\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8122",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",title:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases is about a group of diseases that can infect humans and animals, and that are transmitted by vectors. These diseases are called vector-borne zoonotic diseases. This book is meant to be used by veterinarians, medical doctors, entomologists, and other experts, as well as students, animal owners, nature lovers, etc. The book has several sections: "Introduction," "Vectors", "Vector-Borne Diseases and Pathogens," and "Vector Control." Each of the sections concerns one stage of a vector-borne disease. Each group of authors has dedicated their work to one of the topics with key roles on pathogens or vectors that are of great public health interest in their country or region. In this book, the authors have tried to show which vectors and diseases are the most interesting, having in mind that their spreading represents a danger to health. With this book, we hope to broaden readers\' knowledge by sharing experiences with vector-borne diseases,with the aim to upgrade the knowledge of general public health from a One Health perspective.',isbn:"978-1-78985-294-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-293-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-045-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77985",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"vectors-and-vector-borne-zoonotic-diseases",numberOfPages:132,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"5a088c3ab82e499c8d5d2f8ceec6a601",bookSignature:"Sara Savić",publishedDate:"February 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8122.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4388,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 25th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 16th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 15th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",biography:"Sara Savić, Ph.D., DVM, is a researcher, working in a diagnostic laboratory within the Scientific Veterinary Institute 'Novi Sad” from Novi Sad, Serbia.\r\n Her main work is based on the diagnostic procedures for zoonotic diseases and vector-borne zoonoses. Dr. Savić has completed her Ph.D. degree on Diagnostics of Lyme disease in dogs and ticks, after which her interests and career went toward One Health issues. \r\nThe significance of multidisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and interdisciplinary work has become most interesting during the past decade. Her expertise is in bacterial and parasitic vector-borne zoonoses, especially in blood parasites. Dr. Savić has published over 100 publications so far as a leading author or as a co-author, in different scientific journals and proceedings from different scientific meetings.",institutionString:"Scientific Veterinary Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"909",title:"Parasitology",slug:"parasitology"}],chapters:[{id:"65273",title:"Introductory Chapter: Vectors and Vector-Borne Pathogens around Us",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84276",slug:"introductory-chapter-vectors-and-vector-borne-pathogens-around-us",totalDownloads:506,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Sara Savić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65273",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65273",authors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic"}],corrections:null},{id:"63773",title:"Aedes: What Do We Know about Them and What Can They Transmit?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81363",slug:"aedes-what-do-we-know-about-them-and-what-can-they-transmit-",totalDownloads:676,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Biswadeep Das, Sayam Ghosal and Swabhiman Mohanty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63773",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63773",authors:[null],corrections:[{id:"65669",title:"Corrigendum to: Aedes: What Do We Know about Them and What Can They Transmit?",doi:null,slug:"corrigendum-to-aedes-what-do-we-know-about-them-and-what-can-they-transmit",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"64079",title:"Ixodes ventalloi Gil Collado, 1936: A Vector Role to be Explored",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81615",slug:"ixodes-ventalloi-gil-collado-1936-a-vector-role-to-be-explored",totalDownloads:535,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Ana Sofia Santos and Maria Margarida Santos-Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64079",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64079",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63519",title:"Sandfly-Borne Viruses of Demonstrated/Relevant Medical Importance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81023",slug:"sandfly-borne-viruses-of-demonstrated-relevant-medical-importance",totalDownloads:795,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Nazli Ayhan and Remi N. Charrel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63519",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63519",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64068",title:"An Overview of Leishmaniasis: Historic to Future Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81643",slug:"an-overview-of-leishmaniasis-historic-to-future-perspectives",totalDownloads:523,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Mümtaz Güran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64068",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64206",title:"Vector-Borne Infections in Bulgaria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81916",slug:"vector-borne-infections-in-bulgaria",totalDownloads:616,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Iva Christova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64206",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64206",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64098",title:"Use of Artificial Intelligence on the Control of Vector-Borne Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81671",slug:"use-of-artificial-intelligence-on-the-control-of-vector-borne-diseases",totalDownloads:741,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Daniel da Silva Motta, Roberto Badaró, Alex Santos and Frank Kirchner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64098",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64098",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6179",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"330ad6b360324a533411aa736563fbee",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",bookSignature:"Sara Savic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6179.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1692",title:"Parasitology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2110e81c765897e4ffdfbd340495e25",slug:"parasitology",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1692.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5527",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d705be119e74a50305952521b2b5ece0",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",bookSignature:"Hanem Khater, M. Govindarajan and Giovanni Benelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5527.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9025",title:"Parasitology and Microbiology Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d9a211396d44f07d2748e147786a2c8b",slug:"parasitology-and-microbiology-research",bookSignature:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco and Asghar Ali Kamboh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9025.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"238219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilberto Antonio",surname:"Bastidas Pacheco",slug:"gilberto-antonio-bastidas-pacheco",fullName:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8806",title:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"514ab85661e01a47575e845792ef5bdc",slug:"biology-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-",bookSignature:"Wanderley De Souza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8806.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"161922",title:"Dr.",name:"Wanderley",surname:"De Souza",slug:"wanderley-de-souza",fullName:"Wanderley De Souza"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6979",title:"Parasites and Parasitic Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f55304c8bd1d92268e33689c368f9e33",slug:"parasites-and-parasitic-diseases",bookSignature:"Gilberto Bastidas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6979.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"238219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilberto Antonio",surname:"Bastidas Pacheco",slug:"gilberto-antonio-bastidas-pacheco",fullName:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66063",slug:"corrigendum-to-introductory-chapter-historical-perspective-and-brief-overview-of-insulin",title:"Corrigendum to: Introductory Chapter: Historical Perspective and Brief Overview of Insulin",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66063.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66063",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66063",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66063",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66063",chapter:{id:"63640",slug:"introductory-chapter-historical-perspective-and-brief-overview-of-insulin",signatures:"Gaffar Sarwar Zaman",dateSubmitted:"June 29th 2018",dateReviewed:"August 28th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 6th 2019",book:{id:"6675",title:"Ultimate Guide to Insulin",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Ultimate Guide to Insulin",slug:"ultimate-guide-to-insulin",publishedDate:"February 6th 2019",bookSignature:"Gaffar Zaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6675.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar Sarwar",middleName:"Sarwar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-sarwar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Sarwar Zaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar Sarwar",middleName:"Sarwar",surname:"Zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Sarwar Zaman",slug:"gaffar-sarwar-zaman",email:"gffrzaman@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"King Khalid University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"63640",slug:"introductory-chapter-historical-perspective-and-brief-overview-of-insulin",signatures:"Gaffar Sarwar Zaman",dateSubmitted:"June 29th 2018",dateReviewed:"August 28th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 6th 2019",book:{id:"6675",title:"Ultimate Guide to Insulin",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Ultimate Guide to Insulin",slug:"ultimate-guide-to-insulin",publishedDate:"February 6th 2019",bookSignature:"Gaffar Zaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6675.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar Sarwar",middleName:"Sarwar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-sarwar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Sarwar Zaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar Sarwar",middleName:"Sarwar",surname:"Zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Sarwar Zaman",slug:"gaffar-sarwar-zaman",email:"gffrzaman@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"King Khalid University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}]},book:{id:"6675",title:"Ultimate Guide to Insulin",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Ultimate Guide to Insulin",slug:"ultimate-guide-to-insulin",publishedDate:"February 6th 2019",bookSignature:"Gaffar Zaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6675.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar Sarwar",middleName:"Sarwar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-sarwar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Sarwar Zaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10668",leadTitle:null,title:"Sustainable Concrete",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tConcrete is a major material used widely in building and construction applications worldwide; hence, it plays a significant role in the global construction sector. Usually, more than two-thirds of the concrete consists of aggregates used as filler additives; these aggregates are generally natural components blended with cement. Cement is a major component of concrete and a key mechanical property of specific applications of concrete. In construction applications, cement present solely or as a composite with other materials to improve the workability, durability, strength, weight, and shrinkage. Sand is the most prevalent material used as filler composition of mortar and concrete; it can reduce the pores and voids of concrete in presence of other large aggregates.
\r\n\r\n\tTo preserve the environment and consequently to save human health, great efforts and several studies were made to use sustainable techniques for the production of eco-friendly concrete. Industrial or municipal wastes were incorporated in concrete to conserve natural resources, reduce the cost of building materials, and eliminate the risk of the harmful impact of this waste.
\r\n\r\n\tSeveral materials, including the virgin and recycled types, have been utilized extensively as additive material with cement for achieving more favorable utilities and concrete of high compressive strength.
",isbn:"978-1-83881-957-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-956-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-958-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"55856c6a8bc3a5b21dae5a1af09a56b6",bookSignature:"Prof. Hosam M. Saleh",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",keywords:"Cement, Cement Kiln Dust, Nanomaterials, Silica Fume, Lightweight Concrete, Bricks, Municipal Waste, Polymer Wastes, Compressive Strength, Durability, Porosity, Tensile Strength",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 22nd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Saleh has more than 20 years of experience in hazardous waste management with an emphasis on treatment and developing new matrixes for the immobilization of these wastes. He has been selected among the top 2% of scientists in the world according to the Stanford University report for 2020.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:"M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144691/images/system/144691.jpeg",biography:"Hosam Saleh is a Professor of radioactive waste management at the Radioisotope Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt. He was awarded with MSc and Ph.D. degrees in Physical Chemistry from Cairo University. Saleh has more than 20 years of experience in hazardous waste management with an emphasis on treatment and developing new matrixes for immobilization of these wastes. He is also interested in studying innovative economic and environment-friendly techniques for the management of hazardous and radioactive wastes. He authored many peer-reviewed scientific papers and chapters, and served as a Book Editor of several books related to international publishers. \nHe is also a reviewer, an Editor in Chief or Associate Editor for different journals as well as a member of the Technical Program Committee for international conferences.\nHe gained the Scientific Encouragement Award from Atomic Energy Authority (2013), Encouragement Prize in Advanced Technical Sciences from the Academy of Scientific Research (2014). He has been selected among the top 2% scientist in world according to Stanford University report for 2020.",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2383",title:"Polyester",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79fd9d6314f8e1abd60d7e21896ce878",slug:"polyester",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2383.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5242",title:"Management of Hazardous Wastes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc1f32b478098cdda6b946d14a02ad81",slug:"management-of-hazardous-wastes",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5242.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6534",title:"Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7573426a162c18f39acc575c1e69f67",slug:"heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Refaat F. Aglan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6534.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6067",title:"Green Chemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f33464ef8bb9839d75b674a0f8409c77",slug:"green-chemistry",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Martin Koller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6067.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6513",title:"Cement Based Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c92db3d5c64117861b425cb692b5695",slug:"cement-based-materials",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Rehab O. Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6513.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6728",title:"Trace Elements",subtitle:"Human Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e1144832b71a4ffcabc7cc31ce911b2",slug:"trace-elements-human-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Eithar El-Adham",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6728.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8580",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e3554c02569fe3ac8afa79cb02daae97",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Mostafa Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8580.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6847",title:"Characterizations of Some Composite Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f0869b3bb91cf9acb7e69004b1bd17ec",slug:"characterizations-of-some-composite-materials",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Martin Koller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6847.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8000",title:"Assessment and Management of Radioactive and Electronic Wastes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0195aa3bce1f0c8783649a32a4affeaf",slug:"assessment-and-management-of-radioactive-and-electronic-wastes",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8000.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7640",title:"Perspective of Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b85a9957fad5206369eadf0c1ffa27d",slug:"perspective-of-carbon-nanotubes",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Saleh and Said Moawad Mohamed El-Sheikh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7640.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"19328",title:"The Role of Calgranulins in Urinary Tract Infection",doi:"10.5772/23212",slug:"the-role-of-calgranulins-in-urinary-tract-infection",body:'Calgranulins A (S100A8), B (S100A9) and C (S100A12) are members of the superfamily of EF-hand calcium binding proteins. The term calprotectin specifically refers to the Calgranulin A and B heterodimer that is formed by a non-covalent interaction. A distinguishing feature of calgranulins is their involvement in innate immunity and inflammation. As secreted proteins, calgranulins can directly inhibit microbial growth in the extracellular milieu, presumably through their ability to chelate zinc. Cells that actively express calgranulins are more resistant to bacterial adherence and invasion. Calgranulins also support optimal functioning of the cells that comprise the innate immune system. For example, granulocytes depend on the intracellular calgranulin A/B complex to adequately participate in cell adhesion, cytokinesis, cytokine secretion, and activation of the respiratory burst. Calgranulin A/B can down-regulate immune responses through inhibition of immunoglobulin production by lymphocytes and induction of myeloid derived suppressor cells. In addition, calgranulin induces apoptosis in cells that stimulate the inflammatory cascade. Calgranulin A expression may also be important in promoting the induction of a regulatory macrophage phenotype that down-regulates inflammation and facilitates a healing response.
Under normal conditions, calgranulins support an optimal immune response, leading to resolution of infection and inflammation. When normal expression and/or secretion of calgranulins are perturbed, inflammation is exacerbated with adverse implications for host tissues. As an example, dysregulation in the expression or secretion of calgranulins can have detrimental effects by promoting chronic active inflammation that leads to collateral tissue damage. Excessive amounts of calgranulin A/B in extracellular compartments of tissues correlates with a variety of inflammatory disorders. Expression and release of calgranulin A/B in the extracellular milieu can be triggered by IL-1α. Extracellular calgranulin A/B can then bind to and activate toll like receptor 4 (TLR 4), which in turn initiates further expression of pro-inflammatory mediators such as IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8. The interaction of these cytokines and chemokines with calgranulin A can create an autocrine / paracine mediated pro-inflammatory feedback loop that does not necessarily resolve infection. In the urinary tract, over expression of calgranulin A is not specific for infection. Over expression of calgranulins has been reported in a variety of inflammatory disorders of the urinary tract, including interstitial cystitis, interstitial nephritis, glomerulonephritis and neoplasia. This suggests that while calgranulin A may be a useful biomarker for chronic active inflammation, in general it may not be important in the defence against bacterial pathogens. Recent studies in rodent models of urinary tract infection (UTI) suggest that calgranulins are not required for innate defence against urogenital pathogens. Moreover, the exaggerated expression of these proteins during infection may be contributing to complicated urinary tract diseases such as struvite urolithiasis.
This review will focus on the role of calgranulin A and B in innate immune responses with particular attention to diseases of the urinary tract. The interaction of calgranulins with various host cell signal transduction pathways important in innate immunity and inflammation of the urinary tract will be reviewed. Further, potential consequences of aberrant signalling that may contribute to perturbations of regulation of calgranulins will also be discussed.
Calgranulins are members of the superfamily of EF-hand calcium binding proteins that are involved in innate immune and pro-inflammatory processes. In the literature, these proteins have been given a variety of names including S100A8, myeloid related protein 8 (MRP), and L1 light chain for calgranulin A. Calgranulin B is also known as MRP-14 and S100A9. Calgranulin C may be referred to as S100A12 and EN-RAGE (Nacken et al., 2003). The name calprotectin specifically refers to the Calgranulin A and B heterodimer that is formed by a non-covalent interaction. Calgranulin C does not appear to form a heterodimer complex with either Calgranulin A or B (Foell et al., 2007).
Calgranulin C appears to be exclusively expressed in granulocytes (Vogl et al., 1999). However, calgranulins A and B are constitutively expressed in a variety of cells including granulocytes, monocytes, dendritic cells, epithelial cells, and keratinocytes (Foell et al., 2007; Frosch et al., 2004; Nacken et al., 2003). In healthy individuals, low concentrations of calprotectin can be detected in plasma, saliva, cerebrospinal fluid, urine and feces (Johne et al., 1997). Typically calgranulin gene expression is tightly regulated. However, during inflammation, expression is induced in cells such as macrophages and fibroblasts that do not normally produce calgranulins (Foell et al., 2007; Frosch et al.., 2004; Hsu et al., 2005; Nacken et al., 2003). Further, cells that constitutively express calgranulins are induced to secrete calprotectin into the extracellular milieu when stimulated (Kido et al., 2003). Therefore, calprotectin is considered a biomarker of inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn’s disease, and chorioamnionitis (Kostakis et al., 2010; Perere et al., 2010).
Calprotectin deficiency has never been reported in humans, suggesting that this protein is essential for life. The need for calgranulin A was confirmed with a null mutation in mice, which resulted in early resorption of mouse embryos (Passey et al., 1999a). Null mutation of the S100A9 gene (calgranulin B) was not lethal in the mouse (Hobbs et al., 2003). Interestingly, although the S100A9 -/- mouse expresses S100A8 (calgranulin A) mRNA, the protein is not detected in peripheral tissues.. Consequently, this mouse strain does not produce calprotectin, making it convenient for use in studying the role of calprotectin in various disease processes. Although the calgranulin genes are conserved among higher vertebrates, there are structural and functional differences among the various species (Nacken et al., 2003). For example, in rodents, calgranulin A is chemotactic for granulocytes but this is not the case in humans (Foell et al., 2007). Calgranulin C, which is not present in rodents, is the potent granulocyte chemoattractant in humans (Yang et al., 2001) and is highly expressed in activated tissue macrophages localized within sites of inflammation (Perera et al., 2010). Calgranulin C also serves as a ligand for RAGE (Perera et al., 2010). Although, rodents possess RAGE, there is no evidence that either calgranulin A, B, or calprotectin act as a ligand for this receptor. To date, there are no published studies demonstrating a role for calgranulin C in urinary tract infection. Therefore, this review will focus on calgranulins A and B.
The innate immune system comprises the first attack against invading microorganisms. Both intracellular and extracellular calgranulins play an integral role in modulating leukocyte activation, trafficking, and amplification of immune responses during infection. Intracellular calgranulins regulate cell adhesion, migration, phagocytosis, and bacterial killing through direct interactions with the cell cytoskeleton and plasma membrane components. Calprotectin and calgranulin B facilitate phagocyte transmigration by coordinating microtubule dynamics (Vogl, et al., 2004). Specifically, the calprotectin complex induces polymerization of microtubules that can be disrupted by phosphorylation of calgranulin B by p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. With disruption of the calprotectin complex the microtubule depolymerizes. A similar mechanism in squamous epithelial cells increases their resistance to intracellular invasion by mucosal pathogens such as Porphyromonas gingivalis, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (Nisapakultorn et al., 2001a, 2001b; Zaia et al., 2009). In neutrophils, calgranulin B is a selective stimulator of MAC-1 mediated adhesion (Newton & Hogg, et al., 1995). Calgranulin B does not directly bind to MAC-1 but its stimulatory effects on 2 integrin / MAC-1 appear to be mediated through a G protein coupled receptor. Calgranulin A can inhibit MAC-1 affinity activation by dimerizing with calgranulin B. In addition to modulating leukocyte trafficking, calgranulins also enhance microbial killing through enhancing the generation of reactive oxygen species in phagocytes. In neutrophils, calgranulin A and the calprotectin complex activate NADPH oxidase by facilitating enzyme complex assembly at the plasma membrane (Kerkoff, et al., 2005). The calprotectin complex transfers arachidonic acid, an essential cofactor, to the enzyme complex while the calgranulin A subunit contributes to NADPH enzyme assembly by directly binding to the p67phox subunit (Kerkoff, et al., 2005). In macrophages, calgranulins contribute to the generation of nitric oxide mediated killing through induction of nitric oxide synthase gene expression (Pouliot et al., 2008).
Active secretion of calgranulins from neutrophils can be induced through engagement of toll-like receptor/CD14 and nuclear factor (Kido et al., 2003) or through protein kinase C in monocytes (Nacken et al., 2003). Calgranulins can be found in mucosal body fluids that are normally colonized with bacteria, such as the oral cavity. Moreover, calprotectin concentrations increase in mucosal fluids in response to certain infections such as Helicobacter pylori (Leach et al., 2008). It has been suggested that the increased expression of calprotectin at these sites confers resistance to bacterial invasion or dissemination into deeper tissues (Hsu et al., 2009). Increased expression of calprotectin in humans with chronic sinusitis directly correlates with resistance to bacterial infection (Hsu et al., 2009). In our rodent model of ureaplasmal induced urinary tract infection, some animals with asymptomatic bladder infection and baseline levels of calprotectin developed ascending renal infections. However, animals with bladder infections accompanied by high amounts of calprotectin did not develop ascending renal infection (Reyes et al., 2008, 2009). Therefore, suggesting that calprotectin may be somewhat protective in the urinary tract.
Calprotectin microbicidal activity towards Candida albicans, Staphylococcus aureus, Straphylococcus epidermis, Escherichia coli, and Klebisiella species has been demonstrated in vito (Brandtzaeg, et al., 1995). Further, calprotectin has been shown to be effective in inhibiting the growth of S. aureus within liver abscesses of mice (Corbin et al., 2008). The mechanism of action by calprotectin appears to be chelation of magnesium, manganese, and zinc, which are required for growth by bacteria (Corbin et al., 2008, Hsu et al., 2009).
Extracellular calgranulins also augment immune defense mechanisms in a cytokine like manner. Calgranulin B enhances neutrophil microbial killing by stimulating degranulation of matrix metalloproteinase through p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (Simard et al., 2010). Calprotectin stimulates production of interleukin-8 in airway epithelial cells (Ahmad et al, 2003). Calprotectin binding to microvascular endothelial cells promotes chemokine secretions, up regulation of cell adhesion molecules, and disruption of the endothelial barrier (Viemman et al., 2005, Eue et al., 2000), facilitating leukocyte migration into sites of infection. Calprotectin may also contribute to bacterial clearance from uroepithelium through its ability to enhance activation of toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 (Ehrchen, et al., 2009). Song et al. identified an additional alternative pathway in uroepithelium in which activation of TLR 4 by uropathogenic type 1 fimbriated E. coli or Klebsiella pneumoniae results in rapid activation of adenylate cyclase 3. The increased intracellular cAMP causes rapid expression and secretion of interleukin-6 that precedes cytokine production through the classical NF- mediated pathway (Song et al., 2007). This pathway may be critical for early defense against invading microbes. More importantly, cAMP blocks intracellular invasion of bacteria into uroepithelium and promotes expulsion of bacteria through inhibition of Rac-1 mediated mobilization of the cytoskeleton (Song et al., 2007). This is an intriguing concept, but it appears that calprotectin may not be contributing to this unique defense mechanism. Dessing et al., compared the ability of uropathogenic E. coli to establish acute ascending infection in wild type and calprotectin deficient mice (S100A9 -/-). In this study animals received an intraurethral inoculation of 108 organisms and were examined at 24 and 48 hours post-inoculation. Despite significant increases in calprotectin in both the bladder and kidney tissues of wild type mice, they did not exhibit any difference in microbial load or lesion severity when compared S100A9 -/- mice. Therefore, suggesting that calprotectin is not critical for early clearance of bacteria from the urinary tract.
Successful defense against infection depends on a well controlled inflammatory response that is able to remove the pathogen without extensive collateral damage of the surrounding host tissues. During an effective immune response the signal transduction pathways trigger production and /or release of pro-inflammatory mediators that potentiate removal of the pathogen, and simultaneously or sequentially activate anti-inflammatory factors and protect surrounding tissues from proteases and reactive oxygen species. Calgranulins participate in several of these processes most of which have been identified in macrophages (Lim et al. 2009; Passey et al., 1999b; Xu et al., 2001). For example, bacterial lipopolysaccaride, IFN-γ, TNF-, and interleukin-10 all induce calgranulin gene expression in murine macrophages (Xu et al., 2001). Glucocorticoids also amplify calgranulin expression in macrophages that have been primed with lipopolysacarride (Hsu et al., 2005). Methylprednisolone treatment in rheumatoid arthritis patients significantly increases the number of calgranulin A and B expressing macrophages in synovium (Hsu et al., 2005).
Secreted calgranulins also exhibit anti-inflammatory properties in neutrophils. Sroussi et al., have shown that both calgranulin A and B can repel human neutrophils in vitro, and that calgranulin A can inhibit the recruitment of neutrophils in vivo (Sroussi et al., 2006, 2007). Recently, they have demonstrated that calgranulin A and B also inhibit neutrophil oxidative metabolism (Sroussi et al., 2010). Although the mechanism of action has not been elucidated, adenosine metabolites are known to be involved.
Calgranulins that have undergone post-translational modifications can down-regulate inflammation or provide protection from granulocyte secreted products such as reactive oxygen species. Calgranulin A, in particular, is highly susceptible to oxidation by hydroxyapatite, hydrogen peroxide, and hypochlorite (Lim et al., 2009; Harrison et al, 1999). Calgranulins therefore act as sinks for reactive oxygen species, providing protection of the microenvironment from collateral damage. Both calgranulins A and B can be nitrosylated (addition of nitric oxide molecule) (Lim et al., 2008, 2009). Nitrosylated calgranulin A suppresses mast cell mediated activation, leukocyte adhesion, and extravasation into the microcirculation (Lim et al., 2008).
Calgranulins A and B modulate various aspects of adaptive immunity. Calgranulin A has been reported to inhibit immunoglobulin G production in lymphocytes (Brun et al., 1995). Calgranulin B may down regulate responsiveness to toll-like receptor mediated stimulation in dendritic cells (Averill et al., 2011). During murine myeloid differentiation, increased expression of calgranulin B in embryonic stem cells favors development into myeloid derived suppressor cells over dendritic cells (Lim et al. 2009). Myeloid derived suppressor cells promote immune tolerance during infection and inflammation by suppression of T cell activation and promotion of a T helper type 2 cytokine phenotype involving expression of interleukin-4 and interleukin-13 (Delano et al., 2007; Ezernitchi et al., 2006; Haile et al., 2008). Moreover, calprotectin secreted by myeloid derived suppressor cells prolongs their immunosuppressive effects through an autocrine positive feedback loop (Lim et al., 2009).
Increases in extracellular calgranulin concentrations are associated with several inflammatory and auto-immune disorders including cystic fibrosis, chronic bronchitis, sepsis, pyelonephritis, oral candidiasis, periodontitis, Helicobacter pyloris infections, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Crohn’s disease, Sjogren’s syndrome, and atherosclerosis (Foell et al., 2007; Johne et al., 1997; Perera et al., 2010). In the urinary tract calgranulins are found to be a major component of calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate, (Canales et al, 2008, 2010) and struvite uroliths (Bennett et al., 1994), all of which are associated with inflammation (Mushtaq et al., 2007; Reyes et al., 2009). In the case of calcium phosphate and calcium oxalate stones, renal injury with inflammation contributes to urolith formation (Khan, 2005). Struvite stones are sequela to severe inflammatory urinary tract infection caused by urease producing bacteria (Reyes et al., 2009). Due to their close association with inflammation, calgranulins are often used as diagnostic biomarkers for inflammatory disorders (Altwegg et al., 2007; Healy et al., 2006). There is a growing body of evidence that calgranulins play more than a passive role in at least some of these disorders. For example, Croce et al. showed that the inflammatory response to vascular injury is attenuated in calprotectin deficient animals. Further, deletion of calprotectin in atherosclerosis prone ApoE-/- mice reduces their susceptibility to the disease (Croce et al, 2009). Similar effects have been observed in CD40L over-expressing mice that spontaneously develop dermatitis, nephritis, auto-antibodies in serum, and auto-reactive CD8+ T cells (Loser et al., 2010). In these animals, genetic deletion of S100A9 alleviates the progression of the disease.
One mechanism by which calprotectin amplifies inflammation is through direct activation of TLR 4. In the CD40L over-expressing mouse, calgranulin mediated activation of TLR 4 increases expression of interleukin-17, which activates autoreactive CD8+ T cells (Loser et al., 2010). In experimentally induced sepsis, calprotectin enhancement of TLR 4 activation induces exaggerated secretion of TNF- with endotoxic shock, which is not observed in S100A9 -/- mice. However, septic S100A9 -/- mice treated with recombinant calprotectin exhibit the same degree of endotoxic shock and mortality as their wild type counterparts. It is important to note that calprotectin mediated enhancement of TLR 4 pathway only occurs in systems that have already been immunologically activated. For example, in the case of the sepsis model, the initial activation of TLR 4 occurred by bacterial lipopolysaccaride. These results prompted us to re-evaluate our rat model of inflammation induced struvite urolithiasis secondary to experimental infection with Ureaplasma parvum (Reyes et al., 2008, 2009). In this model, expression of calprotectin is only observed in animals with inflammation secondary to urinary tract infection. Therefore, we wondered if activation of TLR 4 may also be a aspect in this disease. An important feature of Ureaplasma parvum is that this pathogen does not activate TLR 4, but does activate TLRs 1, 2, and 6 in macrophages (Shimizu et al., 2008). Moreover, ureaplasmas do not induce pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in uroepithelium as shown in Figure 1.
Chemokine/cytokine profile of RT4 cell culture supernatants.
In an unpublished study of women with first time urinary tract infection, we identified the predominant pathogens present. Escherichia coli was isolated from 59.8% of 82 samples that had high numbers (>300,000 CFU/ml clean catch urine), and from 64.8% of 54 urines with medium microbial loads (100,000 to 300,000 CFU/ml clean catch urine). The next most common isolates present in high numbers were Ureaplasma Spp (20.7%), Staphylococcus saprophyticus (7.3%), and Proteus mirabilis (7.3%). Escherichia fergusonii, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus vulgaris each accounted for 1.2% of remaining urines with >300,000 CFU/ml. At CFU 100,000 to 300,000/ml urine, S. saprophyticus was isolated from 7.4% of urines. K. pneumoniae, P. mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus, and Streptococcus agalactiae were isolated from 3.7% of urines, with Citrobacter koseri, Enterobacter aerogenes, and K. oxytoca each accounting for 2% of urine samples. We determined the cytokine/chemokine profile of RT4 cells. Test pathogens were chosen on the basis of predominance in our study patients. RT4 cells were sham inoculated with sterile carrier (control) or, U. urealyticum (Uu), E. coli (Ec), S. saprophyticus (Ss), S. agalactiae (Sa), or K. pneumoniae (Kp) at a multiplicity of infection of 100. At 24 hours post-inoculation, cell culture supernatants were harvested and evaluated for the presence of interleukin-8, interleukin-1α, and interleukin-1β. Values in the graph represent the mean ± sd (n = 4) of 2 independent experiments. Chemokine and cytokine concentrations were measured with a multiplex antibody assay as previously described (Reyes, et al. 2006).
Ureaplasmal infections are asymptomatic as long as their colonization is restricted to the urogenital mucosa. However, if these bacteria invade the deeper stromal layers, they induce an exaggerated host immune response that does not eliminate infection, but rather causes tremendous tissue damage at sites of colonization. In our rodent model of infection, invasion of bacteria into the submucosa triggered a smoldering inflammation within the submucosa that persisted. By two weeks post-inoculation, animals with ongoing submucosal infection developed struvite uroliths and an exaggerated pro-inflammatory cytokine profile in their urine. Since U. parvum is not capable of eliciting these responses in uroepithelium, we surmised that the initiator of uroepithelial cytokine production (see Figure 2) is a paracine factor originating from the inflamed submucosa. On the other hand, animals in which the microbe is found only on the mucosal layer exhibited asymptomatic infection. In these animals, bladder uroepithelium appears quiescent and urine cytokine concentrations are comparable to uninfected controls as shown in Figure 2. This is similar to what is observed in human RT4 cell study.
Chemokine/cytokine profile in urine obtained from uninfected rats (Control), rats with asymptomatic urinary tract infection (UTI), or rats with struvite urolithiasis (Struvite). Values represent the mean ± sd of 5 biological replicates. Data was analyzed by ANOVA followed by Fishers PLSD test.
Induction of calgranulin A in U. parvum infected rat bladder tissues. Calgranulin concentrations in rat bladder tissue homogenates from sham inoculated controls, animals with asymptomatic (UTI), and complicated (Struvite) urinary tract infection were measured by ELISA (Reyes et al., 2009). Absorbance values obtained by ELISA were normalized to total protein concentration of tissue homogenates. Values represent the mean ± sd fold change (infected/control) in the calgranulin concentration from 5 biological replicates. Data were analyzed by unpaired student’s t test.
In our rodent model of U. parvum induced urinary tract infection, proteome analysis of bladder tissues revealed that concentrations of calgranulins A and B were seven fold higher in tissues from struvite positive animals (Reyes et al., 2009). Calgranulin A concentrations were confirmed by ELISA as shown in Figure 3. Moreover, the calgranulin A concentrations in bladder tissue homogenates directly correlated with urine pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations, suggesting a link between calgranulin A, GRO/KC, IL-1α,and IL-1β.
We also evaluated the distribution of calprotectin within the bladder tissues of animals infected with U. parvum for 72 hours and 2 weeks post-inoculation. Calprotectin within uroepithelium was detected in bladder tissues obtained from struvite positive animals at 2 weeks post-inoculation (as shown in Figure 4). In these animals, calprotectin was also detected within endothelial cells that were surrounded by leukocyte infiltrates (Figure 4D). Despite the fact the uroepithelium of animals with asymptomatic urinary tract infection was colonized with U. parvum, these animals did not exhibit bladder inflammation or expression of calprotectin by uroepithelium (Figure 4B). We did not observe uroepithelial expression of calprotectin in the 72 hour group, even in animals with ongoing inflammation within the submucosa. Since calprotectin staining could be observed within neutrophils present in these tissues, we were confident that the lack of staining was not an artifact.
Distribution of calprotectin in bladder tissues of Fisher rats. Images are 400x magnification of representative bladder tissue sections obtained from sham inoculated control (A), asymptomatic urinary tract infection (B), and struvite positive animals (C and D). Thin white arrows are placed within the lumen and point to the uroepithelial surface in panels A, B, and C. Panel D shows the distribution of calprotectin (red) detected within the submucosa that was infiltrated with, some of which are concentrated around the blood vessel (identified by the block arrow). Bladder tissue sections were processed as previously described (Reyes et al., 2009). Calprotectin was detected with monoclonal antibody (clone MAC 387, from Thermo Scientific, Fremont, CA., USA) followed by goat anti-rabbit conjugated to Alexa-660. Cell nuclei (blue) were labeled with DAPI stain. Images were captured with Olympus IX81 Spinning disk confocal microscope.
Danger-associated pattern molecules (DAMP) are endogenous ligands of toll like receptors. These molecules are often by-products of inflammation such as reactive oxygen species (Frantz et al., 2001) or tissue degradation products from the extracellular matrix (Okamura et al., 2001). Calprotectin is now considered a DAMP because of its ability to activate TLR4 (Ehrchen et al., 2009). Since we observed a correlation between uroepithelial calprotectin expression and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the urine of struvite positive animals, we measured the amount and distribution of TLR 4 in the bladder tissues of rats infected for 72 hours and 2 weeks post-inoculation.There were no appreciable differences in the amount of TLR 4 detected in bladder tissues from sham inoculated controls, or U. parvum infected animals at 72 hours post-inoculation. However, at 2 weeks post-inoculation, struvite positive animals exhibited more intense staining of TLR 4 in uroepithelium than uninfected controls or animals with asymptomatic urinary tract infection (see Figure 5).
Since Ureaplasma does not directly activate TLR 4, the increased expression observed in struvite positive animals is most likely mediated by DAMPS. Our current study cannot confirm if this activation was initiated by calprotectin or other DAMPS that were detected in our proteome studies such as heat shock protein 60 (Chen et al., 2007) and a variety of extracellular matrix proteins. Nevertheless, the lack of TLR 4 activation in inflamed tissues from the 72 hour time point, coupled with the direct association of uroepithelial calprotectin expression and TLR 4 expression suggests that calprotectin is contributing to an adverse inflammatory response in the struvite group.
Distribution of TLR 4 in rat bladder tissues of Fisher rats. Images in panels A, B, and C are 200x magnification of representative bladder tissue sections obtained from sham inoculated control (A), asymptomatic urinary tract infection (B), and struvite positive animals (C and D). Thin white arrows are placed within the lumen and point to the uroepithelial surface. Panel D is a 400x magnification of panel C. Tissues were processed as previously described (Reyes et al., 2009). TLR 4 (red) was detected with rabbit polyclonal antibody (Abbiotec, LLC, San Diego, CA) followed by goat anti-rabbit conjugated to Alexa-594. Cell nuclei (blue) were labeled with DAPI stain. Images were captured with Olympus IX81 Spinning disk confocal microscope.
In addition to participating in immune defence, calgranulins are involved in embryogenesis, growth, and differentiation. Therefore, it is not surprising that the expression of these proteins is tightly regulated in a cell and tissue specific manner, which can change in response to environmental cues. For example, most mucosal epithelial cells have a basal level of calgranulin expression that changes in response to the appropriate stimulus (Ross & Hertzberg, 2001, Hsu et al., 2005, 2009). The appropriate stimulus for one tissue type is not necessarily the same for another. For example, calgranulin expression in oral squamous epithelial cells increases in response to interleukin-1α, but bacterial lipopolysaccaride does not induce an effect (Ross & Hertzberg, 2001). This may pertain to the fact that the oral cavity is heavily colonized with bacteria. On the other hand, bronchiolar epithelium increases its calgranulin expression in response to lipopolysaccaride mediated activation of TLR4 (Henke et al., 2006). Uroepithelium has a low basal expression of calgranulins A and B, which is significantly up regulated in cancer and inflammation (Yao et al., 2007; Tyagi et al., 2008). It is not known what specific cytokines or factors induce up regulation of calgranulin gene expression in these cells, but the studies performed by our laboratory and Dressing et al., imply that uroepithelium would respond to both interleukin-1α and toll like receptor activation.
Varieties of cell types that reside within bladder submucosa either repress or express calgranulins in response to changes within the tissue microenvironment. Cells pertinent to urinary tract infection are fibroblasts, dendritic cells, macrophages, and neutrophils (Cresswell, et al., 2001; Shafik, et al., 2004; Christmas & Botazzo, 1992; Shimizu et al., 2011). Fibroblasts do not participate in antimicrobial processes during urinary tract infection, but their response to mediators released by uroepithelial cells exposed to E. coli can influence their ability to migrate and remodel the extracellular matrix, which is particularly important in renal interstitial scarring (Kapoor et al., 2001). Furthermore, calgranulin expressing fibroblasts can be detected during the early stages of wound healing (Rahimi et al., 2005). Fibroblast growth factor-2 or interleukin-1β increases expression of calgranulins by fibroblasts. However, transforming growth factor-β, which promotes fibroblast migration in response to bacterial/urothelial products, can block calgranulin expression in these cells (Kapoor et al., 2001).
Dendritic cells are important in immune surveillance and can express calgranulins in varying intensity depending on their level of maturation (Kumar et al., 2003; Koga et al., 2008). Immature dendritic cells express higher amounts of calgranulins A and B than mature cells (Koga et al., 2008). Interleukin-10 promotes induction of tolerogenic dendritic cells, which then exhibit increased expression of calgranulins (Kumar et al., 2003). Further, calgranulin B may down regulate cytokine release in dendritic cells after toll-like receptor stimulation (Averill et al., 2011).
Macrophages represent differentiated monocytes that have migrated into tissues in response to pro-inflammatory signals or part of a homeostatic process. When differentiation is complete these cells cease to express calgranulins unless they become activated (Nacken et al., 2003). It is important to note that not all activated macrophages express calgranulins. Presently, three macrophage phenotypes with distinctly different functions have been identified (Benoit et al., 2008; Mosser & Edwards, 2008). The phenotype is determined by the type of stimulus the cell receives during the process of activation. For example, macrophages exposed to interferon-γ in combination with TNF-α, and induction of TLR transforms them into the classically activated or microbicidal macrophage (Benoit et al., 2008; Mosser & Edwards, 2008). Classically activated macrophages are known for their enhanced microbial killing through induction of nitric oxide synthase, secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and interleukin-12) and secretion of chemokines (CCL2, CCL5, and CXCL8) (Benoit et al., 2008). Resident macrophages that are exposed to interleukin-4 and/or interleukin-13 transform into a wound healing phenotype. Instead of participating in pro-inflammatory events, these cells primarily secrete extracellular matrix proteins and contribute to tissue remodelling. The third activated phenotype is referred to as the regulatory macrophage because these cells express high amounts of co-regulatory molecules that bind to T cell receptors. In addition, regulatory macrophages secrete high amounts of interleukin-10, and these cells are primarily involved in down-regulation of the inflammatory response (Mosser & Edwards, 2008). Of the three phenotypes, only regulatory macrophages express calgranulins, in particular calgranulin A (Benoit et al., 2008; Hsu et al., 2009). Therefore, calgranulin A may be a useful molecular marker for the in situ identification of these cells.
A common feature of regulatory macrophages is that they develop from simultaneous exposure to two stimuli (Mosser & Edwards, 2008). The first signal has little to no stimulatory function. Weak agonists known to induce a regulatory phenotype include immunoglobulin complexes, prostaglandins, apoptotic cells, glucocorticoids, interleukin-10, or G-protein coupled receptor ligands. The second signal involves TLR activation. It has been postulated that calgranulin expression by regulatory macrophages contributes to their immunosuppressive function (Hsu et al., 2009). Support for this argument is that regulatory macrophages exclusively express calgranulin A, which can reduce the damaging effects of inflammation by acting as a scavenger for reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, secreted calgranulin A also repels or inhibits recruitment of neutrophils (Hsu et al., 2009; Sroussi et al., 2010; Xu et al., 2001). Although regulatory macrophages may be highly beneficial during sterile inflammation, their presence at sites of infection may be potentially detrimental. Regulatory macrophages can be exploited by bacterial, parasitic, and viral pathogens. For example, during invasion of macrophages, Leishmania species can utilize immunoglobulin complexes to promote the induction of a regulatory phenotype (Moser & Edwards, 2008). Regulatory macrophages may also be inadvertently assisting microbial persistence in the urogenital tract. For example, Ureaplasmas are chronic and persistent colonizers of the human urogenital tract, and infections are often asymptomatic (Reyes et al., 2008, 2009; Volgmann et al., 2005). However, these organisms are also associated with pro-inflammatory disorders including interstitial nephritis, urethritis, and overactive bladder (Latthe et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2010). As urease producers, Ureaplasmas promote development of struvite uroliths (Grenabo et al., 1988). During infection these microbes induce secretion of prostaglandin E2 and interleukin-10 in host cells (Aaltonen et al., 2007; Estrada-Gutierrez et al., 2010; Moser et al., 2009), which are recognized promoters of the regulatory macrophage phenotype (Moser & Edwards, 2008). Although this connection has yet to be demonstrated with this organism, it is an intriguing notion that Ureaplasmas may be benefiting from such a mechanism.
The biological function of calgranulins is complex, diverse and paradoxical. Therefore, extrapolations from studies outside of the context of urinary tract infection must be made with caution. To date, there are only two published reports that refer to calgranulins during urinary tract infection. Based on these reports, we can only conclude that the antimicrobial properties of calgranulins are minimally effective in the urinary tract. More than likely, the pro-inflammatory properties of calgranulins contribute to complicated inflammatory diseases such as struvite urolithiasis, pyelonephritis, and possibly interstitial cystitis. The positive correlation between increased calgranulin expression and inflammation in tissues, support the argument that these proteins may serve as biomarkers for chronic complicated urinary tract infections. However, additional studies are required in order to determine which clinical settings would benefit from monitoring calgranulin concentrations during urinary tract infections. Of more immediate benefit may be the use of calgranulins as molecular markers in basic science research. For example, monitoring these proteins during maturation and activation of different cell types that comprise innate defense may provide new insights into mechanisms of immune dysregulation induced by various microbial pathogens of the urinary tract.
Portions of this work were supported by award number K08DK075651 from the National Institute of Diabetes And Digestive And Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), and award number RO1 AI45875 from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (NIAID). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIDDK, NIAID or the National Institutes of Health.
Human trafficking is a global issue that affects people from virtually every part of the world. Though statistics on the extent of the crime is hard to prove, anecdotal reports suggest that it is increasing [1]. For instance, more than 500 different trafficking flows were detected between 2012 and 2014 across the globe [1]. Similarly, from a recent global survey on human trafficking published by International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Walk Free Foundation, an estimated 40.3 million people were reported to be in modern slavery in 2017 [2]. While the total annual revenue accruing from human trafficking varies, depending on the source, but it is estimated to be between US$ 5 and US$42 billion [3].
Although human trafficking is common in different continents of the world, it is endemic in Africa. Africa has been bedevilled with a number of crisis, including high levels of unemployment, poverty, hunger, corruption, political and economic instabilities, to mention a few [4, 5]. These problems are exacerbated by tensions and insurrections, which have led to internal displacements of people. The quest for survival in the midst of these socio-political and economic crises have engendered high migration flow from one African State to another; from one African region to another, and from Africa to other continents. While some migration activities are legal, many others are carried out illegally. Meanwhile criminals regularly deceive migrants and traffick them into a world of different dimensions of exploitation. While the exact numbers and demographics of trafficked persons from Africa are unknown, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reports often provide guestimates of the realities [6]. For instance, according to UNODC report in 2016, a total of 69 countries detected human trafficking victims from Sub-Saharan Africa between 2012 and 2014 [1].
The scale of human trafficking in Africa came from alarm raised by activists, civil societies and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), especially in Nigeria, Togo, South Africa, Benin Republic, to mention a few in the latter 1990s [7, 8, 9, 10]. For instance, anecdotal reports indicated that human trafficking in West Africa has assumed alarming proportion since the mid-1990s [8, 11, 12]. Child trafficking also became prominent in West Africa when international media focused on the exposure of a ship code-named Etireno which was found on 17 April 2001 with children between the ages of 3 and 13 who were trafficked to Libreville, Gabon, from Lagos in Nigeria [11]. While there have been considerable efforts at international, national and regional levels at combating human trafficking in Africa, unfortunately, limited successes have been recorded [11, 13].
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the nature, extent and the complexities of human trafficking in Africa. It draws from a review of literature on human trafficking in different parts of Africa and beyond. The chapter begins with the conceptualisation of human trafficking, and moves onto an overview of human trafficking in Africa; the factors engendering human trafficking in Africa, and suggestions for effective response to it.
Defining human trafficking is relatively contentious [2, 11, 14, 15]. Part of the controversy revolves around the array of activities that are involved in it. This could be part of the reasons why Gould [16] described it as ‘a slipping concept’ that is very difficult to pin down. Moreover, the controversy between traditional practices and modernisation sometimes blur the understanding and definition of the concept. Portrayals of human trafficking in Western democracies may be different from that of Africa [6]. For instance, a child hawking goods in public could be construed as a form of exploitation, but in some Western African societies, it could be part of the routines of a child in order to assist his/her parents [11].
The definition of human trafficking varies from scholar to scholar, and country to country. Most of the debates are rooted in divergent worldview, historical backgrounds and findings from studies conducted by scholars [17]. Trafficking in persons (human trafficking) is defined in article 2(a) of the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (Palermo Protocol), supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, as:
The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.
Exploitation includes, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs. The consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation…shall be irrelevant where any of the… [fore-mentioned] means…have been used. The recruitment, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation shall be considered ‘trafficking in persons’, even if it does not involve … [any of the above listed means].
‘Child’ shall mean any person under eighteen years of age (Article 3) (UNODC, 2004, p. 42).
For the purpose of this article, human trafficking is defined as the deception, recruitment, transportation and transfer of persons, for the purpose of exploitation.
The end of the Cold War resulted in the rise of regional conflicts in Africa and the decline of borders, leading to an increased number of economic and political refugees [18, 19]. Since then, the rates of human trafficking in different parts of Africa have also increased considerably due to capacity gaps in the management of sub-regional economic cooperation and regional integration initiatives among African states [18]. This situation led to several interventions by policy makers and other stakeholders at the continental, regional and national levels. However, many African countries are still finding it very challenging to combat human trafficking due to ineffective policies and capacity, even where legislation is in place. The combination(s) of lack of political will, political and institutional corruption, and a range of other underlying perennial socio-economic problems that these countries are confronted with have made the fight against human trafficking almost insurmountable [7, 18].
Human trafficking is a dynamic phenomenon with a range of interlocking forces, factors and processes [6]. Trafficking issues and challenges often revolve around three variables, (though with two extreme ends)—the demand for cheap labour and exploitation on one hand, and the willingness to meet basic economic needs for survival on the other ([20], p. 7). It will be erroneous to describe human trafficking essentially as an economic cum security issue, perhaps due to the factors that entrap people into it.
Trafficking features in West Africa is complex, so are its routes. Countries like Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon and Senegal are source, transit, and destination countries for trafficked women and children [1]. Trafficking of young girls from rural areas in countries such as Mali, Benin, Burkina Faso, Togo, and Ghana to work in Cocoa plantations in Urban Cote D’Ivoire are also documented in literature [1]. Trafficking from and through eastern Nigeria to Gabon have increased in recent years [1]. According to United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) 2017 report, children made up over a quarter of detected trafficking victims in the world, and out of this, 64% are from sub-Saharan Africa. This figure would have increased in recent times due to current political and economic challenges in sub-Saharan Africa that have compelled several people, including women and children to leave their homes in search of new opportunities in neighbouring countries [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29].
Similar to the experience in West Africa, human trafficking is prevalent in Southern Africa. Countries such as South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia, and Lesotho are source, transit and destination countries for human trafficking [9]. However, unlike the West African scenario where the flow is multidimensional—one country could serve as the source, while another serve as the transit and destination point—trafficking geography in Southern Africa is relatively complicated. It involves complex trafficking flows from diverse countries of origin from Africa and the rest of the world [10]. In this region, South Africa serves as the rallying point. In addition to its status as the powerhouse of the sub-region, South Africa also serves as an economic hub on the African continent. Until recently, has the largest economy in Africa [30], South Africa also serves as a major hub for trade in human commodity [6, 31]. It provides an enabling environment and market for the services of trafficked persons from the regional and extra-regional level [32]. Incessant crises that ravaged the Continent, such as political instabilities, insurrections, poverty, hunger, unemployment, kidnapping, terrorism, amongst others, make South Africa a magnet that attracts migration flows from other African countries [6, 33].
It is imperative to state that in the Southern African axis, South Africa serves mainly as the destination point. This is not to infer that South Africa is not a source or transit country for human trafficking, but as the economic hub of the region, South Africa is the main destination points for Southern African sub regional and extra-regional flows. Within South Africa, women and children are recruited and transported from the rural areas to cities, such as Johannesburg, Pretoria, Bloemfontein, Cape Town and Durban, for exploitation [6]. While most girls work as domestic servants in wealthy homes, majority of the boys serve as street vendors, waiters, beggars on the roads, street urchins, labourers on farm lands and plantations, and for other criminal activities [6].
According to United States Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report [34], West African syndicates dominate and control the commercial sex business in Hillbrow (Johannesburg) and other urban centres across the State, local criminal rings control child prostitution in the country. While Russian and Bulgarian crime syndicates control prostitution business in the Cape Town axis, the Chinese nationals organise and coordinate the sex trafficking of Asian nationals [34].
Children are trafficked to South Africa from Lesotho’s border towns; women and girls trafficked from Mozambique are destined for South Africa’s Gauteng and Kwa-Zulu Natal provinces [10]. In Malawi, women and girls are trafficked to northern Europe and South Africa. In addition to these configurations, women are also trafficked from Thailand, China, and Eastern Europe [35]. Ethnically based criminal syndicates in South Africa’s refugee camps recruit and transport their victims, usually married women from their home countries.
In Lesotho, traffickers often recruit male and female street children, victims of physical and sexual abuse at home, or children orphaned by AIDS [7]. Such children normally migrate from rural areas and border towns to Maseru, the capital, from where they are trafficked by mostly South African white Afrikaans to work in farms in Eastern Cape. In Mozambique, men, women and children are trafficked from Maputo to Durban or Johannesburg for various exploitative purposes. While women and children are trafficked to provide sexual services to miners at West Rand, men are trafficked for labour related task at the mines [7, 35].
In East African axis, Ugandan and Kenyan women are trafficked for prostitution in the Gulf States. The incessant crises in Uganda created an avenue for rebel leaders to kidnap children, young girls and women from the opposition camps [34]. In addition to the locals, victims of trafficking in Uganda are from the Democratic of Congo (Congo DRC), Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and South Sudan [34]. While girls, young ladies and women are forced into prostitution, boys and men work in agricultural, construction and other labour related industries in Uganda [34] Similarly, Kenya serves as a source, transit and destination country for trafficking of young girls and women to and from Europe [34].
Human trafficking also thrives in North Africa. Virtually all countries in this region of Africa are source, transit and destination countries for trade in human commodity [7]. However, there may be variations in the volume of trafficked victims are transported from and into each of the countries in the region [7]. For instance, Algeria is more of a transit and destination country than a source country, unlike other countries in the region like Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia that are essentially a source, transit and destination countries for human trafficking [34].
Traffickers in this region of Africa target undocumented (illegal) migrants from sub-Saharan Africa, like Mali, Niger, Cameroon and Nigeria. The illegal status of such migrants and language barriers make them vulnerable to various forms of exploitation by traffickers who often deceive them with a view to make them fill the available vacancies in the labour and sexual trafficking industries [6]. Contrastively, illegal migrants often fall prey to traffickers in North Africa while trying to cross the borders of some of the countries in the region en route Europe with the perception of improving their lives. While Europe is their ultimate destination, travelling long distances through the desert, especially Sahara desert en route Europe make them vulnerable to exploitation. Due to the long distances they are to cover, and the cost of transportation, these illegal migrants often run out of money, seek avenues to survive. Traffickers, aware of their vulnerabilities subject them to labour and sexual exploitation (USTIP Report, 2016). In addition, in Egypt (precisely), women and children are vulnerable to labour and sexual exploitation (USTIP Report, 2016). Men from United Arab Emirates (UAE), Kuwait and Saudi Arabia often purchase summer (temporary) marriages for commercial sexual exploitations. There are documentations of child sex tourism in Cairo, Luxor and Alexandria in Egypt (USTIP Report, 2016).
Studies have indicated an increase in migration flows across the world. Most of these flows are largely attributed to myriad of factors ranging from political upheaval, to economic-crises, ethnic discrimination, communal inequalities, civil wars to lack of viable means of livelihood ([7], p. 83; [36], p. 11; [37], p. 7). For people ensnared by hunger and poverty, migration through what Maggy Lee described as ‘irregular channels of smuggling and trafficking’ become an alternative means of survival or an escape route ([37], p. 7).
In Africa, human trafficking is of two dimensions - internal and external trafficking [1, 19]. Although there have been debates on the validity of this assertion, studies on human trafficking have shown that a country could serve as origin (source), transit and destination for trafficking operations [19]. For instance, citizens of countries as Canada, United Kingdom and New Zealand may find it difficult to accept that human trafficking thrives in their countries due to their tight border and sophisticated immigration control, however, studies have shown that virtually all country of the world is implicated in human trafficking web [19].
The market for this criminal trade is wide, owing to the lucrative nature of this business. The markets are often driven by highly sophisticated criminal gangs with network that span across States frontiers. The expansion of global market for trade and investment necessitated an increase in the demand and supply of people ([36], p. 26). Such expansion often culminates in high migration flow, and hibernating in the exodus of these individuals is this illicit trade (human trafficking). Similarly, globalisation created demographic disparities among the less-developed, developing and the developed countries, resulting in what Shelley referred to as ‘the feminization of poverty’ and ‘marginalisation of rural communities’ ([19], p. 3).
Globalisation has been enhanced considerably by the internet and the so called ‘dark web’ [1, 2]. Such platforms have often been exploited by traffickers to advertise and lure people into the trafficking world [2, 19]. Through the internet, several girls and ladies have been lured by traffickers (under the pretext of providing immigration services) to unknown destinations, where they are raped, and exploited [1]. Child pornography, online sex chats and other forms of illicit services, have been rendered by traffickers to different clients across the globe ([36], p. 130). Human trafficking has also been linked with sporting events ([36], p. 141). However, there are arguments and counter-arguments about its actual estimate.
The wave of natural disasters that swept through several countries of the world due to global warming has left many people homeless, displaced and impoverished. Examples of these natural disasters include the tsunami that swept through the Southeast Asian countries, the hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, drought in Sudan, and earthquake in Haiti [36]. Unfortunately, humanitarian responses to most of these emergency situations have often been undermined by corruption [1, 15]. According to Shelley [19] most of the assistance programmes and initiatives to assist disaster victims have largely been inadequate, with most of the needed aid too often, have been diverted by corrupt officials. The combination of the loss of their lands—both commercial lands and residential lands, and the uncertainty of securing any opportunity in other sector of their national economy, these distressed people often become vulnerable, and easy prey for traffickers ([19], p. 38).
In Africa, trafficking in Persons is of two different types. Literatures on the phenomenon suggest the internal and external trafficking [38, 39]. Internal trafficking takes place within a country’s territory (domestic trafficking). It usually takes the form of recruitment and movement of people from the rural to urban centres for various forms of exploitative work and or activities such as: prostitution, forced labour (as domestic servants), factory workers, workers in plantations and construction companies, drug peddlers, pick-pockets, waiters, among several others ([40], p. 4).
In contrast to the internal dimension, international trafficking takes the form of recruitment and movement of people from one country to another (cross-border trafficking) for the purpose of exploitation. The nature of exploitation in this form is also similar to the domestic form but in greater proportion. The demands are higher so also are the costs and implications. For most of the cross-border dimensions, the flows are usually between countries within the same region or neighbouring countries. Thus, the cross-border flow is not usually a distance one. However, there are instances of continental and intercontinental flows as well. According to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNDOC), contemporarily, there are evidences of victims of human trafficking from the East Asian States found in over twenty (20) countries in regions across the globe, including the Americas, the Middle East, Europe, Central Asia and Africa ([41], p. 11).
The running of this global criminal enterprise is spearheaded by transnational criminal groups that cut across the continents of the world [1, 34]. These mafia groups combine drug trafficking, arms trafficking, money laundering and other forms of transnational crime with human trafficking—for both labour and sexual exploitation. According to Shelley, a combination of criminal gangs/organisations such as the Thai mafia, Indian criminal rings, Nigerian gang, Mexican group, Russian-speaking criminal ring, Albanian group and the Balkan criminal gang dominate the general human trafficking trade on a global scale [15, 34].
Regarding human trafficking for sexual exploitation, the combination of the Italian mafia families, Russian-speaking gang, Thai gang, Japanese Yakuza, the Triads, Jaotou, Jao Phro, Indian group, Sindikets (Syndicates in Malaysia), Fuk Ching in the United States dominate the trade [15, 34]. Other lesser mafia groups that dominate the sex trafficking market include the Dominican, Filipino and Turkish gang, amongst other trafficking entrepreneurs across the globe [15, 34, 42]. Most of these mafia organisations, especially those from the Asian axis have a turf, a hierarchical structure, restricted membership and often use violence to enforce compliance and exert authority [15, 34].
Contrastively, some other criminal networks of persons in human trade and other forms of transnational organised crime operate on an ad hoc basis, with no definite structure. It is instructive to state that most of these criminal groups have built strong empires of wealth and remained in the scene. Such vibrant structures were not necessarily fabricated due to the clandestine nature of the trade, but owing largely to the loopholes in most States structures and institutions (criminal justice), especially the police and border officials through corruption.
It is instructive to state at this juncture that the scale of research on human trafficking globally has been flooded with issues of sexual exploitation. Though a relatively appreciable volume also focus on the labour aspect, and few on organ harvesting, but the proportion of sexual domain is larger. The fact, however, is that the vast majority of modern day research findings have shown swelling incidences of trafficking of persons for labour exploitation in—agriculture, manufacturing industries, block factories, mining, fishing, domestic servants, carmel jockeys, pick-pockets, street vending, to mention a few [40].
The proportion of labour exploitation varies from State to State, from person to person, and often a function of the nature of task or work to be done (by trafficked victims). Labour exploitation often manifest itself in restriction of movement, seizure and confiscation of passport, daily verbal intimidation, cycles of abuses (rape, torture, beating, etc.), low wages, deduction or no pay at all, amongst others.
Contemporarily, the issue of human trafficking in Africa is taking a new dimension with the evolving menace of human trafficking into baby factories (or ‘baby farms’) for baby making coming to the centre stage. Onuoha [43] revealed this new wave of human trafficking in recent times. Though he argued that the incidence has been going-on for a while now in some parts of the world, but it is rising in a crescendo manner in Nigeria. However, it is very challenging to define the concept—‘baby factory’, ‘baby farming’ and ‘baby harvesting’ as they mean the same thing in this context, and as used by Onuoha.
Moreover, there is no legal definition for these terms since they are emerging concepts. However, according to Onuoha [43], baby factories ‘are locations where young ladies or girls, some teenagers or little above that, are harboured and deliberately encouraged or forced to become pregnant and subsequently give up their babies for sale’. Put differently, baby factory is an apartment or a form of accommodation in which teenagers and/or young ladies are kept (either voluntarily or by coercion), copulated, impregnated, and after delivery, their babies are taken away from them and sold to clients, agents or couples in need of babies. This could be done sometimes with or without the consent of the victims. This episode therefore brings to the fore a new concept in the human trafficking discourse: baby trafficking.
It is pertinent to state at this juncture that the problem of trafficking often do not begin with the traffickers, but with the circumstances that force victims to seek better living conditions in environments that render them vulnerable to exploitation [44]. Contrary to the popular embellished image of trafficked persons as either kidnapped, or coerced into leaving their homes, more often than not, the initial decision to migrate is often a conscious one [6]. Such decisions are further heightened by some of the factors that bedevilled Africa as earlier indicated.
Trafficking business thrives in Africa due to a range of precipitating factors can be broadly grouped into two—the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors [6, 9, 10]. The push and pull factors are two sides of the same coin—the causes of one can also be the consequence of another. While the push factors are those issues and circumstances that drive or force people into accepting demands that render them susceptible to trafficking, the pull factors encapsulate those that influence people into accepting dehumanising offers. The push factors that contribute to human trafficking in Africa include, but are not limited to poverty, political instability, greed, peer pressure, and lack of legitimate and sustainable employment opportunities and corruption [6, 45, 46, 47]. The pull factors include but are not limited to high demand for organs and body parts, the demand for cheap and low-skilled labour, the effect of globalisation, weak border control, economic disparities between developed and developing countries [19, 48, 49, 50, 51]. It is imperative to indicate that counter-trafficking measures in many African States have considerably been ineffective because most of the strategies have rested on the tripod stand of arrest, punishment and incarceration [17]. While these measures could thrive in addressing the proximate causes of the crime, the remote causes will require proactive measures that will facilitate the process of finding a durable solution its root causes.
This chapter began by underscoring the global resonance of human trafficking and its debilitating impacts on human lives, and international peace and security. It further explored the dynamics of human trafficking in Africa and the impacts of globalisation in engendering the rise and growth of trafficking businesses, in Africa as well as in other parts of the world. The factors and forces that created the artificial structures for trafficking to thrive in different parts of Africa were also identified and discussed. In addition, the root causes of human trafficking were highlighted. It also was indicated that except proactive and enduring measures are put in place at addressing those age-long root causes factors, State response to human trafficking in contemporary African States will be not be successful.
From the foregoing, to address the scourge of human trafficking in Africa, each State should first consider and find solution to the underlying or root causes of the crime. These factors are embedded in the countries’ socio-economic, political, and cultural milieus. If the various African countries address these factors, it will serve as trajectories to combating the phenomenon. Such task is however a collective responsibility of all relevant stakeholders, which include, the Government, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), parents, civil societies, religious and educational institutions, and human rights groups, to mention a few.
IntechOpen books are indexed by the following abstracting and indexing services:
",metaTitle:"Indexing and Abstracting",metaDescription:"IntechOpen was built by scientists, for scientists. We understand the community we serve, but to bring an even better service to the table for IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we partnered with the leading companies and associations in the industry and beyond.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/indexing-and-abstracting",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Clarivate Web Of Science - Book Citation Index
\\n\\nCroatian Library (digital NSK)
\\n\\nOCLC (Online Computer Library Center) - WorldCat® Digital Collection Gateway
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Clarivate Web Of Science - Book Citation Index
\n\nCroatian Library (digital NSK)
\n\nOCLC (Online Computer Library Center) - WorldCat® Digital Collection Gateway
\n\n\n\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"126408",title:"Prof.",name:"A",middleName:null,surname:"Chaves",slug:"a-chaves",fullName:"A Chaves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal do Ceará",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"116458",title:"Prof.",name:"A. A.",middleName:null,surname:"Minzoni",slug:"a.-a.-minzoni",fullName:"A. A. Minzoni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"105746",title:"Dr.",name:"A.W.M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Koopman-van Gemert",slug:"a.w.m.m.-koopman-van-gemert",fullName:"A.W.M.M. Koopman-van Gemert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105746/images/5803_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Anna Wilhelmina Margaretha Maria Koopman-van Gemert MD, PhD, became anaesthesiologist-intensivist from the Radboud University Nijmegen (the Netherlands) in 1987. She worked for a couple of years also as a blood bank director in Nijmegen and introduced in the Netherlands the Cell Saver and blood transfusion alternatives. She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"90116",title:"Dr.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Flores-Gil",slug:"aaron-flores-gil",fullName:"Aaron Flores-Gil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Carmen",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"119935",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Dandache",slug:"abbas-dandache",fullName:"Abbas Dandache",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Politécnica del Valle de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5228},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10370},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15791}],offset:12,limit:12,total:6959},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"15"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:3},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5240},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"519",title:"Intelligent System",slug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence-intelligent-system",parent:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",slug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:86,numberOfWosCitations:322,numberOfCrossrefCitations:163,numberOfDimensionsCitations:381,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence-intelligent-system",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9401",title:"Application of Expert Systems",subtitle:"Theoretical and Practical Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"081802ad77d0fdab3e8085762d9a15d2",slug:"application-of-expert-systems-theoretical-and-practical-aspects",bookSignature:"Ivan Nunes da Silva and Rogério Andrade Flauzino",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9401.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14215",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Nunes da Silva",slug:"ivan-nunes-da-silva",fullName:"Ivan Nunes da Silva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6391",title:"Intelligent System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e66e8d52ef62125a9f741ce0610d6899",slug:"intelligent-system",bookSignature:"Chatchawal Wongchoosuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6391.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"34521",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Chatchawal",middleName:null,surname:"Wongchoosuk",slug:"chatchawal-wongchoosuk",fullName:"Chatchawal Wongchoosuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"173",title:"Expert Systems for Human, Materials and Automation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00cfbf1f4ec20211e33264642361190",slug:"expert-systems-for-human-materials-and-automation",bookSignature:"Petrică Vizureanu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/173.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"12354",title:"Prof.",name:"Petrică",middleName:null,surname:"Vizureanu",slug:"petrica-vizureanu",fullName:"Petrică Vizureanu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3779",title:"Autonomous Agents",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2de8f35c0784b403c61442c900cf2e93",slug:"autonomous-agents",bookSignature:"Vedran Kordic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3779.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3794",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5332a71035a274ecbf1c308df633a8ed",slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",bookSignature:"Felix T.S. Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:"T.S.",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"497",doi:"10.5772/5101",title:"Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm and Its Application to Generalized Assignment Problem",slug:"artificial_bee_colony_algorithm_and_its_application_to_generalized_assignment_problem",totalDownloads:22477,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:145,book:{slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",title:"Swarm Intelligence",fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization"},signatures:"Adil Baykasoğlu, Lale Özbakır and Pınar Tapkan",authors:null},{id:"517",doi:"10.5772/5121",title:"Preface: Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization",slug:"preface__swarm_intelligence__focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",totalDownloads:4732,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:29,book:{slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",title:"Swarm Intelligence",fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization"},signatures:"Felix T.S. Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",authors:null},{id:"510",doi:"10.5772/5114",title:"Particle Swarm Optimization in Structural Design",slug:"particle_swarm_optimization_in_structural_design",totalDownloads:3864,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:23,book:{slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",title:"Swarm Intelligence",fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization"},signatures:"Ruben E. Perez and Kamran Behdinan",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"497",title:"Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm and Its Application to Generalized Assignment Problem",slug:"artificial_bee_colony_algorithm_and_its_application_to_generalized_assignment_problem",totalDownloads:22473,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:145,book:{slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",title:"Swarm Intelligence",fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization"},signatures:"Adil Baykasoğlu, Lale Özbakır and Pınar Tapkan",authors:null},{id:"72170",title:"A Conceptual Framework for Modeling Smart Parking",slug:"a-conceptual-framework-for-modeling-smart-parking",totalDownloads:304,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"application-of-expert-systems-theoretical-and-practical-aspects",title:"Application of Expert Systems",fullTitle:"Application of Expert Systems - Theoretical and Practical Aspects"},signatures:"Brahim Lejdel",authors:null},{id:"505",title:"Power Plant Maintenance Scheduling Using Ant Colony Optimization",slug:"power_plant_maintenance_scheduling_using_ant_colony_optimization",totalDownloads:5615,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",title:"Swarm Intelligence",fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization"},signatures:"Wai Kuan Foong, Holger Robert Maier and Angus Ross Simpson",authors:null},{id:"58698",title:"Predicate Calculus as a Tool for AI Problems Solution: Algorithms and Their Complexity",slug:"predicate-calculus-as-a-tool-for-ai-problems-solution-algorithms-and-their-complexity",totalDownloads:569,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"intelligent-system",title:"Intelligent System",fullTitle:"Intelligent System"},signatures:"Tatiana Kosovskaya",authors:[{id:"217409",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Kosovskaya",slug:"tatiana-kosovskaya",fullName:"Tatiana Kosovskaya"}]},{id:"500",title:"Particle Swarm Optimization - Stochastic Trajectory Analysis and Parameter Selection",slug:"particle_swarm_optimization_-_stochastic_trajectory_analysis_and_parameter_selection",totalDownloads:3812,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:23,book:{slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",title:"Swarm Intelligence",fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization"},signatures:"M. Jiang, Y. P. Luo and S. Y. Yang",authors:null},{id:"10991",title:"Security in Large-Scale Open Distributed Multi-Agent Systems",slug:"security-in-large-scale-open-distributed-multi-agent-systems",totalDownloads:1831,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"autonomous-agents",title:"Autonomous Agents",fullTitle:"Autonomous Agents"},signatures:"M.A. Oey, M.Warnier and F.M.T. Brazier",authors:null},{id:"513",title:"Case Study Based Convergence Behaviour Analysis of ACO Applied to Optimal Design of Water Distribution Systems",slug:"case_study_based_convergence_behaviour_analysis_of_aco_applied_to_optimal_design_of_water_distributi",totalDownloads:2690,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",title:"Swarm Intelligence",fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization"},signatures:"Aaron C. Zecchin, Holger R. Maier and Angus R. Simpson",authors:null},{id:"511",title:"Reserve-Constrained Multiarea Environmental/Economic Dispatch Using Enhanced Particle Swarm Optimization",slug:"reserve-constrained_multiarea_environmental_economic_dispatch_using_enhanced_particle_swarm_optimiza",totalDownloads:2754,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",title:"Swarm Intelligence",fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization"},signatures:"Lingfeng Wang and Chanan Singh",authors:null},{id:"58179",title:"Intelligent Embedded Software: New Perspectives and Challenges",slug:"intelligent-embedded-software-new-perspectives-and-challenges",totalDownloads:595,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"intelligent-system",title:"Intelligent System",fullTitle:"Intelligent System"},signatures:"Fateh Boutekkouk, Ridha Mahalaine, Zina Mecibah, Saliha Lakhdari,\nRamissa Djouani and Djalila Belkebir",authors:[{id:"216218",title:"Dr.",name:"Fateh",middleName:null,surname:"Boutekkouk",slug:"fateh-boutekkouk",fullName:"Fateh Boutekkouk"}]},{id:"58975",title:"Cognitive Artificial Intelligence: Concept and Applications for Humankind",slug:"cognitive-artificial-intelligence-concept-and-applications-for-humankind",totalDownloads:1167,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"intelligent-system",title:"Intelligent System",fullTitle:"Intelligent System"},signatures:"Arwin Datumaya Wahyudi Sumari and Adang Suwandi Ahmad",authors:[{id:"22530",title:"Dr.",name:"Arwin",middleName:"Datumaya Wahyudi",surname:"Sumari",slug:"arwin-sumari",fullName:"Arwin Sumari"},{id:"217344",title:"Prof.",name:"Adang Suwandi",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"adang-suwandi-ahmad",fullName:"Adang Suwandi Ahmad"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence-intelligent-system",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/98397/stefano-corradini",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"98397",slug:"stefano-corradini"},fullPath:"/profiles/98397/stefano-corradini",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()