Classification natural fibre.
\r\n\tb. The growth of digital environments which can educate and empower as well as exploit and destroy (mobile learning, STEM education, tablets, etc.).
\r\n\tc. Social, racial, class, and gender-based discriminations that restrict the developmental potential and the prosperity perspectives
\r\n\td. Health hazards and illnesses such as the laters COVID-19 pandemic.
\r\n\te. Armed conflicts with casualties and displacements of populations seeking refuge
\r\n\tf. Lack of physical spaces that will support and nourish development and learning, etc.
\r\n\tEducation in the post-modern era strives to address the above issues and develop policies, curricula, methodologies, and strategies to contribute to an environmentally and socially sustainable future. It embraces multiple perspectives and worldviews and seeks to touch on inequalities and discriminations in favor of equity. In this direction, children’s s agency lies at the heart of democratic approaches. Educational processes adopt forms of interactions that actualize learning as “becoming” and place it in a continuum between past, present, and future. This book intends to feature innovative approaches that employ transformative elements (targets, methods, materials, ideas, etc.) and embrace the concept of child development as “becoming” in an ever-changing and challenging world.
\r\n\r\n\tWe invite authors to contribute original research or research review papers that present innovative approaches addressing personal and social transformation. All aspects of early childhood education will be considered, including research methodology for the early years.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-949-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-948-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-950-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"351c41dca5c8c997f15e758f2e035178",bookSignature:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki and Associate Prof. Michail Kalogiannakis",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11281.jpg",keywords:"Early Childhood Education, Preschool, STEAM, Environmental Sustainability, Social Sciences, Social Sustainability, ICT, Digital Devices, Education for Equity, Gender Issues, Post-modern Epistemology, Social Constructivism",numberOfDownloads:65,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 14th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 2nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool\r\nEducation, University of Crete in Greece. He graduated from the Physics Department\r\nof the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University\r\nParis-7 and University Paris-5 and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5.\r\nHis research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching\r\nand learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, and games simulations.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission topography studies recently revealed that mastication leads to increases in cortical blood flow and activates the somatosensory, supplementary motor, and insular cortices, as well as the striatum, thalamus, and cerebellum [1]. Masticating immediately before performing a cognitive task increases blood oxygen levels (BOLD) in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, important structures involved in learning and memory, thereby improving task performance [1]. Thus, mastication may be a drug-free and simple method of attenuating the development of senile dementia and stress-related disorders that are often associated with cognitive dysfunction. Previous epidemiologic studies demonstrated that a decreased number of residual teeth, decreased denture use, and a small maximal biting force are directly related to the development of dementia, further supporting the notion that mastication contributes to maintain cognitive function [2].
Here we provide further evidence supporting the interaction between mastication and learning and memory, focusing on the function of the hippocampus, which is essential for the formation of new memories. We first summarize recent progress in understanding how mastication affects learning and memory. We then describe the impaired function and pathology of the hippocampus in an animal model of reduced mastication using senescence-accelerated prone (SAMP8) mice, and discuss human studies showing that mastication enhances hippocampal-dependent cognitive function. We then describe how occlusal disharmony is a potential chronic stressor that impedes or suppresses hippocampal-mediated learning and memory, suggesting that normal occlusion is essential for producing the ameliorative effects of mastication on stress-induced changes in the hippocampus. Finally, we focus on the ameliorative effects of mastication on stress-induced suppression of learning and memory functions in the hippocampus and on systemic stress responses in both animals and humans.
Dysfunctional mastication affects cognitive function, and reduced mastication contributes to senile dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, and a declining quality of life in the elderly. In particular, the systemic effects of tooth loss are an epidemiologic risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease [2]. Missing teeth, due to dental caries and periodontitis are common in the elderly, and reduce their ability to masticate. We created a molarless senescence-accelerated prone (SAMP8) mouse model of dysfunctional mastication by extracting or cutting the upper molar teeth (molarless). SAMP8 mice mature normally for up to 6 months of age, but then exhibit accelerated aging (with a median life span of 12 months compared with 2- to 3 years for other strains). SAMP8 mice show clear aging-related impairments in learning and memory at 6 months of age [3, 4], and these mice are often used in aging studies. Molarless SAMP8 mice exhibit age-dependent deficits in spatial learning in the Morris water maze [5-10] (Fig. 1). The duration of the molarless condition in aged SAMP8 mice correlates with the level of impaired learning [7], and restoring lost molars with artificial crowns attenuates the molarless-induced increases in the learning and memory deficits [9]. Masticatory stimulation is also impaired by a soft-food diet [11], which leads to learning impairment [11]. Together, these findings indicate that masticatory stimulation is closely related to learning and memory.
Effect of molarless condition on spatial learning in the Morris water maze test. The results are expressed as the mean score (mean ± SE, n=6 for each group) of four trials per day. Note that 9-month-old molarless mice required a significantly longer time than age-matched controls to reach the platform.
Several morphologic changes are observed in the hippocampus of molarless mice, including a decreased number of pyramidal cells [6], hypertrophied glial fibrillary acid protein-labeled astrocytes [7, 10] and decreased dendritic spines in the CA1 region [8], suppressed cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus [12]. These behavioral and morphologic changes are very similar to aging-related changes in the hippocampus [13]. The decreased masticatory stimulation resulting from a soft-food diet results in similar morphologic features [14, 15]. Thus, masticatory dysfunction appears to accelerate the aging process in the hippocampus.
Although the relationship between dysfunctional mastication and these behavioral and morphologic changes in the hippocampus is unclear, there are several possible mechanisms.
Decreased mastication decreases the information input from the oral area to the central nervous system, which leads to the degeneration of target cells [16], as exercise promotes axonal sprouting and synaptogenesis [17] and enhances neurogenesis in the hippocampus [18]. Tooth loss or extraction causes degenerative changes in the trigeminal ganglion cell bodies of the primary sensory neurons innervating the teeth [19] and transganglionic degeneration in the secondary neurons in the trigeminal spinal tract nucleus [20]. Hence, the impairment in cognitive function due to masticatory dysfunction might be related to the decreased activity of the sensory pathways of the oral areas. Further, dysfunctional mastication leads to increased decreased cholinergic activity. The number of choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons in the septal nucleus is decreased in molarless mice [24], and decreased acetylcholine concentrations are observed in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus [24], as well as decreased acetylcholine release [24] in the hippocampus in response to extracellular stimulation. In rodents, spatial memory is associated with acetylcholine levels in the hippocampus [25]. Therefore, the decreased cholinergic activity induced by the molarless condition could contribute learning impairments.
Decreased mastication may also lead to increases in the plasma corticosterone levels. The molarless condition in aged SAMP8 mice increases plasma corticosterone levels [5], and downregulates glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) and GR messenger ribonucleic acid (GR mRNA) in the hippocampus [21]. The hippocampus contains a high density of GR and is involved in the negative feedback mechanism with the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis via GR, making it very sensitive to corticosterone [22]. The morphologic and behavioral changes in the hippocampus due to chronic stress or long-term exposure to excessive corticosterone are similar to the changes observed with reduced mastication [23]. In support of this notion, treatment with the corticosterone synthesis inhibitor metyrapone prevents molarless-induced learning impairments and neuron loss in the hippocampus [5]. Thus, chronic stress induced by masticatory dysfunction could lead to learning and memory impairments.
Recent fMRI and positron emission tomography studies in humans revealed that several brain regions are activated during mastication [26, 27]. We performed fMRI studies in humans to evaluate the areas of the brain that are activated in association with chewing. In these studies, subjects were asked chew gum with no odor or taste components and perform rhythmic chewing at a rate of approximately 1 Hz. Bilateral increases in activity were observed in several brain areas, including the primary somatosensory cortex, primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, premotor area, prefrontal cortex, insula, posterior cortex, thalamus, striatum, and cerebellum [26, 27]. Age-dependent changes in the chewing-induced BOLD signals were observed in the primary sensorimotor cortex, cerebellum, and thalamus [26, 27]. The right prefrontal cortex showed the highest increase in activity in elderly persons compared to both young adults and young persons [1] (Fig. 2). The prefrontal cortex is involved in cognitive function [28], and neuronal activity between the right prefrontal cortex and hippocampus might contribute to cognitive function. An fMRI evaluation of the effects of chewing on brain activity during a working memory task showed an increase in BOLD signals in the right premotor cortex, precuneus, thalamus, hippocampus, and inferior parietal lobe [29]. In another fMRI experiment examining the effect of chewing on hippocampal activity in a spatial cognition task [1], subjects were shown 16 photographs followed by the same number of pictures of a plus character (+) on a green background during each cycle. Each picture or photograph was projected every 2 s during the cycle and the subjects were asked to remember as many of the photographs as possible. The hippocampal BOLD signals in young subject were strongly increased but no significant difference was seen before and after chewing, whereas hippocampal activation in aged subject was quite small compared to that in young subject. The activation area and the intensity of the fMRI signals were, however, increased by chewing [1] (Fig. 3 and 4). Memory acquisition in aged subjects is also significantly enhanced by chewing, whereas chewing had no effect in young subject [1] (Fig. 5). These findings in humans support a link between increased hippocampal BOLD signals and enhanced memory acquisition.
Further studies are needed to clarify how the reduced oral input activity to the aging hippocampus resulting from masticatory dysfunction differs from reduced activity of other types sensory pathways.
Effects of aging on brain regional activity during chewing. Significant signal increases associated with gum chewing in a young adult subject (A), middle-aged subject (B), and an aged subject (C). Upper section: activated areas superimposed on a template (P<0.05, corrected for multiple comparisons). Lower section: activated regions superimposed on a T1-weighted MRI scan (P<0.01, uncorrected for multiple comparisons). pfa, prefrontal area; sma, supplementary motor area; smc, primary sensorimotor cortex; c, cerebellum; i, insula; t, thalamus. Color scale: t value (degree of freedom=87.12). (Onuzuka et al., 2008, [
Hippocampal activities in young subject. A Task paradigm. B Significant signal increases associated with photograph encoding before and after gum chewing. Hip, hippocampus. Color scale: t value. (Onozuka et al., 2008, [
Hippocampal activities in an aged subject. A, Significant signal increases are associated with photograph encoding before and after gum chewing. Color scale: t value. B, Changes in signal intensity on an image-by image basis for 64 successive images during four cycles of encoding of photographs: brown (without chewing) and pink (with chewing) boxes; plus (+) characters (without boxes) (Onozuka et al., 2008, [
Memory acquisition before and after gum chewing for 2 min. A recall test was carried out 20 min after the encoding experiments. In the recall test, we used 64 photographs at random: 32 of the photographs were repeated from the encoding test, and the other 32 photographs were newly added. The subject had to judge whether each photograph had been seen before. (Onozuka et al., 2008, [
Occlusal disharmony, such as loss of teeth and increases in the vertical dimension of crowns, bridges, or dentures, causes bruxism or pain in the masticatory muscles and temporomandibular joints, and general malaise [30, 31]. Studies in SAMP8 mice also show that occlusal disharmony impairs learning and memory. Using SAMP8 mice, we created a model of occlusal disharmony by raising the bite by approximately 0.1 mm using dental materials, referred to as the bite-raised condition. Animals in the bite-raised condition show age-dependent deficits in spatial learning in the Morris water maze [32-39] (Fig. 6). Raising the bite in aged SAMP8 mice decreases the number of pyramidal cells [34] as well as the number of their dendritic spines [39], and increases hypertrophy and hyperplasia of grail fibrillary acid protein-labeled astrocytes [38] in the hippocampal CA1and CA3 regions, suggesting that occlusal disharmony resulting from the bite-raised condition also enhances aging-related changes in the hippocampus.
In rodents and monkeys, alterations of the bite alignment induced by attaching acrylic caps to the incisors [40-42] or inserting occlusal splints in the maxilla [43, 44] are associated with increases urinary cortisol levels and plasma corticosterone levels, suggesting that occlusal disharmony is also a source of stress. In support of this notion, aged bite-raised SAMP8 mice with learning deficits exhibit marked increase in plasma corticosterone levels [33, 36, 37] and downregulation of hippocampal GR and GR mRNA [33]. The behavioral and morphologic changes observed in animals with occlusal disharmony closely resemble the changes induced by chronic stress and/or long-term exposure to glucocorticoid exposure [23, 100]. The hippocampus is very sensitive to corticosterone [22]. These hippocampal behavioral and morphologic impairments induced by occlusal disharmony are also attenuated by administration of the corticosterone synthesis inhibitor metyrapone [37]. These findings suggest that occlusal disharmony-induced changes in learning behavioral and hippocampal morphology due to increases in the glucocorticoid levels in association with the downregulation of GR and GR mRNA.
Effect of bite-raised condition on spatial learning in the Morris water maze test. The results are expressed as the mean score (mean ± SE, n=6 for each group) of four trials per day. 9m BR, 9-month-old bite-raised mice; 9m Cont, 9-month-old control mice; 5m BR, 5-month-old bite-raised mice; 5m Cont, 5-month-old control mice; 3m BR, 3-month-old bite-raised mice; 3m Cont, 3-month-old control mice. Note that 9-month-old bite-raised mice required a significantly longer time to reach the platform than age-matched controls. (Kubo et al., 2007, [
Occlusal disharmony, like masticatory dysfunction, decreases hippocampal activity resulting from the activity of masticatory organ pathways. In bite-raised aged SAMP8 mice, both induction of Fos in the hippocampus following a learning task [36] and the number of spines in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells are decreased [39]. Further, the bite-raised condition leads to a decreased number of choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons in the septal nucleus, and reduction in extracellular stimulation-induced acetylcholine release [45].
Occlusal disharmony also affects catecholaminergic activity. Altering the bite by placing an acrylic cap on the lower incisors leads to increases in both dopamine and noradrenaline levels in the hypothalamus and/or frontal cortex [40-42], and decreases in tyrosine hydroxylase, GTP cyclohydroxylase I, and serotonin immunoreactivity in the cerebral cortex, caudate nucleus, substantia nigra, locus coeruleus, and nucleus raphe dorsalis [46], which are similar to the changes induced by chronic stress [47]. These changes in the catecholaminergic and serotonergic systems induced by occlusal disharmony likely affect the innervations of the hippocampus. The bite-raised condition impairs neurogenesis and leads to apoptosis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus and decreases the expression of hippocampal brain derived neurotrophic factor, all of which could contribute to the learning impairments observed in animals with occlusal disharmony.
These findings in animal models were extended to humans. In humans, we used a custom-made splint that forced the mandible into a retrusive position and a splint without modification as a control in order to measure BOLD signals during clenching in a malocclusal model [48]. Several regions were activated by clenching, including the premotor cortex, prefrontal cortex, sensorimotor cortex, and insula. In the malocclusion model, which also induces psychologic discomfort, clenching further increased BOLD signals in the anterior cingulate cortex and the amygdala [48]. These findings suggest that clenching under malocclusal conditions induces emotional stress and/or pain-related neuronal processing in the brain.
Together these findings suggest that changes in the hippocampus induced by occlusal disharmony result from increased stress. Occlusal disharmony, like masticatory dysfunction leads to alterations in the central nervous system, especially the hippocampus. Further studies are needed to elucidate differences in the effects of dysfunctional mastication and occlusal disharmony.
The act of chewing, or masticatory stimulation, during stressful conditions may attenuate the effects of stress on cognitive function. To examine the effect of mastication on stress-induced behavioral and morphologic changes, we placed mice in a ventilated plastic restraint tube in which they were only able to move back and forth, but not turn around, to induce restraint stress. Half of mice were given a wooden stick (diameter, ~2mm) to chew during restraint [12]. As mentioned above, the hippocampus plays a crucial role in memory formation and is highly sensitive to aging [49, 50] and stress [51]. Increased plasma corticosterone levels suppress synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus [52] and cell proliferation in the hippocampal dentate gyrus [12] (Fig. 7). Chewing during a stressful event, on the other hand, attenuates stress-induced impairments of plasticity in the hippocampus by activating stress-suppressed N-methyl-D-aspartate- receptor function [53, 54]. Chewing under stress conditions also blocks the stress-induced suppression of cell generation in the hippocampal dentate gyrus [12]. In adults, neurogenesis in the hippocampus is required for hippocampus-dependent learning and memory [55]. Thus, chewing during stress may attenuate stress-induced impairments in cognitive function.
Rodents permitted to chew on a wooden stick during restraint stress showed attenuated restraint-induced increase in plasma corticosterone levels [12] and corticotrophin releasing factor expression [56], c-Fos induction [57], and phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 [58], oxidative stress [59], and nitric oxide [60, 61] in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, compared with controls not provided with a wooden stick. Thus, chewing under stressful conditions appears to attenuate stress-induced increase in plasma corticosterone levels by inhibiting the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal-axis.
Mastication may also activate histamine neurons through the ventromedial hypothalamus and mesencephalic trigeminal sensory nucleus [62]. The histamine system could modulate the activity of the septohippocampal cholinergic system, which is involved in learning and memory [63]. Chewing under stress conditions increases the release of histamine in the hippocampus by activating H1 receptors [64]. Therefore, chewing may induce changes in the amounts of acetylcholine released, thereby attenuating stress-induced impairments in memory function.
In animals that aggressively chew on a wooden stick during immobilization stress, the stress-induced release of noradrenaline in the amygdala [65] and Fos-immunoreactivity in the right medial prefrontal cortex are increased [66], whereas Fos-immunoreactivity in the right central nucleus of the amygdala [66], and the dopamine response in the medial prefrontal cortex are decreased [67]. The prefrontal cortex has a crucial role in several cognitive, affective, and physiologic processes, and the central nucleus of the amygdala regulates dopamine neurotransmission in the medial prefrontal nucleus [60, 61]. These findings suggest that chewing during stressful conditions modulates catecholaminergic neurotransmission in the central nervous system, leading to changes in cognitive function.
Clinical studies have shown that offspring of mothers who suffer social, emotional or hostile experiences displayed enhanced susceptibility to some mental disorders, including depression, schizophrenia and cognitive deficits [68]. Maternal stress is a suggested risk factor for impaired brain developmental and anxiety, depressive-like behavior and learning deficits in rodents pups [69-71], and maternal stress model is often used in studies for depression and cognitive deficits in pups. We recently evaluated whether chewing during maternal restraint stress prevents stress-induced anxiety-like behavior and learning impairment in pups. Pregnant mice were exposed to restraint stress beginning on day 15 and continuing until delivery. Mice were placed in a ventilated plastic restraint tube in which they were only able to move back and forth, but not turn around, to induce restraint stress. Half of the dams were given a wooden stick (diameter, ~2mm) to chew on during the restraint stress. The pups were raised to adulthood and behavioral and morphologic changes were assessed. Restraint stress during pregnancy caused anxiety-like, impaired learning and suppressed cell proliferation in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. Chewing during restraint stress, however, attenuated the anxiety-like behavior, impaired learning, and suppressed cell generation induced by restraint stress. These findings suggest that maternal chewing contributes to prevent stress-induced anxiety-like behavior, learning impairment, and morphologic changes in hippocampus in pups.
Effect of chewing during prenatal stress on learning ability and cell proliferation in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. Spatial learning in the water maze test (A) and BrdU-positive cells (B). The results are expressed as the mean score (mean ± SD, n=6 for each group) of four trials per day (A). The results are presented as the mean ± SD (n=5 for each group). C, control; S, restraint stress; S/C, restraint/chewing. *
In humans, chewing gum alleviates a negative mood, reduces cortisol levels during acute laboratory-induced psychologic stress [72], and reduces perceived levels of daily stress [73]. These findings indicate that the stress response in human is also ameliorated by chewing.
Additional studies are needed to investigate the mechanisms by which aggressive chewing under stress conditions attenuates stress-induced changes to the brain.
Masticatory dysfunction resulting from tooth loss or extraction, feeding on a soft-diet or occlusal disharmony, induces pathologic changes in the hippocampus and deficits in learning and memory. Aggressive biting or chewing activates several regions in the central nervous system, including the right prefrontal cortex, which is strongly involved in learning and memory. Chewing under stressful conditions attenuates stress-induced changes in the brain. These findings together indicate that masticatory function is important for maintaining cognitive function, and chewing during exposure to stress might be a useful method of coping with stress. Chewing gum may thus be a simple method to attenuate or delay the development of dementia and to ameliorate the effects of stress on the brain.
Basically fiber is defined as a unit of substance characterized by flexibility, fineness, length, and thickness. In the order of textile, the fiber basically used have should be sufficiently high-temperature stability, strength, elasticity, and moisture performance. Generally, textile fibers are basically of two categories: natural sources and man-made fibers. They are fibers from natural sources like plants and animals etc. and do not require fiber formation, are categorized as natural fibers. The natural fibers are basically of two categories like cellulose fiber such as flex, hemp, cotton, mineral fiber, and another classes protein fibers are such as silk and wool [1, 2].
Man-made filaments are filaments in which either the introductory chemical units have been formed by chemical conflation followed by fiber conformation or the polymers from natural sources have been dissolved and regenerated after passage through a spinneret to form filaments. Those filaments made by chemical conflation are frequently called synthetic filaments, while filaments regenerated from natural polymer sources are called regenerated filaments or natural polymer filaments [3]. In other words, all synthetic filaments and regenerated filaments are man-made filaments, since man is involved in the factual fiber conformation process [4, 5]. In discrepancy, filaments from natural sources are handed by nature in ready-made form. Basically, man-made fibers contain polyesters, acrylics, polyamides (nylon), vinyls, elastomeric fibers, polyolefins, while the regenerated fibers include rayon, cellulose acetates, the regenerated proteins, glass, and rubber fibers. Basically, this article has the main purpose of all types of textile fibers, gives brief knowledge with specification facts.
In this session, we have described the properties of all kind of fibers, which are commonly viewed as important aspects.
The fineness is very important part of each fiber. The thickness of fiber can be known from its width, diameter, and sectional area. But there are very few fibers that have a completely round sectional area. So it is difficult to get the perfect answer. Therefore, there is a number that shows the ratio of weight against a fixed length or vice versa, the ratio of length against a fixed weight. For example, fineness is indicated by Denier, Tex, or yarn count. The excellence of fiber quality is evaluated from its fineness.
Length is an important characteristic that defines the usefulness of a textile fiber. The length should also be many times its diameter. In general, this would mean that when one talks of fiber length in terms of a few centimeters it has to be a few microns of fiber diameter. The staple length of spinnable fibers is generally not less than 18 mm. Fibers below 5 mm are just not integrated into the yarn. In the case of filament fiber this ratio would be very large and perhaps irrelevant. The cut staple length depends on the spinning system to be used and the fiber it is blended with in case of blends [6].
It is essential that the fabric should be durable enough. For durability, the fabric must be strong enough. The strength of the fabric is more influenced by the strength of the fiber present in the cloth. Basically it indicated strength to resistance constant by fibers, yarns form, and cloths to breakdown when energy is applied to them. The basically is strength parameters like bending, tensile and bursting, etc. according to the direction and application power.
Basically, elasticity performance depends on capability of the garments to the material to area imaginative nature after being deformed by the use of strength. Elasticity or elastic recovery is generally influenced by the extent of stretch, during time which material is kept in its stretched condition, and the time to recover.
It is essential that there should be limited variations in length and diameter between the fibers to fiber. In other words the fiber should be more uniform which will ensure uniformity in the yarn as well as in the fabric.
It indicated that the individual fibers must be capable of being spun into a yarn and then fabric with sufficient strength. For better spinnability the fiber must have better cohesiveness i.e., they must hold together to prevent slippage. The spinnability is normally used for the man-made fiber-developed procedure.
If a fiber is left in the atmosphere, it has the properties of absorbing moisture automatically. The limit of this absorption differs according to the kind of fiber. It differs even in the same fibers according to temperature and relative humidity. Generally, the volume of moisture absorption increases along with the increase of humidity. However, the increment ratio is not always in direct proportion with the increase in humidity.
Fibers are mostly used in raw material for clothing and the purpose of clothing is to decorate. However, the main purpose is to prevent from cold or heat (specially to prevent from clod). The amount of thermal conductivity of fibers is one of the important properties.
The reaction of fibers to chemicals varies a lot according to their types. But generally, nature fibers of vegetable origin are weak in acids and strong in alkalis. Other natural fibers of animal origin are strong in acids and weak in alkalis. The man-made fiber, fibers of the cellulose series are weak in both acid and alkali, whereas synthetic fiber is stable to a certain extent in acid also and alkali also.
All the textile fiber classification is mention in below Table 1.
Natural fibers are those, which are obtained from plants, animals, or minerals.
Among vegetable fibers, the kind of fiber differs according to the part of the tree/shrub, from which it is taken.
For example, collections of fiber growing on the seeds like raw cotton, Kapok, etc. collection of grown as the skin of the plant stem (bast) like flax, ramie, hemp, jute, etc. the collection of fiber from fruit shells like coir fiber (coconut fiber). The out of this most important one is raw cotton and next to it are flax, jute, Manila hemp, and ramie [7, 8].
Raw cotton is being used as a material for clothing for a long and its origin can be traced to 2200 BC. The cotton hair during its growth is almost cylindrical and contains a central canal called is the lumen. When remove from the seed, however the cell collapse into a flat ribbon which forms an irregular spiral band under the influence of light and air.
The cotton fibers are having different lengths. These depend upon the types of soil, weather condition, duration of harvesting the crops, etc. the length of cotton fibers are expressed in the terms of staple length. Very good fibers measure a length of 2 inches. The length of fiber also depends on the fineness of the fibers, longer the fiber finer will be the diameter. The length of cotton fiber varies from 1200 to 1300 times its width.
Kapok is a silky fiber obtained from the pod of kapok tree. The botanical name is Ceiba pentranda of the family Boombacaceae. This tree is grown principally in Java, Africa, Netherlands, and South East Asia, where the soil and hot climate conditions are especially suited for its growth. The fibers are contained in the outer shell, loosely surrounding the seeds and entirely free from the cell. The Kapok fiber has a hollow structure with an external radius of around 8.25 (±4) mm, internal diameter around 7.25 (±4) mm, and length around 25 (±5) mm. Combined with the specific material density of 1.3 g/cm3.
Basically are the bast fiber category in Jute, Flex, Hemp, Ramie, etc. [9].
Jute fiber is moderately strong, lustrous & yellowish-brown in color. It tends to disintegrate in water and has poor elasticity. However, this rigidity becomes virtuous. It is our best bagging material. Jute is difficult to bleach and it cannot be made pure white. It is the most important among all bast fibers. It is 2rd only to cotton in terms of crop polymer. It is easy to be spun but deteriorates when exposed to moisture. It can be converted wool-like fiber by treatment with strong caustic soda. It is highly hygroscopic with moisture regain of 13.75% and moisture content of 12% and the staple length of the fiber varies between 60 and 120 inches. Its color varies from yellow to brown. Generally, fiber is coarser and it is harsh. It is attacked by bacteria when damp. Jute is mixed with wool. Jute cloth is used for covering the cattle during winter because of its thermal insulation properties. It can be used for backing cloth for carpets and in the making of gunny bags, ropes, etc. it can be substituted for plywood also [10, 11].
Flax is also called as linen and many times it is called as linen, when it is turned into yarn or fabric. This is known very well around the world as the oldest of all the cultivated fiber raw materials. Flax is the bast fiber found in the stem of the plant “Linium usitatissium”. The plant is cultivated in cold and humid conditions. So, the plantation is centered in cold countries. The major source of supply of flax is from the old U.S.S.R. the other countries which have flax growing areas are North Ireland, Egypt, Japan, Brazil, France, U.S.A., Australia, Canada, etc. Like jute, flax is an annual plant. The plant from which the fiber extracts grows in moist and cold conditions. The plant grows up to 160 to 170 cm in height and 1.5 cm in diameter. The tree is matured by changing its color from green to yellow. The flax fiber color is yellowish to gray, length 18 to 30 inches, elongation at a break of 2.7 to 3.5%, and moisture regain 10 to 12% [12].
Basically hemp fiber is bast fiber category and similar harvesting process like for the flex fiber. These fibers are thick as compared to flax and darker color, tough to bleach process. This fiber is strong and more durable. The strands of the hemp fiber, approximate length of 6 to 8 feet and fiber length of 1.2 to 2.5 cm. The hemp fiber cross-section is polygonal shape and fiber is very stiff and surrounds considerable lignin. They are hemp fiber to produce for the coarse count cloths like sack material, rope, canvas, etc. Generally, hemp fiber is color yellowish to deep brown and moisture regains 12%. The hemp fiber is very poor elasticity recovery performance [13].
The ramie fiber is also bast fiber categories and generally to known this fiber as a china grass. All produced fiber processes are similar to hemp fiber. The ramie fiber is a white color with more luster and good strength. This fiber is basically used for industrial application and furnishing where rough, irregular clothes are desired. The plant grows to a height of 1 to 3 meters with a diameter of approximately 8 to 20 mm thick. The plant requires a tropical climate, where the winter temperature should be above freezing. This plant is also grown in India Australia, America, Japan, Brazil, etc. Ramie is a perennial fiber, with a yield from two to five crops of fiber per year, which depends upon the soil and climate. Ramie is ready for harvesting when the lower part of the stalk turns light yellowish-brown and the lower leaves matured by turning yellow and detachable. Harvesting is done by cutting the stalks. The physical properties of Ramie fiber exhibited high tenacity, high luster, and brightness. It has resistance to heat, light, acid, and alkali, etc. The ramie fiber is moisture regain used 12% [14, 15].
They basically are used for animal fiber like wool and silk.
Animal hairs are obviously natural clothing material; they protect the body from wind and rain and also soften the extremes of temperature in various climates. A typical hair contains three parts the cuticular layers or epidermis, the fiber layer or cortex, and the pith or medulla. The wool is the haircut and collected from the sheep. Therefore before elaborating about the sheep wool, it is necessary to elaborate a little about the sheep. In the wool market, they are broadly classified into merino variety and crossbred variety. Sometimes only are used for comeback variety [16].
Silk originated from the silkworm which is cultivated in a warm shiny climate and usually employs cheap labor. The silk fabrics comprise the fabrics woven with raw silk and degummed after weaving and the fabrics woven by using the degummed silk yarn. They generally are used raw silk material to make woven cloth in white color. They are dyed on fabric surface plain color or according to consumer demand printed used. There is also a method of degumming and dyeing in which the dye is put into the degumming tank and dyeing is carried out instantaneously with scouring [17, 18].
Tenacity dry 2.8 to 5.2 gpd, tenacity wet 75 to 95% of dry.
Classification natural fibre.
S. No. | Type of fiber | Fiber moisture regain (%) | Fiber density (g/cm3) |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Cotton | 7.5 to 8 | 1.52 |
2. | Kapok | Above 7 | 1.30 |
3. | Jute | 12 to 13.5 | 1.52 |
4. | Flax | 10 to 12 | 1.52 |
5. | Hemp | 12 | 0.83 |
6. | Ramie | 10 to 12 | 1.50 to 1.55 |
7. | Sisal | 11 | 1.46 |
8. | Coconut | 8 to 12 | 1.18 |
9. | Banana | 13 | 1.19 |
10. | Bamboo | 12.7 | 1.1 |
11. | Wool | 12 to 14 | 1.31 |
12. | Silk | 11 | 1.34 |
Natural fiber moisture regains and density specification.
S. No. | Type of fiber | Fiber moisture regain (%) | Fiber density (g/cm3) |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Nylon | 4 | 1.14 |
2. | Polyester | 0.4 | 1.38 |
3. | Polypropylene | 0.01 | 0.769 |
4. | Polyurethane | 1.3 | 1.0 |
5. | Acetate | 6 | 1.32 |
6. | Viscose | 11 to 13 | 1.46 to 1.54 |
7. | Acrylic | 1.5 to 2 | 1.17 |
Man-made fiber moisture regains and density specification.
Generally, fiber identification is of three types microscopy view, burning test, and solubility test [19, 20, 21].
The textile fibers, particularly the natural ones, have typical longitudinal and cross-sectional shapes and therefore can be identified by viewing them under the optical microscope. This technique cannot be used very successfully in the case of man-made fibers, except for a few because their cross-sections can be modified during production. Typical cross-sectional and longitudinal shapes of some of the fibers are given in the following Tables 4 and 5.
S. No. | Fiber | Longitudinal appearance | Cross-sectional shape |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Cotton | Ribbon like Convolutions (twist) that often change direction | Collapsed, bean-shaped, Irregular size, lumen visible |
2. | Flex | Presence of cross marking and nodes. Pointed tips and smooth outline is present | Fiber bundle, fiber exhibit polygonal structure with sharp angles and small central lumen. |
3. | Jute | Poorly defined nodes fiber present in bundles observation spiral elements with cross markings. | Fiber bundles with irregular outline. Fiber exhibit polygonal structure with sharp angles, outline regular in shape with thick circular. |
4. | Hemp | Fiber bundle, cross markings, and nodes present. Smooth and pointed tips | Polygonal with sharply defined angles with small central lumen. |
5. | Ramie | Broad ribbon like fibers and longitudinal striations, rounded tips. | Flattened structure, radical fissures, elongated lumen, and thick walls. |
6. | Gummed Silk | Irregular elliptical Ribbons | Triangular with rounded corners in pairs. |
7. | Degummed silk | Single, smooth, nearly structure less | Triangular cross-section with rounded corners. |
8. | Tussar Silk | Flat irregular ribbons | Very elongated triangles normally separate, with rounded corners. |
9. | Wool | Rough surface scales, medulla or central fiber or core | Round or nearly round, medulla may appear shaped |
Microscopic appearances of the natural fibers.
S. No. | Fiber | Longitudinal appearance | Cross-sectional shape |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Polyester, Nylon and Polypropylene | Rod like smooth profile | Regular, circular |
2. | Acetate, Triacetate | Distinct lengthwise striations | Irregular, serrated |
3. | Acrylic | Broad, indistinct lengthwise striations | Irregular, dog bone shape |
4. | Viscose | Distinct lengthwise striations | Irregular, serrated |
Microscopic appearances of the man-made fibers.
This test is basically identification for fiber smell, bead, and burning behavior performance (Table 6).
S.No. | Fiber | Inflame | Behavior outside the flame | Smell | Residue |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Cotton, Jute, Flex and Viscose | Burns quickly | Continues to burn | Burning like paper | Light gray ash |
2. | Wool | Burn slowly | Self-extinguishing | Burning like hair | Crushable black bead |
3. | Silk | Burn slowly | Self-extinguishing | Burning like hair | Crushable black bead |
4. | Polyester | Melts. Burns slowly | Burns, drips may extinguish because of dripping | Chemical smell. Slightly sweet, chemical odor. | Hard tough light colored bead |
5. | Nylon | Melts. Burns slowly | Burns, drips may extinguish because of dripping | Burning beans like | Hard tough light colored bead |
6. | Acetate | Burn quickly | Continue to burn noncrushable | Acid (hot vinegar) | Hard black bead |
7. | Acrylic | Burn rapidly | Continue to burn | Acid like | Irregular, hard black bead |
8. | Polypropylene | Burn rapidly | Burns continuously | Burning like plastic | Hard tough tan bead |
Burning behavior common fibers.
The solubility of a fiber in the specific chemical component is frequently means of fiber identification (Table 7).
S. No. | Fiber | Solubility |
---|---|---|
1. | Cotton | 75% H2So4 at room temperature |
2. | Wool | Soluble in 5% NaoH at room temperature, soluble in 0.25% sodium hypochlorite solution |
3. | Silk | Soluble in 5% NaoH (Hot) |
4. | Nylon | Soluble in formic acid 85% and M-Cresol |
5. | Polyester | Dissolves in ortho chlorophenol at room temperature, 95°C meta cresol soluble. Concentration 75% H2So4 at room temperature soluble polyester, |
6. | Viscose | Dissolves in sodium zincate solution, 59% Sulfuric acid dissolves |
7. | Acrylic | Dissolves in DMF, DMSO, Ammonium thiocyanate (70% solution at boil) |
8. | Polypropylene | Dissolves in boiling Xylol, floats on water, Meta Xylene (at Boil) |
9. | Acetate | Cold acetone, glacial acetic acid at 25 °C |
10. | Triacetate | Solution in chloroform and methylene dichloride |
Identification of fibers through solubility tests.
In present study has given an overview concept of basically different types of textile fibers, classification fiber, and fiber identification performance knowledge. According to all textile fibers important characteristics view in the following conclusion are drawn:
The overall appearance and luster of a textile can be related to the shape and light-absorbing and scattering characteristics of the individual fiber within the structure.
They are generally man-made and natural source, both fibers are important aspects got in comfort properties like fiber fineness, strength, length, and moisture regain, etc.
A number of fiber end-use properties in textile constructions relate to the esthetic, tactile, and comfort characteristics of the fiber.
Textile fibers is a vast and challenging field in which required functionality can be designed by a suitable choice of raw material, fabric structure, cloths design, and finishes.
Due to the suitable properties of fibers such as cotton, hemp, polyester, elastane, and blends of fibers and filaments, their use in comfort clothing is of paramount importance.
Protection and safety are the important design aspects of garments a fabric, which provides comfort to the wearer by protecting it from adverse weather conditions and also enhances the performance of the selection of fiber.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen authors on the Global Highly Cited Researchers 2018 list",metaDescription:null,metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\\n\\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\\n\\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\\n\\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\\n\\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
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\\n\\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\\n\\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
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\\n\\nLiming Dai 2015-18
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\\n\\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
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\\n\\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\\n\\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
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\\n\\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\\n\\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\\n\\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\\n\\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\\n\\nQi Xie 2016-18
\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\n\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\n\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\n\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
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\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\n\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
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\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
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\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4727,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. 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Specifically, titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been considered as an attractive antimicrobial compound due to its photocatalytic nature and because it is a chemically stable, non-toxic, inexpensive, and Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) substance. Several studies have revealed this metal oxide demonstrates excellent antifungal and antibacterial properties against a broad range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These properties were significantly improved by titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) synthesis. In this chapter, latest developments on routes of synthesis of TiO2 NPs and antimicrobial activity of these nanostructures are presented. Furthermore, TiO2 NPs favor the inactivation of microorganisms due to their strong oxidizing power by free radical generation, such as hydroxyl and superoxide anion radicals, showing reductions growth against several microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Understanding the main mechanisms of antimicrobial action of these nanoparticles was the second main purpose of this chapter.",book:{id:"9521",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A One Health Perspective"},signatures:"Carol López de Dicastillo, Matias Guerrero Correa, Fernanda B. Martínez, Camilo Streitt and Maria José Galotto",authors:[{id:"244902",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez De Dicastillo",slug:"carol-lopez-de-dicastillo",fullName:"Carol Lopez De Dicastillo"},{id:"315494",title:"Mr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Correa",slug:"matias-guerrero-correa",fullName:"Matias Guerrero Correa"},{id:"315495",title:"Ms.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"B. Martínez",slug:"fernanda-b.-martinez",fullName:"Fernanda B. Martínez"},{id:"315496",title:"Mr.",name:"Camilo",middleName:null,surname:"Zuñiga",slug:"camilo-zuniga",fullName:"Camilo Zuñiga"},{id:"315497",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria José",middleName:null,surname:"Galotto",slug:"maria-jose-galotto",fullName:"Maria José Galotto"}]},{id:"65613",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84411",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9283,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"63397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80624",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9277,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"63397",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Lactic Acid Bacteria",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-lactic-acid-bacteria",totalDownloads:2486,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Most starter cultures belong to the lactic acid bacteria group (LAB) and recognized as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). However, LAB may act as intrinsic or extrinsic reservoirs for antibiotic resistance (AR) genes. This fact may not constitute a safety concern itself, as the resistance gene transfer is vertical. Nevertheless, external genetic elements may induce changes that favor the horizontal transfer transmission of resistance from pathogens as well as from the human intestinal microbiota, which represents a severe safety issue. Some genus of AR LAB includes Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus isolated from fermented meat and milk products. Currently, the WHO recommends that LAB used in the food industry should be free of resistance. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to present an overview of the LAB antibiotic resistance and some methods to determine the same.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Yenizey M. Álvarez-Cisneros and Edith Ponce-Alquicira",authors:[{id:"256345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yenizey Merit",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Cisneros",slug:"yenizey-merit-alvarez-cisneros",fullName:"Yenizey Merit Alvarez Cisneros"},{id:"256347",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce-Alquicira",slug:"edith-ponce-alquicira",fullName:"Edith Ponce-Alquicira"}]},{id:"49246",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4726,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"897",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82372",title:"Unlocking the Potential of Ghost Probiotics in Combating Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"unlocking-the-potential-of-ghost-probiotics-in-combating-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104126",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a global concern that requires immediate attention. Major causes of development of antimicrobial resistance in microbial cells are overuse of antimicrobials along the food chain especially in livestock, in preventing infections as well as misuse of antimicrobials by patients. Probiotics could be a viable alternative to antibiotics in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Probiotic strains can act as a complement to antimicrobial therapy, improving antimicrobial function and enhancing immunity. However, there are safety concerns regarding the extensive use of live microbial cells especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include microbial translocation, inhibition of other beneficial microorganisms and development of antimicrobial resistance, among other concerns. Inevitably, ghost probiotics have become the favored alternative as they eliminate the safety and shelf-life problems associated with use of probiotics. Ghost probiotics are non-viable microbial cells (intact or broken) or metabolic products from microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts have biologic activity in the host and confer health benefits. Ghost probiotics exert biological effects similar to probiotics. However, the major drawback of using ghost probiotics is that the mechanism of action of these is currently unknown, hence more research is required and regulatory instruments are needed to assure the safety of consumers.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Abigarl Ndudzo, Sakhile Ndlovu, Nesisa Nyathi and Angela Sibanda Makuvise"},{id:"82178",title:"Managing Antimicrobial Resistance beyond the Hospital Antimicrobial Stewardship: The Role of One Health",slug:"managing-antimicrobial-resistance-beyond-the-hospital-antimicrobial-stewardship-the-role-of-one-heal",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104170",abstract:"Infections caused by micro-organisms affect the health of people and animals, causing morbidity and mortality, with Asia and Africa as the epicenters. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging and re-emerging in nature. Examples include viral hepatitis, Lassa fever, Ebola, yellow fever, tuberculosis, covid-19, measles, and malaria, among others. Antimicrobials have been playing an important role in the treatment of infections by these microbes. However, there has been a development of resistance to these antimicrobials as a result of many drivers. This write-up used secondary data to explore the management of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond the hospital antimicrobial resistance steward using the one health concept. The findings showed AMR to be a transboundary, multifaceted ecosystem problem affecting both the developed and developing countries. It is also one of the top ten global public health threats facing mankind. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in output loss by 2050, about 700,000 deaths a year, and 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050. About 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain AMR. The drivers of AMR are beyond the hospital and hospital AMR stewardship. Therefore, the need for one health concept to manage it.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua, Mathew Bobai and Clement Sokfa Woje"},{id:"81918",title:"Machine Learning for Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Drug Development",slug:"machine-learning-for-antimicrobial-resistance-research-and-drug-development",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104841",abstract:"Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence which combines sophisticated algorithms and data to develop predictive models with minimal human interference. This chapter focuses on research that trains machine learning models to study antimicrobial resistance and to discover antimicrobial drugs. An emphasis is placed on applying machine learning models to detect drug resistance among bacterial and fungal pathogens. The role of machine learning in antibacterial and antifungal drug discovery and design is explored. Finally, the challenges and prospects of applying machine learning to advance basic research on and treatment of antimicrobial resistance are discussed. Overall, machine learning promises to advance antimicrobial resistance research and to facilitate the development of antibacterial and antifungal drugs.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Shamanth A. Shankarnarayan, Joshua D. Guthrie and Daniel A. Charlebois"},{id:"81891",title:"Alternatives to Antibiotics in Semen Extenders Used in Artificial Insemination",slug:"alternatives-to-antibiotics-in-semen-extenders-used-in-artificial-insemination",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104226",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a serious global threat requiring a widespread response. Both veterinarians and medical doctors should restrict antibiotic usage to therapeutic use only, after determining the sensitivity of the causal organism. However, the addition of antibiotics to semen extenders for animal artificial insemination represents a hidden, non-therapeutic use of antimicrobial substances. Artificial insemination for livestock breeding is a huge global enterprise with hundreds of million sperm doses prepared annually. However, reporting of antimicrobial resistance in semen is increasing. This review discusses the consequences of bacteria in semen samples, as well as the effect of antimicrobial substances in semen extenders on bacteria in the environment and even on personnel. Alternatives to antibiotics have been reported in the scientific literature and are reviewed here. The most promising of these, removal of the majority of bacteria by colloid centrifugation, is considered in detail, especially results from an artificial insemination study in pigs. In conclusion, colloid centrifugation is a practical method of physically removing bacteria from semen, which does not induce antibiotic resistance. Sperm quality in stored semen samples may be improved at the same time.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Jane M. Morrell, Pongpreecha Malaluang, Aleksandar Cojkic and Ingrid Hansson"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. 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