Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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\n
1. Introduction
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Fundamental nature’s operations are dominated and regulated by noncovalent interactions. Solvation demonstrates a key role in all these processes as it drastically influences the energetics of host-guest (Ho-G) interactions as well as the supramolecular recognition phenomena. In many occasions solvents can influence and modulate the supramolecular structure of complex systems through various possible interactions with solutes.
\n
In recent years a rapidly increasing interest and development in the field of supramolecular engineering have been observed. Specifically within the scope of modern materials and chemical science, the conducted research is continuously growing [1]. Fundamentally, the target is to create molecular systems by design, intending to regulate the interactions of complex building blocks in the solid and liquid state and to obtain desirable complex systems exhibiting multifunctional properties. Since the recent awarding of the Nobel Prize of chemistry to Jean-Pierre Sauvage, Fraser Stoddart, and Ben Feringa, this area has gained plenty of scientific attention [2]. The microenvironment-dependent complexation of supramolecular complexes provides a conventional tool for creating a vast variety of mechanically interlocked molecules, supramolecular architectures, and molecular machines. Rotaxanes and catenanes, which are at the heart of the development of “molecular machine” chemistry [3], are of principal importance. Under this framework, molecular machines that have been studied until today include molecular motors [4], shuttles [5], muscles [6], pumps [7], elevators [8], etc. Supramolecular chemistry showed an impulsive interest in molecular-engineered compounds, whereby complexes are formed from small molecular building blocks held together by reversible intermolecular noncovalent interactions such as van der Waals interactions, hydrogen bonding, electrostatic, π-π stacking, and hydrophobic interactions. Their design, control, and function compose new relevant interdisciplinary key enabling areas (KEA) of science and technology. In all these solvents and solvation are demonstrating a fundamentally important role. Ordinarily, solvents are categorized into two main categories cited as polar and nonpolar, whereby their efficacy is often characterized by their dielectric constants. Solvents with a dielectric constant of less than 15 are usually regarded to be nonpolar. Nonpolar solvents contain bonds between atoms with similar electronegativities, such as carbon and hydrogen. Polar solvents have large dipole moments and they comprise bonds between atoms with very different electronegativities, such as oxygen and hydrogen. The aforementioned solvents are additionally divided into polar aprotic and polar protic. The solvation efficacy in a predefined medium pays a key role in thermodynamics and kinetics especially in supramolecular host-guest interactions. This is profoundly correlated to changes in solubility, stability constant, reactivity, redox potential, and some spectral parameters. Host-guest association behaviors can essentially be controlled only by applying diverse solvent system, thus altering by demand their solvation properties. Hence, the solvation environment plays a dynamic role for supramolecular solutes, being able thus to affect the thermodynamics of complex systems. In general, the interactions involved in supramolecular systems are quite weaker than covalent bonds, and thus they can be highly controlled and reversible. Acknowledging the importance of the above, this chapter discusses the impact of solvents in various types of supramolecular systems.
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2. Supramolecular recognition
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2.1 General aspects
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One of the key roles of solvents which are dominant in supramolecular chemistry is their role in supramolecular recognition. This is essential for systems consisting of a host (Ho) and a guest (G) (Figure 1). In solution solvent molecules can interact with Ho and G molecules through various types of noncovalent weak interactions, and this process readily affects the mutual interactions between the Ho and G counterparts. Consequently, the thermodynamics of their binding can be significantly altered simply by changing solvents. The most dominant interactions in Ho-G-S system (where S is a solvent) can be electrostatic (i.e., ion-ion, ion-dipole, dipole-dipole, or dipole-induced dipole interactions), H-bonding, van der Waals, or π-π interactions. Inevitably, the type of developed interactions is influenced by the physicochemical properties of the Ho, G, and S molecules [9].
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Figure 1.
Illustration of the equilibrium of the binding between a solvated Ho (blue) and a solvated G (orange) molecule involving the release of solvent molecules (red).
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From a thermodynamic perspective, the simple equilibrium of Figure 1 is described by the equilibrium (association) constant which is connected to the thermodynamic activities of the Ho, G, and (Ho-G) species, i.e., Ka = a[Ho-G]/a[Ho].a[G]. The association constant is in turn related to the changes in standard Gibbs free energy (ΔGo), enthalpy (ΔHο), and entropy (ΔSo) upon binding of G to Ho, i.e., RT lnKa = ΔGo = ΔHο−T.ΔSo, where R and T correspond to the ideal gas constant and temperature, respectively. Solvents are capable of influencing the above-described equilibrium by affecting the terms ΔHο and ΔSo [9, 10]. When it comes to Supramolecular Complexation (SC), a general classification of solvents is based on their aptitude to undertake to self-organization. Self-organized (structured) solvents are in general relatively polar solvents, e.g., water, alcohols, amides, etc., whereas the nonstructured are generally less polar, e.g., hydrocarbons, haloalkanes, etc. One might assume that the importance of nonstructured solvents would be minor in supramolecular complexation due to the weaker interaction with the Ho and G molecules; the situation however is much different. Of course highly structured/polar solvents like water exhibit major effects on the complexation of Ho and G. Surprisingly though, dramatic differences in the stabilization of a (Ho-G) complex can be observed when shifting from a haloalkane like chloroform to an aromatic solvent like benzene.
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The tremendous impact of solvent polarity on the supramolecular assembling is easily manifested through the following example by Nishimura and coworkers [11]. In their work by employing dynamic covalent chemistry, they managed to develop a complementary capsule-guest supramolecular system (Figure 2) behaving very differently in two deuterated solvents of interest: CDCl3 and C6D6.
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Figure 2.
Supramolecular assembly exploiting dynamic covalent chemistry. Reprinted with permission from Nishimura and coworkers [11].
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Specifically, the thermodynamics of the supramolecular recognition were different in these two solvents with Ka values differing by three orders of magnitude (Ka(C6D6)/Ka(CDCl3) = 1150). It was also found that the supramolecular recognition effect was in both solvent cases enthalpy driven. Yet, ΔΗ(kcal/mol) was determined to be −18.6 in deuterated benzene and −2.7 in deuterated chloroform which corresponds to a significant thermodynamic solvent effect. Interestingly, Kang and Rebek some years earlier designed and synthesized a dimeric supramolecular guest corresponding to various carboxylic acids such as 1-adamantanecarboxylic acid [12]. Working in the same two deuterated solvents, they discovered a reversed solvent effect (compared to that of Nishimura and coworkers). The supramolecular recognition effect in that case was found to be entropically favored with however two orders of magnitude difference in Ka: (Ka(CDCl3)/Ka(C6D6) = 243). Through these stimulating examples, it is easily made understood that solvents have a drastic effect on supramolecular binding/recognition effects [9].
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Large solvent effects are also encountered in supramolecular complexation (SC) involving ionic and neutral, e.g., hydrophobic, entities. These effects are largely dependent of the nature of the target guest molecule for a given host molecule. Noteworthy, ionic and neutral SC often exhibits opposite solvent polarity dependencies. Two characteristic such examples are the SC of aromatic hydrophobic molecules by a cyclophanes and that of potassium ions by the crown ether 18-crown-6. For instance, Smithrud and Diederich observed five orders of magnitude higher association constant in water compared to the solvent carbon disulfide for a cyclophane/pyrene SC system [13]. The hydrophobic 3D cyclophane developed by Smithrud and Diederich involved a large cavity accessible to solvent molecules, and the huge Ka determined in water was attributed to the solvophobic effect. In simple words pyrene prefers to be encapsulated in the hydrophobic cavity of the cyclophane instead of interacting with water. The effect becomes less and less important as one moves from water to apolar solvents [13]. The opposite effect is observed for the SC of potassium ions by ether 18-crown-6 [14]. In that case the association constant becomes larger in solvents of lower polarity, e.g., logKa (H2O) = 2.0, whereas logKa (acetone) = 6.0 [14]. Interestingly, the logKa exhibits a linear dependence to the surface tension of the medium as well as to other parameters/properties of solvents [15, 16].
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The above-described examples are fundamental for the development of complex supramolecular systems with possibilities of external control and the design of molecular machines. Focus of the next section is the effect of solvents on some characteristic molecular machines and switches.
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3. Nano-mechanical motions affected by solvents
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3.1 Rotaxanes and catenanes
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Rotaxanes, pseudorotaxanes, and catenanes are prominent members of the supramolecular family of compounds. They may be composed of both organic and inorganic (macro)molecules mechanically linked together. One of the latter parts may exhibit the ability to move in relation to the rest of the other parts. Due to this effect, many of these systems have been proposed for molecular machinery applications. In the case of rotaxanes bulky substitutes, the so-called stoppers are integrated in these systems preserving the stability of the supramolecular assembly. Pseudorotaxanes consist of the same structural units as rotaxanes, but do not include the aforementioned stoppering bulky substituents. In contrast, catenanes consist of two or more macrocyclic molecules tied together, forming chain-like supramolecular assemblies (Figure 3). The stability in all these systems is achieved through various types of weak interactions such as van der Waals forces, hydrophobic effects, hydrogen bonds, donor acceptor interactions, etc. Today a large number of scientific works have been published following the pioneering synthesis of the first rotaxane by Wasserman in 1960 [17]. Additional scientific support has been provided by a stream of publications by pioneering researchers such as Luttringhaus [18], Wasserman [17], Harrison [19], and Schill [20]. All of them dealt with the creation of functional molecular devices of high complexity and specialization.
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Figure 3.
From pseudorotaxanes to rotaxanes and catenanes.
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Today multiple supramolecular structures have been created through the inclusion of a variety of linear axle-like molecules in the cavities of macromolecules such as crown ethers, cyclophanes, cyclodextrins (CD), etc. In this way numerous supramolecular systems exhibiting diverse one-, two-, and three-dimensional (1D, 2D, and 3D) architectures have been reported. The methodologies leading to catenanes and rotaxanes after assembling and pseudorotaxane formation are illustrated in the schematic representation of Figure 3.
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3.2 Molecular shuttles
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Interlocking a part of a linear molecule of a rotaxane into the cavity of a macrocycle molecule is associated with a series of complex interaction phenomena. An important function that many of the aforementioned systems can undergo is that of molecular shuttling. This often happens when a macrocycle trapped onto a linear component (axle) is capable of moving reversibly between two or more Regions on the axle (often called stations), in response to external stimuli (e.g., electrochemical stimuli, irradiation, heating/cooling, and/or solvent polarity changes) [21].
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As already mentioned the main forces that hold these supramolecular structures together are relatively weak, and therefore the systems can undergo the described shuttling movement under mild external changes in a fully controlled manner [21]. Across all the potential driving forces, all the kind of energy inputs, and all aforementioned parameters, it is noteworthy that a simple change in solvent polarity can be harvested in order to induce a controllable molecular machine function (Figure 4). In this section the stimulating role of solvents on the function of interlocked systems is reviewed.
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Figure 4.
Schematic illustration of controllable switching of [2]rotaxanes through external stimuli.
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One of the key/pioneering contributions in the field of solvent effects on the (multi)functional behavior of rotaxanes has been made by Leigh and coworkers. By applying chemistry similar to that occurring in natural systems and specifically in peptides, they managed to synthesize the rotaxanes of Figure 5A [22]. In both cases of rotaxanes of Figure 5A, the linear component consists of a glycylglycine chain and two diphenylmethane end groups (stoppers). The stabilization of these [2]rotaxanes is achieved through the development of hydrogens bonds between amide hydrogen of the macrocycle molecule with the carbonyl groups of the linear compound and vice versa. The resulted bonds are very stable when the rotaxanes are dissolved in non polar solvents such as CHCl3. However, when they are dissolved in polar solvents such as DMSO which can specifically interact with parts of these molecules, these bonds become unstable, and this results to a different molecular configuration for each of the two [2]rotaxanes. This solvent-driven feature is essential for triggering the switching ability of this supramolecular complex, thus functioning as a molecular machine, and has been a stimulating example for a number of later scientific works.
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Figure 5.
(A) The two rotaxanes by Leigh et al. [22] and (B) the solvent-switchable [2]rotaxane containing C60 stoppering unit by Da Ros et al. Reprinted with permission from Da Ros et al. [23].
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In 2003 Da Ros et al. published a [2]rotaxane which performs a solvent-induced shuttling movement as shown in Figure 5B [23]. This [2]rotaxane consists of fullerene C60 group behaving as both a stoppering unit and a photoactive group. The amphiphilic nature of the rotaxane thread was used to shuttle the macrocycle from close to the fullerene spheroid (in nonpolar solvents) to far away (in polar solvents).
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The rotaxane is based on hydrogen bond-directed assembly of a benzylic amide macrocycle around a dipeptide thread, solvent-switchable molecular shuttles in a similar fashion to the work by Leigh et al. [22]. In nonpolar solvents, e.g., CH2Cl2 or CHCl3, the macrocycle forms hydrogen bonds with the peptide residue. In polar aprotic solvents such as DMSO, the hydrogen bonding between the macrocycle >NH group and the peptide carbonyl group is disrupted by the competing solvent interactions, and thus the macrocycle selectively stops over the alkyl chain [23].
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In 2005 Gschwind and coworkers published a series of [2]rotaxanes, containing a phenol-involving linear part, amide-involving macrocycles, and triphenylmethane-stoppering units [24]. The dumbbell molecule 1 of Figure 6 offers three diamide stations to the macrocyclic molecule in the protonated form of the [2]rotaxane. It was found that electrostatic interactions can modulate exceptionally well the speed of the mechanical motion between a fast- and a slow-motion state as a response to a reversible external solvent-provided stimulus. The electrostatic interactions in these rotaxanes are controllably regulated through solvent effects induced by altering the proportion of polar solvent in a binary solvent mixture. For example, when different amounts of DMSO are added to dichloromethane, solvent-driven shuttling modifications occur (Figure 6C). It was further found that the molecular wheel shuttling in deprotonated rotaxanes is hindered by the counter-cation held through electrostatic forces close to the anion at the axle-center region. Thus, the shuttling speed can easily be regulated by addition of acids and bases enabling a fast- and a slow-motion mode parallel to the on-off switching function.
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Figure 6.
(A) Various [2] rotaxanes by Gschwind and coworkers [24]. (B) Interactions in a [2]rotaxane. (C) Cartoon representation illustrating the dynamic processes in the acid-/base-regulated switching of [2]rotaxanes depicted in (A). Reprinted with permission from Gschwind and coworkers [24].
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Cai and coworkers have a long-standing interest in the effects of solvents in the shuttling movements in mechanically interlocked compounds [25, 26, 27]. In 2012 they reported a [2]rotaxane molecular shuttle controlled by solvent. The rotaxane involved α-cyclodextrin (α-CD), dodecamethylene, and bipyridinium moieties as shown in Figure 7 [26]. Cai et al. discovered that the molecular shuttling in this [2]rotaxane can be driven by both solvent and temperature changes. They indeed demonstrated the shuttling process of α-CD along the linear thread in solvents of different polarities such as DMSO and H2O. The energy barrier in water was shown to be 4.0 kcal/mol higher than in DMSO. Water interacts favorably with the bipyridinium moieties, however, negligibly with the alkyl chain, and this yields to a higher free energy barrier in the case of water.
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Figure 7.
Solvent-induced shuttle movement in a [2]rotaxane. Reprinted with permission from Cai and coworkers [26].
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4. Solvatochromic supramolecular systems
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4.1 Generalities
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Solvatochromism is a well-studied phenomenon occurring in many diverse systems. It is described as the change in color (χρώμα, Greek word for color) induced by solvents. In a broader context, the term solvatochromism covers changes in the electronic (UV-Vis), FTIR, Raman, or EPR spectra induced by solvents [28]. A vast number of solvatochromic compounds have been reported to date exhibiting large structural diversity [29]. The most frequently studied class of solvatochromic dyes involves dyes bearing a D-π-Α structure where A is an electron-withdrawing moiety, D is an electron-donating group, and π is a conjugated system (often aromatic), separating A and D. D-π-Α dyes have recently received much attention as they can be used in hi-tech applications including materials with nonlinear optical (NLO) properties [30, 31], chromotropic sensors and molecular switches [32, 33]. They serve also in many cases as multifunctional building blocks for supramolecular architectures, e.g., in rotaxanes [34]. Some examples of such dyes are depicted in Figure 8. The common characteristic of the compounds I–IV is that their D part (an iodine anion in I, a phenolate in II, a carbanion in III, and an iron(II) cation in IV) is capable of transferring an electron pair (in II and III) or a single electron (in I and IV) to the electron-deficient positively charged pyridinium ring. The π-system through which the charge transfer occurs is either the aromatic backbone of pyridine itself (the cases of dyes I, III, and IV) or another π-system in conjugation with the pyridine ring (the case of dye II). This charge transfer (CT) is induced by light. The required energy of light for the CT transition depends strongly on solvent polarity [28]. Noteworthy, solvent polarity can affect CT energy in various ways. When the increase of medium polarity leads to a drop of the CT energy of a dye, the corresponding effect is called positive solvatochromism. In those cases bathochromic shifts in the electronic spectra of the compound are induced by an increase in solvent polarity (Figure 9A). When the opposite effect is observed, the observed phenomenon is called negative solvatochromism (Figure 9B). The main focus of this section is the solvatochromism in supramolecular systems.
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Figure 8.
Various pyridinium-based solvatochromic D-π-Α dyes. I, Kosower salt [28]; II, Reichardt’s betaine [28]; III, betaine of N-aryl and N′-phenacetyl-4,4′-bipyridines [35, 36]; and IV, pentacyanoferrate(II) complexes with N-aryl4,4′-bipyridines (monoquats) ligands (R = OMe, Me, H, Cl, Br, CN) [37, 38].
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Figure 9.
Plots of CT energy as a function of solvent polarity corresponding to (A) positive and (B) negative solvatochromism (G corresponds to ground and E to excited state).
When conducting a deep literature search, it is easily made obvious that there are not many examples of solvent-switchable supramolecular structures such as rotaxanes and catenanes exhibiting also solvatochromism. As mentioned above, solvatochromic supramolecular assemblies exhibit a strong change in position and sometimes the intensity of their absorption spectra, which is achieved by changing the polarity of the solvent (solvatochromic effect). This phenomenon is pronounced in electron acceptor-donor systems.
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An interesting example combining solvent-controlled shuttle movement in a rotaxane (see previous section) and solvatochromic behavior was reported by Günbaş et al. in 2011 (Figure 10) [39]. The solvatochromic behavior of their [2]rotaxane and its dumbbell-like precursor molecule was investigated in a variety of solvents of different polarities. It was observed that both compounds exhibited solvatochromic shifts in their absorption spectra when increasing the polarity of the solvent. Spectroscopic data showed a wavelength shift of 575 nm in toluene to 621 nm in DMSO for the molecule which corresponds to a positive solvatochromic shift. The observed values were attributed to the pyrrolidine group. For the [2]rotaxane, however, the solvatochromic changes were smaller. The absorbance was shifted from 608 to 621 nm when the solvent was changed from the nonpolar toluene to the highly polar DMSO. In general, both in the case of the [2]rotaxane and the dumbbell molecule, solvatochromic shifts were observed, indicating that polar solvent interacts stronger with the molecules and also stabilizes the excited state. Of course, this effect is stronger for the dumbbell molecule than for [2]rotaxane, an effect which could be attributed to interactions developed among the chromophore linear molecule and the macrocycle molecule.
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Figure 10.
(A) Shuttle movement in a [2]rotaxane and (B) solvatochromic shifts observed. Reprinted with permission from Günbaş et al. [39].
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In 2007, Toma and his scientific team published a paper in which they disclosed the solvatochromic properties of a [2]rotaxane, which involved a β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) macrocycle [40]. The linear molecule of their rotaxane consisted of trans-1,4-di-[(4-pyridyl) ethylene] benzene (Figure 11) and trans ferrocyanide(II) anions ligated by the pyridyl groups of the linear molecule which act as stoppering groups. The UV-Vis absorption spectral analysis of {[FeII(CN)]2(BPEB)} (dumbbell) and the corresponding β-CD-involving rotaxane indicated that the dumbbell molecule exhibited two absorption bands, one around 352 nm and the other at 454 nm.
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Figure 11.
Pioneering solvatochromic [2]rotaxane synthesis by Toma and coworkers [40].
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During the addition of β-CD to the linear molecule solution, a wavelength shift was observed denoting the formation of the [2] rotaxane, which was attributable to the metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT). The formation of [2]rotaxane resulted in a decrease in the energy of MLCT, i.e., a bathochromic shift from 454 to 479 nm. Commonly, the reaction of the iron complex (II) with N-heterocyclic substituents results in deep chromatic shifts of MLCT when the final products are dissolved in less polar solvents. In these systems the hydrophobic forces increase the solvatochromic effect. Thus, for the [2]rotaxane, the low-wavelength shift values are attributed to the inclusion of the β-CD cavity and to the selective solubilization of the rotaxane. This behavior could be related to the stabilization of the energy levels of the complex between β-CD and the ligand leading to a decrease in the energy of MLCT [41].
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Various other similar examples of solvation effects on rotaxane have been reported in the literature; one of these examples is the [2]rotaxane reported by Baer and Macartney in 2000 [41]. Cyclodextrin (CD) inclusion complexes with linear guest parts have been studied extensively using a variety of spectroscopic techniques. There have also been several reports of cyclodextrin (α- or β-CD)-based rotaxanes, polyrotaxanes, and catenanes using linear parts (L) containing biphenyl, stilbene, and azobenzene dyes. These [2]rotaxanes can be formed rapidly by the addition of [FeII(CN)5]3− stoppering units, and a cyclodextrin macrocyclic unit can be threaded by the linear Skeleton. It has been proven that such [2]rotaxanes exhibit intense metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transition bands in the visible spectrum. This transition as mentioned above is prone to changes in energy and intensity induced by solvents (solvatochromism). Different ligands acting as the axial parts for series of rotaxanes have been exploited so far such as trans-1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethylene ligand (BPE, Figure 12) which can nicely provide a conjugated bridging of inner sphere and intervalence electron transfer between transition metal centers [42]. The 4,4′-azopyridine ligand (AZP, Figure 12) has been employed as a bridging ligand as well mainly for ruthenium amines and porphyrins [43, 44]. The APA and PCA, i.e., 4-acetylpyridine azine and 4-pyridinecarboxaldehyde azine, respectively, are interesting examples of azines which have also been reported as building blocks of [2],rotaxanes of this class [45] (structures depicted in Figure 12 correspond to some prominent examples of such ligands/linear skeletons). Spectroscopic studies conducted in order to validate the maximum wavelength difference for CD-free dumbbells and CD-involving rotaxanes resulted in the following λmax(nm) {Fe(CN)5L3−/ (Fe(CN)5{L‚CD}3−)}: (i) BPE, 460/496 (α-CD) and 478 (β-CD); (ii) AZP, 596/698 (α-CD) and 644 (β-CD); (iii) PCA 508/536 (α-CD) and 518 (β-CD); and (iv) APA 448/456 (α-CD) and 458 (β-CD). It is evident in all cases that the spectra are affected by the presence of α- or β-CD, resulting in bathochromic shifts in the MLCT band in the visible spectrum. This effect constitutes an important response (of high sensitivity) to the polarity of their environment. This effect is much connected to solvatochromism. Indeed the aptitude of both non-rotaxanated dumbbells and the corresponding rotaxanes to yield solvatochromic shifts is very large [41].
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Figure 12.
Pyridine-involving ligands BPE, PCA, AZP, and APA (left) and the corresponding dumbbells and cyclodextrin-involving [2]rotaxanes (right).
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In 2012 Deligkiozi et al. reported the synthesis of a [2]rotaxane consisting of a fully conjugated arylazo-based linear part entrapped in α-cyclodextrin and stoppered by bulky dinitrophenyl end groups [46]. Recording the UV-Vis spectra of both compounds, a broadband in the region 300–400 nm was observed, which was attributed to the π-π* transition of the group (▬N〓N▬). Comparing the spectra of the [2]rotaxane and the dumbbell precursor, a bathochromic shift was observed. Specifically, the maximum wavelength of the dumbbell precursor was positioned at 337 nm, whereas that of the [2]rotaxane was centered at 351 nm. This shift is attributed to the interaction of the α-CD cavity and the (▬N〓N▬) group of the dumbbell-like compound, which causes a decrease in the energy difference between the ground and excited states of the azo-compound leading to bathochromism. Both compounds were found to undergo E-Z reversible isomerizations, and in the case of the [2]rotaxane, light-induced shuttle movement was reported [46]. Interestingly the same complexes were found to be photoconductive in the solid state, and this was accredited to the extended π-conjugation in these molecules [47, 48]. These findings enforced the same group to develop a system involving the same π-conjugated backbone, however involving strong electron-donating groups (pentacyanoferrate(II) stoppering groups). This led to the formation of strong D-π-A systems (Figure 13) [49]. More recently, Papadakis et al. exploited the solvatochromism of two CD-containing [2]rotaxanes and their CD-free linear precursor in order to investigate preferential solvation (PS) effects in water/ethylene glycol (EG) mixtures [50]. Pentacyanoferrate(II) groups which served as strong electron donors facilitated charge transfer to the viologen electron-deficient parts. It was proven that the pentacyanoferrate(II) units were able to trigger an intense solvatochromic behavior in such systems in neat solvents, solvent mixtures, and other types of aqueous media. In order to study the solvatochromic behaviors, aqueous/ethylene glycol (EG) mixtures were used as the media, and alteration of the polarity was achieved through changing solvent/cosolvent mole ratio. The medium-responsive behavior of these compounds (Figure 13) is mainly pronounced in very polar media such as water, aqueous EG mixtures, and neat EG (see Figure 13).
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Figure 13.
A) The dumbbell-shaped push-pull backbone developed by Deligkiozi et al. (top) and the corresponding cyclodextrin involving [2]rotaxanes (bottom). B) The bathochromic shifts of the MLCT band of the [2]rotaxane with α-cyclodextrin depicted in A observed in aqueous ethylene glycol mixtures. Reprinted with permission from: [34] and [50].
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In some cases rotaxanes and catenanes can also exhibit solvent-dependent emission of light. A representative example is that by Baggerman et al. involving [2]rotaxanes and [3]rotaxanes bearing a tetraphenoxy perylene diimide core [51]. In their work Baggerman et al. observed the influence of hydrogen bonding developed between the amide and the wheel macrocycle of these rotaxanes on the optical behavior of the chromophore (perylene). Specifically, they showed that both absorption and fluorescence spectra are bathochromically shifted upon rotaxanation. All systems including the wheel-free axle (WFA) exhibited fluorosolvatochromism with red shifts of up to 47 nm (WFA case) and a reduced fluorosolvatochromism when going to the [2] rotaxanes and [3] rotaxanes [51]. On the other hand, Boer et al. very recently exploited the solvent-dependent excimer and exciplex emissive behavior of naphthalene diimide metallomacrocycles and catenanes and thus managed to perform a solution speciation of the metallosupramolecular complexes and their solvent-dependent nature [52].
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4.3 Supramolecular solvatochromism
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Solvatochromism derived by an interaction of solvent molecules with a supramolecular system is characterized by various authors as “supramolecular solvatochromism.” In many cases the systems involve transition metals coordinated to ligands forming supramolecular architectures in which solvent molecules can be trapped or simply interact with parts of the system giving rise to different responses, e.g., in their electronic spectra.
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A characteristic early such example is that reported by Lee and Kimizuka in 2002 [53]. In their studies they developed a lipid-packaged 1D supramolecular complex bearing platinum. The anionic lipids acted as counter anions of the positively charged Pt complex. The electronic spectra of the as described supramolecular complex were found to be readily influenced by solvent polarity and that the packaging of the complex is vital for the overall medium-responsive properties. Some years later, Kuroiwa et al. reported on the supramolecular solvatochromism of lipid-packaged, mixed-valence linear platinum complexes (Figure 14) which were investigated in dispersions employing the solvents CHCl3, chlorocyclohexane, and methylcyclohexane [54]. It was found that solid samples were all indigo-colored but displayed supramolecular thermochromism, attributed to heat-induced dissociation and concomitant recovery of coordination chains. The reassembled supramolecular complexes exhibited color changes depending on the solvent employed, and the CT energy measured was found to decrease as the polarity of the organic medium increases following the sequence: methylcyclohexane, benzene, chlorocyclohexane, CHCl3, and 1,2-dichloroethane.
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Figure 14.
Structure of the two Pt(IV) complexes of Kuroiwa et al. [54].
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Such approaches gain more and more the attention of materials scientist as it could be envisioned that through mixing optical sensors and solvatochromic species or even aggregachromic compounds, the effects of various stimuli on the rheology of viscoelastic gels (VEGs) could be facilitated and this is considered as an important step before the development of new products based on VEGs becomes reality [55]. More recently, Nikolayenko et al. reported the supramolecular solvatochromic behavior of a dinuclear copper(II)-involving metallacycle [56]. The authors exploited the intense solvatochromic behavior of the CuII complex and the capacity of the macrocycle to trap small solvent molecules like tetrahydrofuran, diethyl ether, and pentane at temperatures well above their boiling points. The latter effect is attributed to the suitable guest shape and size which drastically limit lattice diffusion. Solvent exchange was found to induce intense color changes (Figure 15B) and sizable shifts in the visible region of the diffuse reflectance spectra (Figure 15B). The high intensity of the supramolecular solvatochromic effect is furthermore excellently illustrated through microphotographs of the variable colors of crystals.
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Figure 15.
A) Synthesis of [Cu2Cl4L2].2DMSO (1) from 1,10-[1,4-phenylenebis(methylene)]bis(2-methyl-1H-imidazole) and copper(II) chloride dihydrate. B) Visible-region diffuse reflectance spectra (bottom) quantitatively illustrate the broad-spectrum (540–624 nm) solvatochromism of 1–6. Reprinted with permission from: Nikolayenko et al.[56].
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5. Solvent effects on supramolecular architecture
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In the previous sections, the role of solvents in supramolecular functions and processes has been discussed. As described, in those cases solvents are capable of influencing the thermodynamics of supramolecular binding processes as well as the energetics of supramolecular systems so as to induce solvatochromism or some nano-mechanical functions like molecular shuttle movements in rotaxanes and catenanes or other conformational changes.
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In this section focus is placed on the effect of solvents in supramolecular architectures. Their regulating role in metallosupramolecular solids has been thoroughly investigated in recent years [57] as well as their aptitude to affect crystal growth and assembly and dynamic transformations. Many solvents especially those bearing N, O, or S atoms exhibit aptitude to coordinate (i.e., to specifically interact) with metals in various coordination complexes, and thus they are capable of forming new complexes. In these complexes solvent molecules can demonstrate a stabilizing role as building blocks and variation of the solvent can lead to alternative molecular architectures. A very nice example illustrating this ability of solvents is that of the assembly of the ligand 1,4-benzene dicarboxylic acid (bda) with MgII in the solvents dimethyl acetamide (DMA), EtOH, and dimethylformamide (DMF). In the case of DMA, polymeric 2D layers (Figure 16a) of the type [Mg3(bda)3(DMA)4]n are obtained. The situation is very different when EtOH or DMF are used as solvents. In the latter two cases, 3D frameworks are obtained instead of the following: [Mg3(bda)3(EtOH)2]m and [Mg(bda)(DMF)]k, respectively (Figure 16b,c). Note that n, m, and k correspond to the number of repeated units in each case [58, 59, 60].
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Figure 16.
Different supramolecular architectures involving MgII, the ligand bda and one of the solvents DMA (a), EtOH (b), and DMF (c). Reprinted with permission from: Li et al. [57].
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Another important feature of the solvents which readily affects the supramolecular architecture of coordination complexes is the steric effect they might introduce. Noro et al. reported the steric effect of different solvents with sp1-, sp2-, or sp3-hybridized coordinating atoms on the assembly of CuII(PF6)2 and the ligand 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethane (bpe) [61]. As depicted in Figure 17A, solvents with sp1- or sp2-hybridized coordinating atoms such as MeCN (sp1 N) and DMF or acetone (sp2 O carbonyl atom) are able to directly ligate CuII. The coordination of the solvents in these two cases happens axially with a Jahn-Teller distortion. On the other hand, alcohols, THF, and dioxane (which all have sp3 O atoms) preferably form H-bonds with the H-atoms of coordinated water molecules already coordinated at the axial positions. This stimulating divisibility is achieved through the variation of the steric effect introduced by different solvents.
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Figure 17.
A) Illustration depicting the steric effect introduced by various types of solvents in the polymeric supramolecular architecture involving CuII and bpe. B) Three different 2D polymeric [Co(azide)2]m layers involved in the complexes obtained by Wang et al. [62] Reprinted with permission from: Li et al. [57].
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Synergistic solvent effects can also drastically influence the structure of supramolecular coordination polymers illustrated in 3D pillar-layered coordination polymers prepared by Wang et al. [62]. These complexes comprise CoII metal centers and meso-α,β-bi(4-pyridyl)glygol (bpg) and azide (N3−) ligands. Their general formula is {[Co(bpg)(azide)2]Sx}n (S represents a solvent and x the corresponding stoichiometric number), and they are prepared through a reaction of CoII, azide, and bpg in the following solvent mixtures: MeOH–H2O, DMSO–H2O, and DMF–H2O. The use of different solvent systems was found to drastically influence the 2D [Co(azide)2]m layers involved in the 3D networks. In the case of the protic mixture MeOH-water, a square net was observed without incorporation of solvent. On the other hand from DMSO–H2O and DMF–H2O, the aforementioned 2D layers obtained were of honeycomb and kagomé geometry, respectively, and solvent molecules were incorporated in the 3D polymers (DMSO and DMF, respectively) (see Figure 17B) [62].
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Moreover, the protic or aprotic nature of the solvent can have a significant impact on the crystal structures of coordination compounds. A characteristic example is that of Mn(OAc)2 and its complexation with the ligand 3-(2-pyridyl)-5-(4-pyridyl)-1,2,4-triazole (ppt). The use of binary solvent mixtures involving a protic and an aprotic solvent (viz., DMF-EtOH and toluene-MeOH) or neat MeCN led to three different 2D systems according to Lin et al. [63]. What is noteworthy is that in the case of MeCN (aprotic) as a solvent, the obtained supramolecular system did not incorporate any solvent molecule: [Mn(ppt)2]n. Strikingly, in the case of the aforementioned binary solvent mixtures, two supramolecular 2D polymers involving the corresponding solvents were obtained: [Mn(ppt)2(DMF)1/2(H2O)3]m and [Mn(ppt)2(toluene)1/2(MeOH)3/2]k, respectively. This interesting phenomenon was attributed to the fact that when only an aprotic solvent is utilized, the neighboring 2D polymer grid-sheets in [Mn(ppt)2]n are stacked in a staggered mode, and this leads to a very compact 3D structure leaving out the solvent molecules. This effect is avoided when a protic solvent is employed as cosolvent [63].
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In all above examples, the coordination of solvent molecules to the metal centers was found to affect the structure of the supramolecular coordination systems. Secondary interactions, which were already mentioned, mainly account to the H-bonding of a coordinating solvents and non-coordinating cosolvent. There are several cases however where secondary interactions alone can lead to stabilized 3D supramolecular coordination structures. The supramolecular charge transfer complexes (CTCs) of viologens with various electron donors have been reported long ago [64]. Such CTCs involving [FeII(CN)6]4− (HCF) as a strong electron donor have been given some attention; however, their supramolecular structure has been scarcely investigated so far. An example pertaining to this category of supramolecular CTCs was recently reported by Papadakis et al. [65].
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As depicted in Figure 18, the nonsymmetric dicationic viologen molecules tend to aggregate around the anionic HCF donor. However, the stability of a crystalline structure of such a CTC is achieved only if water is introduced in the reaction mixture. Water is found to readily form H-bonds with CN groups of HCF, and this results in the formation of a zigzag 2D polymer of the type: (…HOH…HCF…)n. The 3D supramolecular structure comprises the described 2D polymers and cationic channels of viologens perpendicular to these 2D polymers (Figure 18). Attempts to remove (by drying) or replace water (employing even another protic solvent) in these structures failed. Apparently the stabilizing interaction in these supramolecular systems is H-bonding which is stronger when H2O is utilized. The importance of H2O and the formation of a CTC in a similar fashion have been also reported earlier by Abouelwafa et al. [66]. In the aforementioned example, a symmetric viologen was utilized instead [66].
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Figure 18.
(A) The zigzag (…HOH…HCF…)n polymers involved in a viologen/HCF CTC reported by Papadakis et al. (hydrogen atoms have been omitted). A cluster consisting of four viologen molecules around a HCF anion and the corresponding Hirshfeld surface representations shown along the b-(B), a-(C) and c-(D) axis. Reprinted with permission from: Papadakis et al. [65].
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6. Applications of solvent effects in supramolecular systems
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Except of publications that are indicative of scientific activity for furthering the knowledge base, patents are indicative of technology development for commercial or market potential. On this basis a patent search has been conducted so as to map the transition between science, technology, and market. For this purpose, we used the same parameters for our patent data extraction through Patsnap, a patent search engine and analytic portal. Using this patent search engine, an extended patent search in available patent libraries such as the European Patent Office, USPTO, and FPO was conducted. From this analysis it is evident that the sector supramolecular chemistry has started to grow significantly in recent years. The patent search followed a four-level approach starting by available patents using the following keywords: supramolecular complexes, solvatochromism, rotaxane/catenane, and solvatochromic rotaxane/catenane (Table 1). This refinement drives us to the specific market and indicates us the freedom to operate since by this procedure we conclude on the presence of very few patents that are mainly filled in the United States and China. The corresponding landscape is shown inFigure 19.
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Figure 19.
Patent search results: rotaxane/catenane (left) and solvatochromic rotaxane/catenane (right).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Keyword
\n
Simple
\n
Total
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Supramolecular complexes
\n
4682
\n
16,727
\n
\n
\n
Solvatochromism
\n
296
\n
806
\n
\n
\n
Rotaxane/catenane
\n
165
\n
587
\n
\n
\n
Solvatochromic Rotaxanes/catenanes
\n
4
\n
7
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Summary of the patent search results.
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7. Conclusion
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In this chapter, we reviewed some important examples of how solvents can influence supramolecular processes and structures. The impact of solvents on supramolecular binding is the starting point through which it is made clear that altering solvent polarity can drastically influence supramolecular binding processes. Solvents can also affect the relative supramolecular conformations of complex systems allowing the development of medium responsive molecular machines and switches. Moreover, solvents can give rise to supramolecular solvatochromic phenomena leading to optical changes and this observation has significantly assisted in the development of solvent (environment) sensing supramolecular systems. Last but not least, various metal ion-involving supramolecular architectures can be drastically influenced by specific solvents or solvent/cosolvent mixtures. This key effect enables the design of new supramolecular architectures encompassing modulation possibilities based on either the coordination of solvents to metal centers or the secondary interactions between them. In any case, the role of solvents in supramolecular chemistry is obviously enormous. Thus, it is highly important that solvent effects are taken seriously into account when designing new supramolecular systems.
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\n\n',keywords:"solvents, medium responsiveness, supramolecular recognition, solvatochromism, supramolecules, mechanically interlocked molecules, shuttle movements, supramolecular architectures",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67774.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67774.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67774",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67774",totalDownloads:404,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"March 13th 2019",dateReviewed:"May 21st 2019",datePrePublished:"June 22nd 2019",datePublished:"January 15th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Today it is well-established that solvents demonstrate an important role in chemistry. Solvents are able to affect the reactivity, as well as the electronic, optical, and generally physicochemical properties of compounds in solution. Taking this into account, in this chapter we analyze the importance of solvent polarity in phenomena closely related to supramolecular systems as well as the aptitude of various supramolecules to interact with solvent molecules and thus to give rise to chromic effects such as solvatochromism. Main focus is placed on mechanically interlocked molecules, e.g., rotaxanes, catenanes, etc., exhibiting solvent-controlled shuttling movements, switching, and/or solvatochromism. The effect of solvents in various supramolecular architectures is a further focus of this chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67774",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67774",book:{slug:"solvents-ionic-liquids-and-solvent-effects"},signatures:"Raffaello Papadakis and Ioanna Deligkiozi",authors:[{id:"251885",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaello",middleName:null,surname:"Papadakis",fullName:"Raffaello Papadakis",slug:"raffaello-papadakis",email:"rafpapadakis@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"252046",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioanna",middleName:null,surname:"Deligkiozi",fullName:"Ioanna Deligkiozi",slug:"ioanna-deligkiozi",email:"deligioanna@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Supramolecular recognition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 General aspects",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Nano-mechanical motions affected by solvents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1 Rotaxanes and catenanes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2 Molecular shuttles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Solvatochromic supramolecular systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 Generalities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 Supramolecules involving solvatochromic entities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Supramolecular solvatochromism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Solvent effects on supramolecular architecture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Applications of solvent effects in supramolecular systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Baroncini M, Casimiro L, de Vet C, Groppi J, Silvi S, Credi A. Making and operating molecular machines: A multidisciplinary challenge. ChemistryOpen. 2018;7:169-179. DOI: 10.1002/open.201700181\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Sauvage JP. From chemical topology to molecular machines (Nobel Lecture). 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DOI: 10.1021/ic0609249\n'},{id:"B62",body:'Wang XY, Wang L, Wang ZM, Gao S. Solvent-tuned azido-bridged Co2+ layers: Square, honeycomb, and kagomé. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2006;128:674-675. DOI: 10.1021/ja055725n\n'},{id:"B63",body:'Lin JB, Zhang JP, Zhang WX, Xue W, Xue DX, Chen XM. Porous manganese(II) 3-(2-pyridyl)-5-(4-pyridyl)-1,2,4-triazolate frameworks: Rational self-assembly, supramolecular isomerism, solid-state transformation, and sorption properties. Inorganic Chemistry. 2009;48:6652-6660. DOI: 10.1021/ic900621c\n'},{id:"B64",body:'Nakahara A, Wang JH. Charge-transfer complexes of methylviologen. Journal of Physical Chemistry. 1963;67:496-498. DOI: 10.1021/j100796a503\n'},{id:"B65",body:'Papadakis R, Deligkiozi I, Giorgi M, Faure B, Tsolomitis A. Supramolecular complexes involving nonsymmetric viologen cations and hexacyanoferrate(II) anions. A spectroscopic, crystallographic and computational study. RSC Advances. 2016;6:575-585. DOI: 10.1039/c5ra16732a\n'},{id:"B66",body:'Abouelwafa AS, Mereacre V, Balaban TS, Anson CE, Powell AK. Photo- and thermally-enhanced charge separation in supramolecular viologen–hexacyanoferrate complexes. CrystEngComm. 2010;12:94-99. DOI: 10.1039/B915642A\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Raffaello Papadakis",address:"rafpapadakis@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Greece
Department of Chemistry—Ångström, Uppsala University, Sweden
Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Greece
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1. Introduction to microsugery
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Microvascular transfer is a reconstructive technique based on raising tissues from healthy areas of the body, where an excess or dispensability exists, in advance to transplant them to other regions where they are lacking, mainly after trauma, oncological surgery or chronic infection. A microsurgical transfer from a strict point of view implies a double vascular anastomosis less than 3 mm between vessels in the transferred tissue to the ones in the recipient area [1]. Super-microsurgery would refer to those situations in which anastomoses have a diameter between 0.3 and 0.8 mm [2]. Rigorously speaking, the recipient vessels are those receiving the blood flow and the donors those from which it emanates. From a historical point of view, the compound of the transferred tissues is named free flaps.
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Since its inception, reconstructive techniques have aimed to restore the integrity, form and function of the body [3]. Although plastic surgery is the discipline of medicine that brings together all these techniques, it lacks an anatomical limitation; therefore, its knowledge is widespread according to the diverse body regions through maxillofacial surgery, ophthalmology, hand surgery, etc. For centuries, it was intended to limit the potential damage inflicted to patients by narrowing down the reconstructive options. In this regard, a reconstructive ladder was defined, where the primary closure of the wounds, the cure by secondary intention or the skin grafts were in the lower steps of this ladder and the flaps in the higher [4, 5].
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With the improvement in optical tools, it became easier to perform the vascular anastomoses that allowed free flap transfer and to set up skilled teams. As the tissue transfers became more dynamic and the microsurgery success rates rose, the benefits became more and more evident [5]. It was proven that the transfer of healthy tissues to the hand or head and neck allowed surgeons to achieve faster and better recoveries in areas of high functional demand, also with much more aesthetically acceptable results and lower morbidity. The same happened to breast surgery, where reconstructions with a natural shape and adequate volume could be achieved; the scars were hidden in the distance, and there was no need to use prosthesis. In lower limb osteomyelitis, free muscle flaps became the alternative to amputation. In addition, the advent of perforator flaps, mainly due to the contributions of Song and Koshima [5], thanks to whom it was not necessary to take the underlying muscle to transfer a fasciocutaneous flap, made it possible to further minimise the morbidity of these microsurgical interventions. Finally, a revision of the reconstructive ladder was proposed, the simplicity of the reconstruction would prevail, but pursuing the best aesthetic and functional results. So, a switch to a reconstructive elevator was made. In this way, microsurgical reconstructions became the first-line option for many patients and the technique was extended to a multitude of centres [5, 6].
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2. Basic principles in microsurgery
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2.1 Ergonomy
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Multiple aspects regarding the environment in the operating room and the position are particularly important in microsurgery. It is imperative to have enough field to allow an easy movement. This aspect, which is less substantial in macro-surgery, becomes absolutely fundamental in microsurgery. Mention it at the beginning, does nothing but tries to emphasise its relevance.
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A two-team approach is usually chosen in reconstructive microsurgery, one will raise the flap and the other will set the recipient site where this is going to be transplanted [7]. Therefore, all the time spent planning disposition is properly invested. This is true both for placing the patient in the proper position, and for the surgeon to adopt a comfortable and durable posture. Since the surgery will be prolonged, we must meticulously paddle all bony prominences of the patient and the areas at risk of neurovascular compression. It must be encouraged to take all the necessary anaesthesia monitoring measures at the beginning, just to avoid emergencies or interruptions during delicate stages of surgery. It is also sensible to foresee how the microscope will be arranged in the room.
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The comfort of the surgeon is a must when it comes the time to perform the microvascular anastomosis, primarily regarding the back, scapular and muscular groups. The sutures used usually size about 75–100 μm and the vessel lumen just a few millimetres; therefore, any tremor will greatly hinder the precision and success of the anastomoses. We cannot afford mistakes at any point of the microvascular anastomosis. The surgeon must be perpendicular disposition to the vessels and seated in a self-regulating chair that allows a self-sufficient height adjust. He or she should also be with the feet on a flat surface, the arms supported on a cloth and the hands on some comfortable place of the field to work only with the intrinsic muscles of the hand [1].
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Patience is the cornerstone of microsurgery, calm dissection with no external worries or hurry [8]. For this to be the case, it is essential to be in an easy environment without any tensions among the team members. Fatigue will appear mainly at the most complex moments, well in the middle of long interventions. So, if we do not foresee a comfortable environment with all these details, which may seem insignificant at first, as soon as the least complication appears, the reconstruction will be at high risk. In the case of microsurgical reconstructions, comfort is not a luxury but a must.
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2.2 General conditions
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After having invested enough time planning the operating room configuration, it is time to choose the vessels in the recipient area, since those of the flap are already determined and are assumed to be healthy because of their undamaged origin. It is essential to emphasise that the dissection must be very scrupulous, some groups advocate applying tension to the tissues around the vessel, without any direct pulling or forceps grasping on it, as not to generate any intimal traumas that may cause a thrombotic source [8, 9]. Any injury to the intima of the vessel, unnoticed or not, will expose the subendothelial collagen of the lumen, leading to a thrombotic focus. There are situations where it is impossible not to manipulate the vessel, as it happens in cervical dissections for oncological reasons; in these cases, a high incidence of thrombosis in the recipient vein has been demonstrated [6].
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We must choose healthy vessels, without excessive fibrotic or irradiated tissue around them, this will allow us to perform a clean dissection, achieving a blood-less field. If blood accumulates in the field, we should spare no expense in abundantly rinse the area and review haemostasis. Blood has a red light refraction that deteriorates the sight with usual optical tools and releases procoagulant factors inducing vascular thrombosis [10, 11]. In limbs with previous surgeries or trauma, in case of doubt, we must carry out explorations such as angiography or Doppler, to check the availability of adequate vessels [12, 13, 14, 15]. We should recruit as much vessel length as necessary to prevent any tension in the anastomosis, since the use of vein grafts, although may be needed, should be avoided due to its higher incidence of complications.
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Before sectioning the donor artery to which we are going to transfer our flap, we must ensure that it has a good flow, we should ideally evince pulse [8]. Once sectioned, it will only be valid if we observe the exit of an abundant spurt of pulsatile blood. On the other hand, the vein that receives the blood from the flap in the recipient area must have at least the diameter that the vein of the flap has; otherwise, a bottleneck will form and prevent a good return and a venous congestion may develop in the flap.
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Once the vessels in the receiving area are all set, we proceed to review the haemostasis and the perfusion of our previously dissected flap, then we release and transfer it [8, 10]. We should section the artery first and then the vein, as to avoid any congestion. Then we have to adapt the flap in the recipient area, since after anastomosis the flap will become edematised and its fixation in some deep spaces will be complex. This fixation is a mandatory prior step in all free flaps but in those in which the anastomosis lies in a deeper plane. In the head and neck reconstruction, small and intricate spaces make it advisable to do the fixation at first; but in breast reconstruction, we can only secure it with a gauze before microvascular anastomosis [6].
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When performing the anastomosis, we prefer to adjust each vessel end in a simple microvascular clamp, tension-less approximate both ends and perform the microvascular anastomosis sparing as much proximal dissection as possible between the vessels of the flap pedicle and between the ones of the recipient area. On the other hand, we can place the anastomosis vessels end in a double microvascular clamp and approximate them [16]. The anastomosis should be placed on a rubber contrast and this over a wet gauze to avoid pooling and elevate the anastomosis from the surrounding field, full of thrombogenic debris [10] (Figures 1 and 2).
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Figure 1.
General overview of a microvascular anastomosis. Artery microvascular anastomosis is performed in a blood-less field after vein anastomosis (in a second plane), in a higher position over a rubber medium contrast and wet gauzes. A protected 5F Redon is usually placed under the anastomosis. Dissection of the vessels in each side of the anastomosis is limited, only simple vascular clamps are employed; this eases the one-side-up technique (see below). In this figure, the first two stitches of the triangulation technique are depicted.
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Figure 2.
Examples of the limited pedicle dissection before anastomosis. In the upper picture, we can see a free epigastric flap for an axillary free lymph node transfer. Marked with a star, we see the donor posterior circumflex humeral artery; below it, the inferior epigastric artery of the free flap is shown with both veins at each side. In the lower picture, we see the free flap before the transfer. Marked with a thunder, we see the inferior epigastric pedicle severed before its entrance in the abdominal rectus muscle; the inferior epigastirc vein is marked with a heart, it has been cut near its mouth in the circumflex iliac vein and laid prepared for the lymphovenous anastomosis.
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It is characteristic of the lumen of vessels to show a diameter smaller than that seen before severing them. This phenomenon is known as vasospasm. To mitigate it, we must perform a mechanical dilatation of the vessel lumen with specific dilator forceps and with agents such as lidocaine 1–2% or papaverine 3%, the latter being our preference [8, 9, 10, 11]. Another dilatation technique is to abundantly rinse lumen with heparinised serum (200–300 IU/ml) [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. It is key to remove the adventitia next to the anastomosis; we usually remove 2–3 mm with cutting technique, by pulling the adventitia over the lumen of the vessel and making a section parallel to the light. Aggressive adventitectomies leave the proximity of the anastamosis lacking vasa vasorum; this can cause ischemia in the vessel wall and, secondary to this, a failure or a pseudoaneurysm. On the other hand, the adventitia is highly thrombogenic, its entry with a knot into the lumen can be disastrous [18]. No technique completely removes the adventitia, but the sharp dissection seems more respectful with the intima [19]. Before carrying out the anastomosis, we must ensure that there are no intimal lesions in the lumen of the vessel, venous valves or branches, that may cause turbulence or resistance to flow in the vicinity of anastomosis [8].
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There is debate about which anastomoses to perform first, whether arterial or venous. If there is no limitation for the position of a vessel deeper than another, as happens in breast reconstruction where the internal mammary vein usually has a more medial position, we can choose any one of them [6, 8]. Many groups choose to start with the arterial anastomosis to minimise isquemia time, taking into account that they do not usually experience added venous congestion. We usually start with the venous anastomosis to avoid any congestion within the flap that can cause a thrombus in its internal circuit. At the time of removing the clamps, once the anastomosis is completed, it is clearly preferable to remove the venous one first.
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2.3 Team
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The use of microsurgical techniques is not limited to reference centres with a high availability of resources, although their routine use is almost exclusive of these. This is due to the disposability of a microsurgical team with several surgeons trained in microvascular anastomosis and free flaps management.
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In this kind of surgery, each mistake has its consequences. So, if we perform these interventions with a very scarce and inexperienced team, these day-long surgeries can be translated into fatigue, nerve-wrecking and inaccuracies. This ultimately will generate failures in the microvascular anastomosis and problems in the perfusion of the flap. Therefore, having a team that allows pauses and relays, without stopping the procedure, is a fundamental element. Likewise, this second fresh team will overcome emergencies (more frequent in the first 48–72 h) or can replace a tired first team. It seems sensible to have at least four microsurgeons, two assistants and two experienced scrub nurses [20].
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A microsurgical team must function as a unit that critically analyses its results, seeking rates of failure lower than 5% in free flaps. Errors and the morbidity of the interventions must be analysed, minimising both. This constant improvement is hard to achieve if several microsurgeons are not available.
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3. Microsurgical tools and instruments
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3.1 Tools
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Microsurgery results from adapting the visual inaccuracy of our naked eye, to the fine movements of our hands. Here is where magnification arises. This can be done by two optical tools: the microscope and the magnifying loupe. In both, good lighting is essential [21, 22].
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Surgical microscopes occupy a large space in the operating room but allow a magnification of up to 40× with greater illumination. In addition, they have pedals to control zoom and focus with the feet. Smaller magnification of 6–12× is usually used for the preparation of the vessels, and then it is increased up to 20× before the microanastomosis. In addition, the microscope gives us a wide range of field and provides the same vision to the surgeon and the assistant, enhancing the collaboration between them [21].
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On the other hand, loupes are very cost-effective and easily transportable visual systems. The most common magnification employed in microsurgery is between 2.5× and 4.5×. In skilled hands, microscope has not proved to be superior versus loupes in achieving high success rates in free tissue transfers [23].
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There are two types of magnifying loupes, on the one hand the compound or Galilean loupes and on the other hand the prismatic. The former consist of two lenses in line, and offer less weight and cost, although their magnification (2.5×) and depth of field are lower. The latter use a prism inside to reach a longer path of light through the lenses, which allows greater magnification and field depth, although they can be darker, heavier, more expensive and fragile [22].
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3.2 Basic microsurgery instruments kit
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The microsurgical instruments have evolved from ophthalmology or jewellery material to extremely specific and precise tools [7]. The basic kit is not made up of too much surgical material. This material should ideally be antireflective and cylindrical to allow its sliding from the index to the middle fingers and facilitate the passage of the needle through the tissues using only the intrinsic musculature. The size of the material should be about 16 cm to facilitate its support in the first hand commissure. In the case of working in very small fields, as in the case of hand surgery, smaller material, about 8 cm, with flat surface may be useful. Nowadays the self-locking material has lost interest, the mere requisite is just to offer little resistance when grasping to preclude any fatigue of the thenar eminence with prolonged use [24].
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The basic kit consists of two scissors, a needle holder and a jeweller forceps. One of the scissors should be curved and round tipped, to be useful to dissect. Other pair should be straight and pointed to perform the adventitectomy and to cut sutures. These pointed scissors should not be used for tissue dissection, because of the possible vessel trauma that they would generate. The jeweller forceps must have a precise closure, with enough contact between surfaces at the tip, just to handle fine sutures of 75 or 100 μm.
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Other instruments that can also be useful are an aspiration system, an irrigation system and a bipolar forceps identical to jeweller forceps but protected. Our preference is to prepare a fixed suction system in the corner of the field, and to avoid introducing traditional aspirators directly over the vessels. Usually we fix a 5F Redon drain in a corner of the field or under the rubber contrast and we keep it connected to soft aspiration, in such way that it rests distant from the area of the anastomosis but does not allow pooling. We also avoid the contact of celluloses or cotton gauzes directly with the lumen of the vessel due to their thrombogenic properties.
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For the lumen irrigation, we use a heparin solution with 200–250 IU/ml [11]. Washing the lumen of the vessel directly can hydrodissect the vessel wall, exposing the subintimal collagen. Therefore, we introduce a blunt-tipped lacrimal cannula into the lumen of the vessel before anastomosis to perform a gentle wash [17]. Likewise, we usually do an irrigation of the flap through the artery with 20 or 30 ml of heparin solution, prior to the transfer; this checks the correct flow in the vascular circuit of the flap.
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3.3 Instruments care
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This delicate material requires little but precise care. First of all, we should avoid falls during surgery or washing, as the tips of the material can be damaged. If this happens, the closure of the material would not be perfect and its functionality would be noticeably reduced. It is also necessary to avoid the tips of the material to be oriented towards the sides in the store box, since movements with the box closed could also damage the tips inadvertently.
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The material should preferably be washed by the scrub nurse or the surgeon himself, who is familiar with it and will be more careful with its handling. A final wash should be done with distilled water and dried with an air gun to prevent rust formation.
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During surgery, the material must always be clean and moist, so that the sutures do not adhere to its surface. Dirty material and damaged tips will cause problems with the suture technique at key moments of the intervention.
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3.4 Sutures
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The most common sutures elected are the 9-0 on a 100-μm needle and the 10-0 on a 75-μm needle. Because of the ease of knotting and the low tissue reaction, the most used material in sutures is nylon. Some authors prefer polypropylene due to a lower tissue reaction, but its knots may be less reliable.
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4. Microsurgery techniques
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There is no stipulated standard on how to perform a microvascular anastomosis, the choice of the specific technique is operator-dependent. However, there are certain issues that we must avoid: a narrowing of the vascular lumen, an irregular distribution of the diameters of the vessels that would generate folds and irregularities, an excessive suture material inside the vascular lumen, and above anything else transmural sutures that bite the posterior wall closing the vascular lumen [24].
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4.1 End-to-end anastomosis
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By far, the most frequently employed technique is the end-to-end anastomosis. Because of its simplicity in less experienced hands, it has one of the lowest failure rates.
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4.1.1 Triangulation
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This technique was described by Alexis Carrel in the 1902. His intention was to separate the posterior wall from the anterior, as he realised about the danger of transmural stitches. The technique employed three initial sutures, with 120° separation between each [25]. It was modified with the use of only two initial sutures at 120° or 150° distance, as the posterior side was then longer and also fell away (Figure 3). Finally, it was modified again to propose only two initial sutures at 180°. The rest of the anastomosis will be closed with simple sutures between the initial points [24, 26].
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Figure 3.
Triangulation technique, after placing tension between the first two stitches, the longer posterior wall of the anastomosis falls down, precluding transmural stitches.
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4.1.2 Continuous
\n
The continuous suture saves time and corrects discrepancies of 2–3 mm in size between vessels, but it has as an inconvenient: the tobacco bag effect. Some authors propose to distribute at first the two vascular lumens with some simple stitches. This technique is not very popular in venous microvascular anastomosis due to its stenosing tendency [24, 26].
\n
\n
\n
4.1.3 Continuous interrupted
\n
The continuous interrupted technique (also known as open-loop technique) is our technique of choice. It combines the safety of simple sutures with the comfort and speed of the continuous ones. It allows to constantly maintain a perfect visualisation of the vascular lumen and at the same time minimises the necessary manoeuvres. In this technique, a continuous suture with a spiral of very wide loops is made, then moved towards a lateral. Finally, each one of the loops is sectioned and knit separately [24] (Figure 4).
\n
Figure 4.
Open-loop technique. Continuous suture of the upper face of the vessel, with very loose loops. Afterwards these loops are divided, and knotted as simple stitches. The posterior wall is depicted sutured first.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.4 One way up
\n
This technique is of first choice when we cannot properly manipulate both the vessels of the microvascular anastomosis, we cannot manage to rotate it in order to carry out the suture of the posterior wall. When performing the one-way-up technique, we begin suturing the posterior side. The needle is introduced from the deep side of the vessel to the intima of the posterior wall and returns through the intima in the lumen of the posterior wall of the opposite vessel. The knots are the same as in simple stitches. After placing three or four stitches in the posterior wall in an inverted fashion, it is easy to perform the remaining stitches in a conventional way. It is important to place the posterior wall stitches close enough to prevent any leakages, as revising the posterior wall is bothering. Lastly, the anterior face is sutured. This technique is one of our preferences as it minimises the incidence of transfixing sutures [24] (Figure 5).
\n
Figure 5.
One-way-up technique. First four to five stitches are placed in the posterior wall in an inverted fashion. It is important to leave only a small gap between the two first knots in this posterior wall, in order to avoid leakages and reviews here. After these first inverted stitches, the rest of them are placed in a conventional simple fashion as depicted in the figure. This technique avoids twisting and injuring the anastomosis.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4.2 End-to-side anastomosis
\n
This type of suture is very useful when there is a great discrepancy between vascular lumens, or when the flow through a vascular axis must be preserved. Therefore, it is very useful in lower limb reconstructions, when one of the vascular axes is damaged or we want to preserve the integrity of all [27]. For example, in head and neck surgery, after a cervical dissection, the high rate of venous thrombosis makes it advisable to choose the internal jugular as recipient vein [6]. In view of the discrepancy between the internal jugular and the vein of any flap, as well as the pertinence of maintaining the flow through the internal jugular, an end-to-side anastomosis is frequently chosen.
\n
To perform this end-to-side anastomosis, we must occlude the flow through the larger vessel that will remain in continuity. Our preference is the use of two rubber loops with a double pass around the vessel. When tensioning these loops, it seems that the damage to the walls of the vessel is inferior than with bulldog or baby Satinsky clamps. Next, by putting traction on the wall of the vessel with a transmural suture, we elongate the wall and make a section with the straight adventitectomy scissors or with a scalpel [27]. The diameter of the hole created must not be greater than the one on the vessel present in the free flap. If possible, the flap is tilted over the anastomosis to suture the posterior face; otherwise, we will use a one-way-up suture technique [28].
\n
\n
\n
4.3 Tips and pearls
\n
\n
It is important to take within each suture a good amount of intima to adequately evert it and expose smooth intima to the vascular lumen, with scarce subendothelial collagen or suture material.
The knots should be flat, placed on one side, with the right pressure just to close the anastomosis, since very tight sutures can cause isquemia and failure.
In case of working with veins of inconsistent walls, to perform an immersion technique, using abundant heparinised serum in the field to open the vascular lumen can be useful.
We should not allow leaks in the anastomosis; these will cease through the formation of an intraluminal thrombus, which can ultimately endanger the entire anastomosis.
At the end of an anastomosis, we must check its permeability, for example by means of a patency test. Other possibility is to make a profuse irrigation through the space left in the microvascular anastomosis before placing the last two stitches, an inflation and slight dilatation of the anastomosis with the heparinised serum evinces the vascular patency (Figure 6). The classic patency test can traumatise the intima.
The learning of these techniques must begin in a laboratory of experimental surgery with animal models [29].
Dilatation of the lumen with specific dilator forceps allows better visualisation of the interior of the vessel, easily recovering the needle at each stitch.
Before passing the entire thread through the anastomosis, the former should be in line with the vessels, and not angulated behind the needle. This precaution will avoid tears and friction on the vessel wall with the thread passage.
Limit the vessel dissection as much as possible (Figures 1 and 2).
\n\n
Figure 6.
Patency test with rinsing. A short Abbocath cannula is introduced in the microvascular anastomosis in between the space left by the two late stitches, we pretend to verify an easy dilatation before finishing the suture. The anastomosis is completed full of heparinised serum, until clamps are released.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Couple devices
\n
Since the onset of microsurgery, a great interest was drawn towards the development of suture techniques to perform anastomoses more quickly and automatically, in order to buffer inaccuracies [28]. For this purpose, devices in the form of two metal rings that are coupled, known as coupler devices, were developed.
\n
Currently, its use is widespread, mainly for vein anastomoses, although they have also tested a 100% patency in arterial ones. The vessel is introduced through the ring and the edges are fixed inside-out in the pins arranged in the ring, then the same is done with the other vessel and the hinge of the device, that joins both sides, is closed. The eversion of the edges achieves less exposure of the vascular lumen to foreign material and therefore the rate of thrombogenesis is lower. This eversion of the edges in the case of the arteries is more complex due to the thickness of the vascular wall, which makes its use in arterial anastomosis not so popular [28, 30]. There are coupler devices currently available with built-in systems for flap control, such as Doppler.
\n
Despite their many advantages, they present some drawbacks. Although they have been shown to reduce the time needed to perform the anastomosis, their use involves some complexity and produces some stenosis. On the other hand, they are not recommended in areas with a tendency to infection, with poor vascularisation or to be irradiated.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusions
\n
In the search of the best functional and aesthetic results, free tissue transfers have become the gold standard for many of the issues that arise in reconstructive surgery [31, 32]. Clear examples of this are the deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flap in breast reconstruction [7, 8] and the anterolateral thigh flap in head and neck reconstruction [6]. But the success of these techniques does not only depend on an adequate vascular suture, but also on a constellation of details that must be taken into account. These go from the availability of a trained team, to ergonomics, through a scrupulous cleanliness of the surgical field. All this does nothing but stress the importance of patience, good planning, attention to details or even the use of microsurgical checklists in to prevent any error that, however small, can have catastrophic consequences.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors would like to give special thanks to their chief Dr. Antonio Taboada-Suárez for his support, constant stimuli and generosity and to Dr. Joaquim Megías Barrera for his guidance.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"free tissue transplantation, microvascular anastomosis, microsurgery, reconstruction",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71675.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71675.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71675",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71675",totalDownloads:327,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 22nd 2019",dateReviewed:"February 27th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 6th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Free tissue transfer pursues the best functional and aesthetic results in reconstructive surgery. As these techniques completely maximise the donor tissues’ disposability, these treatments have become a first-line option in many situations. When the donor site is taken form the same patient, these surgeries are often referred to as autotransplants. Free tissue transfer sustains in microvascular anastomosis, which are defined by a vessel lumen diameter inferior to 3 mm. Particular attention to some details is important in these techniques, as, for example, to preclude any damage to the vessel walls or any leakage in the microvascular anastomosis. But the success of these techniques does not only depend on an adequate vascular suture, but also on a constellation of details that must be taken into account. These go from the availability of a trained team, to the ergonomics of the surgeon, through the scrupulous cleanliness of the surgical field.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71675",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71675",signatures:"Ignacio Vila, Iván Couto-González and Beatriz Brea-García",book:{id:"8300",title:"Vascular Biology",subtitle:"Selection of Mechanisms and Clinical Applications",fullTitle:"Vascular Biology - Selection of Mechanisms and Clinical Applications",slug:"vascular-biology-selection-of-mechanisms-and-clinical-applications",publishedDate:"November 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Marcelo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8300.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202594",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"González",slug:"marcelo-gonzalez",fullName:"Marcelo González"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction to microsugery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Basic principles in microsurgery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Ergonomy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 General conditions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Team",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Microsurgical tools and instruments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Tools",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Basic microsurgery instruments kit",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Instruments care",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.4 Sutures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Microsurgery techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1 End-to-end anastomosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.1 Triangulation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.1.2 Continuous",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.1.3 Continuous interrupted",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.1.4 One way up",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.2 End-to-side anastomosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.3 Tips and pearls",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"5. Couple devices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nWei FC, Tay SK. Principles and techniques of microvascular surgery. In: Neligan PC, editor. Plastic Surgery. Vol. 1, Principles. 3rd ed. Elsevier; 2013. pp. 587-621.e10\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nMasia J, Olivares L, Koshima I, et al. Barcelona consensus on supermicrosurgery. Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery. 2014;30:53-58\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nGu YD, Cheng DS, Zhang GM, et al. Long-term results of toe transfer: Retrospective analysis. Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery. 1997;13(6):405-408\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nTamai S. History of microsurgery. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 2009;124:e282-e294\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nEskander A, Kang SY, Teknos TN, et al. Advances in midface reconstruction: Beyond the reconstructive ladder. Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery. 2017;25(5):422-430\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nRay E. Head and neck reconstructive surgery. Cancer Treatment and Research. 2018;174:123-143\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nMurphy BD, Farhadi J, Masia J, et al. Indications and controversies for abdominally-based complete autologus tissue breast reconstruction. Clinics in Plastic Surgery. Jan 2018;45(1):83-91\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nDancey A, Blondeel PN. Technical tips for safe perforator vessel dissection applicable to all perforator flaps. Clinics in Plastic Surgery. 2010;37(4):593-606\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nKhouri RK. Avoiding free flap failure. Clinics in Plastic Surgery. 1992;19:773-781\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nHyza P, Vesely J, Schwarz D, et al. The effect of blood around a flap pedicle on flap perfusion in an experimental rodent model. Acta Chirurgiae Plasticae. 2009;51:21-25\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nLi X, Cooley BC, Gould JS. Influence of topical heparin on stasis-induced thrombosis of microvascular anastomoses. Microsurgery. 1992;13:72-75\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nInternational Registry on Hand and Composite Tissue Transplantation–World Exp. 2009. [Accessed: 31 December 2009]\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nLutz BS, Wei FC, Machens HG, et al. Indications and limitations of angiography before free-flap transplantation to the distal lower leg after trauma: Prospective study in 36 patients. Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery. 2000;16:187-191\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nMasia J, Clavero JA, Larranaga JR, et al. Multidetector–Row computed tomography in the planning of abdominal perforator flaps. Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery. 2006;59:594-599\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nIsken T, Alagoz MS, Onyedi M, et al. Preoperative color Doppler assessment in planning of gluteal perforator flaps. Annals of Plastic Surgery. 2009;62:158-163\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nAcland RD. Microvascular anastomosis: A device for holding stay sutures and a new vascular clamp. Surgery. Feb 1974;75(2):185-187\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nYan JG, Yousif NJ, Dzwierzynski WW, et al. Irrigation pressure and vessel injury during microsurgery: A qualitative study. Journal of Reconstructive Microsurgery. 2004;20:399-403\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nLohman R, Siemionow M, Rockwell WB, et al. Acute adverse effects of blunt adventitial stripping. Annals of Plastic Surgery. 1995;35:60-65\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nKemler MA, Kolkman WF, Slootweg PJ, et al. Adventitial stripping does not strip the adventitia. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 1997;99:1626-1631\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nHaddock NT, Kayfan S, Pezeshk RA, et al. Co-surgeons in breast reconstructive microsurgery: What do they bring to the table? Microsurgery. 2018;38(1):14-20\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nNunley JA. Microscopes and microinstruments. Hand Clinics. 1985;1:197-204\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nBaker JM, Meals RA. A practical guide to surgical loupes. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 1997;22:967-974\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nShenaq SM, Klebuc MJ, Vargo D. Free–tissue transfer with the aid of loupe magnification: experience with 251 procedures. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 1995;95:261-269\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nAcland RD, Sabapathy SR. Practice Manual for Microvascular Surgery. 3rd ed. The Indian Society for Surgery of the Hand (ISSH); 2008\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nCarrel A. La technique operatoire des anastomoses vasculaires et la transplantation des viscères. Lyon Medical. 1902;98:859-863\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nChen YX, Chen LE, Seaber AV, et al. Comparison of continuous and interrupted suture techniques in microvascular anastomosis. The Journal of Hand Surgery. 2001;26:530-539\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nGodina M. Preferential use of end–to–side arterial anastomoses in free flap transfers. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 1979;64:673-682\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nChernichenko N, Ross DA, Shin J, et al. End–to–side venous anastomosis with an anastomotic coupling device for microvascular free–tissue transfer in head and neck reconstruction. The Laryngoscope. 2008;118:2146-2150\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nKlein I, Steger U, Timmermann W, et al. Microsurgical training course for clinicians and scientists at a German university hospital: A 10–year experience. Microsurgery. 2003;23:461-465\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nSpector JA, Draper LB, Levine JP, et al. Routine use of microvascular coupling device for arterial anastomosis in breast reconstruction. Annals of Plastic Surgery. 2006;56:365-368\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nParry SW, Toth BA, Elliott LF. Microvascular free–Tissue transfer in children. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 1988;81:838-840\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nGermann G, Bickert B, Steinau HU, et al. Versatility and reliability of combined flaps of the subscapular system. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 1999;103:1386-1399\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ignacio Vila",address:"ignacio.vila.garcia@sergas.es",affiliation:'
Department of Plastic Surgery, University Hospital Complex of Santiago, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
Department of Plastic Surgery, University Hospital Complex of Santiago, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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He received the M.S. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Naples in 1999 and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Naples Federico II, in 2003.\r\nHis research interests, in the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Naples Federico II and with the Electrical Department of University of Hong Kong, concern the modelling and testing of the measures for quality, the decision making methodologies, and the application of the SPC tools in different fields (in industrial process, in the naval electrical systems and in the field of medical equipment diagnostic).\r\nHe was a manager of a national telecommunications company from years 1999 to 2000.\r\nHe was a manager of a research centre on transportation systems from years 2003 to 2006.\r\nHe now coordinates a Technology Transfer Office of the School of Science and Technology of University of Naples Federico II and he teaches in quality engineering courses of University of Naples Federico II and University “Mediterranea†of Reggio Calabria.\r\nHe is a inventor and Advisor of a national magazine “TT-Techology Transferâ€.\r\nHe has some national and international publications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"33028",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",surname:"Ruiz",slug:"diego-ruiz",fullName:"Diego Ruiz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"39207",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",surname:"Andreassi",slug:"luca-andreassi",fullName:"Luca Andreassi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Born in 1971\n1996: Degree with honours in Mechanical Engineering\n2000: PhDoctor\n2004: Researcher at University of Roma Tor Vergata\n2007: Associate Professor at University of Roma Tor Vergata",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Rome Tor Vergata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"39334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Ruiz",slug:"carlos-ruiz",fullName:"Carlos Ruiz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39334/images/12938_n.jpg",biography:"Carlos Alberto Ruiz is a Chemical Engineer from the Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, Argentina (1980). He obtained also the M.Sc. (1984) and Ph.D. (1986) degrees, both in Chemical Engineering, from the Universidad del Sur, Argentina.\nHe worked as Researcher at the University (dynamic simulation and control), Process Engineer (computer applications, simulation and advanced control) in an integrated Refining/Petrochemical Complex and as Professor of Chemical Engineering with a course on Computer Applications to Process Engineering being taught since 2000.\nFrom 1994 to 2017 was Director of the Energy Management Systems Division (formerly Advanced Control and Optimization) of Soteica Visual MESA LLC. In that position, he leaded projects worldwide; implementing model based predictive control and energy real time optimization and monitoring systems in many industries.\nHe is currently Product Manager, Energy Management Systems of KBC Advanced Technologies Ltd., since the acquisition of Soteica Visual MESA LLC by Yokogawa and its merger with KBC in 2017.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41467",title:"Prof.",name:"Wolfgang",surname:"Schellong",slug:"wolfgang-schellong",fullName:"Wolfgang Schellong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TH Köln – University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"42436",title:"Dr.",name:"Giridhar",surname:"Kini",slug:"giridhar-kini",fullName:"Giridhar Kini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42436/images/3636_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. P. Giridhar Kini received the Bachelor of Engineering (BE) degree in Electrical and Electronics (E&E) Engineering in 1995, Master of Technology (M.Tech) degree in Engineering Management (EM) in 1998 from Manipal Institute of Technology, Mangalore University and Ph.D degree in 2008 from Manipal University. He is currently with the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal University. He is a member of IEEE and is reviewer for IEEE and IET journals. He has published many papers in journals / conferences. His research interests are in Electrical Machinery, Energy Management Systems, Power Quality and Photovoltaic Systems.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Manipal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"63323",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramesh",surname:"Bansal",slug:"ramesh-bansal",fullName:"Ramesh Bansal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Ramesh Bansal received Ph.D. degree from the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi in 2003. Currently he is a faculty member in the School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Australia. His current research interests are in Renewable Energy and Power Systems which includes wind, PV and hybrid systems, AI applications in power systems, analysis and control of induction generators isolated and grid connected modes, etc. Dr. Bansal is an Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics and an Editorial Board member of the IET - Renewable Power Generation, and Electric Power Components and Systems.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Queensland University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"98408",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",surname:"Introna",slug:"vito-introna",fullName:"Vito Introna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Rome Tor Vergata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"98411",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrizio",surname:"Martini",slug:"fabrizio-martini",fullName:"Fabrizio Martini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tuscia University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"98416",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Ubertini",slug:"stefano-ubertini",fullName:"Stefano Ubertini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"careers-at-intechopen",title:"Careers at IntechOpen",intro:"
Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. The values of our business are based on the same ones that all good scientists apply to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly, and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
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Disruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
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IntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
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If this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
\n\n
Openness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
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Disruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
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What makes IntechOpen a great place to work?
\n\n
IntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
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