao and Li [42] | \n
Summary of splash thresholds under different surface conditions [42].
On heated dry surface, Bernardin et al. [55] mapped the boiling curve of droplet impact cooling as the same as the spray cooling. In the regime of single-phase liquid cooling, Pasandideh-Fard et al. [56] observed that increasing impact velocity would enhance heat flux around the impact area. This is because the raising droplet velocity promotes droplet spreading, thus increasing the wetted area on the heated substrate. However, increasing droplet impact velocity slightly enhances heat flux at the impact point. Batzdorf et al. [57] proposed a theoretical mode to predict the heat transfer rate during the droplet impact. The theoretical prediction is more accurate when the liquid Prandtal number \n
On superheated surface with temperature over 200°C, Tran et al. [58] found three significant phenomena after droplet impact: contact boiling (droplet contacts with the surface), film boiling (vapor layer formed underneath the droplet), and spray film boiling (vapor layer and tiny droplets ejected upward) (see Figure 7a). Their experiments showed that the maximum spreading of a droplet impact follows a universal scaling with the Weber number (~We2/5), which is steeper than that on nonheated surface (~We1/4) [45]. The steeper curve on heated surface results from a driving mechanism, which is caused by the evaporating vapor radially expanding and pushing liquid outward. Staat et al. [59] indicated that the Leidenfrost transition temperature shows little dependence on the Weber number of affecting droplet, but the transition to splashing shows a strong dependence on the surface temperature. Adera et al. [60] reported the formation of non-wetting droplets on a super-hydrophilic micro-structured surface by slightly heating the surface above the saturation temperature of the droplet fluid, which is contributed by the increased thermal conductivity and decreased vapor permeability of the structured region. In experimental study of Jung et al. [61], the transient temperature distribution during droplet spread was detected using infrared thermography. In contact boiling, the droplet coolant contacts the surface and the maximum heat flux is quick to reach at early impact stage ~2 ms at impact point. In film boiling, non-wetting surface appears at the early impact, and the maximum heat flux is even lower than that in contact boiling due to the existence of vapor layer underneath the droplet. On heated surface, the study of simultaneous impact of multiple droplets is few, which needs further discussion of droplet collision influence on contact line and local evaporation. This benefits the understanding of two-phase spray cooling and optimization of cooling efficiency.
\n(a) Phase diagram of water droplet impact on a superheated surface [58], (b) plot of the maximum spreading diameter versus weber number [58].
Stationary film occurs in the center of normal spray impact, or locates where the spray nozzle axis insects with the impact surface in inclined spray (see Figure 2). On a stationary film, most researchers focused on spread process and splash formation mechanism after impact. Yarin and Weiss [62] developed a quasi-one-dimensional model, which predicts the existence of a kinematic discontinuity in the velocity and film thickness distribution. The discontinuity corresponds to the emergence of an uprising liquid sheet. Roisman and Tropea [63] generalized Yarin’s theory for the case of arbitrary velocity vectors in the liquid films both inside and outside the crown. Yarin and Weiss [62] experimentally found the crown radius from the impact center could be expressed as a function of the non-dimensional spreading time. Two empirical parameters existing in their model was given by the later study of Cossali et al. [64]. Droplet impact on a stationary film may or may not result in the splash. Finding the threshold condition for splash impact has been the focus of a few experimental studies. Cossali et al. [64] tested drops of various mixtures of water and glycerol affecting a thin liquid film and proposed an empirical parameter for predicting the occurrence of splash impact. For thick films, Cossali et al. [54] and Rioboo et al. [65] found a critical value of the threshold parameter, i.e. \n
The interaction between droplet flow and film flow is fundamental fluid dynamics in single-phase spray cooling or nucleate boiling (see Figure 2b). Impact dynamics was addressed in some researches. Alghoul et al. [66] presented an experimental investigation of a liquid droplet affecting onto horizontal moving liquid films. An asymmetrical crown shape was observed due to the effect of the moving film. Che et al. [67] demonstrated the on inclined falling flow asymmetrical crown shape is also formed after droplet impact. Gao and Li [42] further analyzed the early evolvement of droplet impact based on experiments and theoretical model (see Figure 6c). Once droplet lands on the film, the droplet flow quickly spreads and pushes the liquid outwards, causing the uprising liquid sheets. However, crown sheet is asymmetric owing to the collision mechanism on crown base. At the early stage of droplet impact, the direction of spreading flow is opposite to that of film flow at the upstream of impact point, while their direction is the same at the downstream. Uprising crown sheet may splash, which is dependent of the instability of the sheet rim. The stretching rate of crown sheet is a key factor influencing the rim instability. Analysis was conducted to derive equation of stretching rate, finding that the highest stretching rate appears at the location which droplet spreading flow is right opposite to the film flow, and the location is also the most probable location of splash. The value of splash threshold was provided to estimate whether splash occurs or not. The secondary droplets from splash fly away from the cooled surface, which do not contribute to the cooling performance. In other words, suppression of splash occurrence should benefit cooling enhancement.
\nThe late study of Gao and Li [68, 69] further observed the whole development of droplet impact on flowing film, and demonstrated its relation to the local cooling. The impact process is observed by high-speed video, showing two states: spreading state, replacing state. In spreading state, the droplet flow spreads and gradually slows down until reaching the maximum spread. After that, the droplet flow is pushed towards the downstream and eventually replaced by the film flow. The measured temperature also shows two stages: response stage when the temperature quickly decreases, and recovery stage in which the temperature recovers to the steady state. An enhancement factor was proposed to indicate convection enhancement relative to the steady-state cooling. The peak enhancement is used to consider enhancement influence of impact velocity, droplet size and film flow rate, which is proportional to the square root of the ratio of the droplet flow rate to the film flow rate~\n
One possible phenomenon in spray cooling is that fresh droplets continuously impact the surface at a certain frequency. The droplet flow is defined as the droplet train flow. The fluid dynamics behind this is the interaction of continuous droplet train flow with the flowing film formed on the heated surface. To investigate heat transfer of spray cooling from this aspect, a few studies have been conducted on the heat transfer of continuous droplet train impinging on hot surfaces. Qiu et al. [70] demonstrated surface temperature influence on the impact dynamics. Prior to the steady state, the droplet film spreads on the heated surface, and the surface temperature enhances the spreading rate of the flowing film when the surface temperature is over the boiling point. With the increase of the surface temperature the steady-state film-wetted area decreases, and eventually maintains constant after the temperature is greater than 190°C. Besides, the temperature also affects the splashing angle (see Figure 8). A stable splashing angle marked by red line is established at higher surface temperature greater than 192°C. The later study of Qiu et al. [71] showed that the inclination of the droplet train decreases the splashing angle and increases the averaged secondary droplet size.
\nThe impact dynamics of droplet train at different surface temperature and the droplet velocity is 15.2 m/s [70].
Soriano et al. [72] presented an experimental observation of multiple droplet train impingement. Impact spacing between multiple droplet streams would affect spreading and splashing in impact regimes, and the optimal cooling performance was achieved when the film velocity was not disturbed by adjacent droplet streams. Zhang et al. [73, 74] further demonstrated that both impact spacing and impingement pattern significantly affect local and global cooling performance on the hot surface. In comparison with the circular jet impingement cooling, the droplet train impingement achieves a better cooling performance for various impingement patterns. The same conclusion was made when comparing the cooling performance of droplet train and jet impingement on flowing film that cools the hot surface [75]. Through piezoelectric nozzles more groups of jet flow were generated and broke up to droplet train for cooling the hot surface [76], and the maximum heat flux reaches~ 170 W/cm2 with the nozzle diameter of 25 μm. However, unclear impact dynamics and its relation to local cooling need the further study.
\nOur recent studies try to understand spray cooling from droplet burst aspect [75, 77]. Different from droplet train cooling, it assumed that in spray cooling droplet groups impact the surface at a constant frequency rather than droplet train. Each droplet group is defined as a droplet burst, and each burst contains a constant number of droplets, which is called burst size. The frequency at which droplet bursts are generated is called the burst frequency. The generation mechanism of droplet burst was first proposed by Gao and Li [75, 77] and implemented in tests. A droplet generator combined with controlled interrupter is applied for droplet burst generation. A droplet train is ejected from droplet generator with droplet frequency \n
Droplet burst flows are generated by interrupting a droplet train flow (\n\n\nf\n0\n\n=\n\n1000 Hz) using an interrupter with an angle θ = 330° and varied frequencies \n\n\nf\nb\n\n\n: (a) 18.3 Hz, (b) 13.5 Hz, (c) 25.0 Hz, (d) 30.1 Hz, and (e) schematic of a droplet burst flow with \n\nn\n=\n\n6 [75, 77].
For the impact of one droplet burst (see Figure 10), at \n
(a) Impact dynamics of a drop burst flow affecting the film flow; (b1) surface temperature distribution at \n\nt\n=\n 0 s; (b2) & (b3) temperature change; (c1) heat transfer coefficient at \n\n\n\nt\n=\n\n\n0 s; (c2) & (c3) change of heat transfer coefficient [75, 77].
For the impact of one droplet burst flow, the temperature at impact point is measured. Temperature measurement shows that the burst flow causes the temperature to quickly decrease, and then the temperature fluctuates with the constant fluctuation frequency and amplitude in full-developed stage. The fluctuation frequency is equal to the burst impact frequency. The temperature at the impact point remains lower than the film cooling temperature without droplet burst impact. Heat transfer coefficient shows three development stages of the convection: affecting, restoring, and restored. During the restored stage, local cooling has returned to the film cooling. The restored stage may not exist if the time interval between bursts \n
The comparison of burst flows shows that the trough value of the fluctuating temperature, \n
Spray cooling is one effective cooling technology for handling high-power density and high heat flux removal requirement. In spray cooling, liquid coolant is emitted from a pressurized nozzle and breaks up into numerous secondary droplets affecting heated surface that is covered by radially flowing film. The cooling is achieved through the convection heat transfer from the heated surface to the film flow, nucleate boiling, liquid conduction inside the film flow, and interfacial evaporation from the liquid film. Based on research outcomes reported in the literature, spray cooling technology is reviewed from two aspects: the spray level and the droplet level. In the spray level, these studies emphasize the cooling performance to spray property. Some key properties are summarized in this chapter, involving spray characterization, nozzle positioning, phase change, and enhanced surface. In the droplet level, the studies focus on local heat transfer associated with droplet impact conditions, which are classified into a few categories: impact of single droplet on dry surface, stationary film, flowing film, impact of droplet train, and impact of droplet burst. Although spray impact cannot be simply considered as the superposition of single droplets, the studies in droplet level provide experimental and theoretical basis to explain what happened on heated surface and the relevant local heat transfer mechanism in spray cooling.
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\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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