Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Antenna measurement techniques are devoted to obtaining the main radiation parameters (radiation pattern, antenna gain, polarization, etc.) in the antenna far-field (FF) region1\n[1] - from the acquisition of the fields radiated by the antenna under test (AUT). Novel methods for antenna measurement [1] and postprocessing techniques [2] are constantly emerging to cope with the requirements needed to provide efficient and accurate characterization of new types of antennas, mainly at high frequency bands. Additionally, antenna diagnostics enables nondestructive inspection of the antennas for detection of design or fabrication failures by means of the analysis of their extremely near fields or their equivalent currents [3–6].
\n
First, antenna measurements were performed in outdoor ranges at FF distances. Those tests were highly affected by weather conditions, interference, and multipath from multiple reflections mainly caused by the floor. Anechoic chamber testing was sooner adopted as the standard method for antenna metrology. Anechoic chambers have an electromagnetic absorber lining to reduce electromagnetic reflections and to control the measurement environment [7].
\n
Advances in fabrication technologies have contributed to the development of new components and antennas at millimeter (mm-) and submillimeter (submm-) wave frequency bands.2\n[1] - At these frequencies, measurement of directive antennas would require extremely large anechoic chambers to fulfill the FF condition. Hence, other types of measurement ranges such as near-field (NF) measurement ranges have been developed to avoid the previous shortcoming [1].
\n
In NF measurement systems, the field is acquired over a surface in the vicinity of the AUT. Planar, cylindrical, or spherical surfaces are the most common acquisition surfaces, with recent extensions to arbitrary geometry [9] or noncanonical domains [10, 11]. The acquired NF can be employed to obtain the FF radiation pattern of the antenna by means of mathematical NF-FF transformations based either in wave expansions [1, 12, 13] or integral equation methods such as the sources reconstruction method (SRM) [3, 9]. Diagnostics applications can also be developed from NF data using backpropagation techniques toward the AUT aperture [1, 13] or the SRM [3, 9]. After several decades of research and development, NF ranges have become the preferred approach for antenna testing.
\n
Special attention must be given to the probe pattern and positioning accuracy [1] as well as to the effects that error sources in NF acquisitions, such as truncation of the measurement plane, cable flexing, stray signals, leakage, etc., can introduce in the FF pattern of the AUT [1, 2, 13, 14].
\n
NF techniques for both NF-FF transformation and antenna diagnostics generally require the knowledge of amplitude and phase of the radiated electric field by the AUT [1–5]. Nevertheless, phase acquisition, particularly at mm- and submm-wave bands, is a challenging task that requires sophisticated and expensive equipment due to the high thermal stability requirements and the effect of the errors, mostly resulting from thermal drift and cable flexing [1, 13–16].
\n
Nowadays research is focused on the development of new measurement systems [17, 18] and techniques that allow reducing the acquisition time and costs and preventing or correcting the effect of errors in NF measurements [2–7, 19]. Among these techniques, amplitude-only measurements, commonly referred to as phaseless or scalar measurements (in contrast to vector, also referred to as complex measurements involving amplitude and phase), are frequently employed due to their multiple advantages such as the use of simpler and less expensive receivers and robustness to errors related to phase acquisition. Amplitude-only techniques can be indistinctly applied to antenna measurements and diagnostics and are divided into two main groups depending on the implementation approach: iterative and noniterative techniques.
\n
On the one hand, most of the iterative techniques [3, 19, 10] are based on the acquisition of the field intensity in two or more surfaces. Then, an iterative process is employed to propagate the field from one surface to another after guessing an initial phase, until certain condition is satisfied for all the surfaces. This kind of technique is popular because they involve minor changes in the measurement setup, nevertheless they can suffer from stagnation and their convergence is strongly related to the first guess solution. On the other hand, and belonging to noniterative techniques, most of the interferometric approaches [5, 20–23] rely on the use of a reference field, previously known in amplitude and phase, used to interfere the field of the AUT and allowing an easy and iteration-free phase retrieval by means of a filtering process in the spectral domain.
\n
Indirect off-axis holography, also known as Leith-Upatnieks holography [24], is an interferometric technique adapted from optical holography to amplitude-only antenna metrology in the early 1970s [25, 26]. During the last years, great efforts have been made to improve aspects such as sampling [22] and overlapping reduction [27] or reference signal calibration [28, 29]. The rest of the chapter is divided as follows: Section 2 contains an introduction to conventional off-axis holography techniques applied to antenna metrology. Novel techniques that allow for the use of synthesized reference waves with mechanical phase shifts [5, 30] will be introduced in Section 3. A new efficient method for amplitude-only characterization of broadband antennas [23] compatible with nonredundant sampling techniques [31] will be described in Section 4. Finally, main conclusions regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the proposed methods will be drawn in Section 5. Numerical validation of the proposed techniques in Sections 3 and 4, performed in Planar NF (PNF) measurement ranges [32, 33], will be given for each method and, thus, although easily translatable to other geometries, formulation will be particularized for planar acquisition systems.
The word holography comes from the Greek words hólos (whole) and gráph\n\n\n\no\n¯\n\n\n\n (written or represented) and was first coined by Gabor in 1948 to define a new technique in the optics field for retrieving the amplitude and phase of an unknown field after recording the intensity of a coherent wave disturbance [34] with a reference field, whose amplitude and phase could be properly characterized. The technique was later adapted by Leith and Upatnieks to use an off-axis reference [24].
\n
The term holography has been subsequently employed in the context of antenna metrology and electromagnetic imaging to refer to another technique in which the phase information is directly acquired with the amplitude and a cable reference is employed (direct holography) [35, 36]. Thus, to avoid confusion, the methods described in this chapter will be referred to as indirect off-axis holography, since the phase is indirectly measured.
\n
\n
2.1. Indirect off-axis holography
\n
Indirect off-axis techniques are based on two-step procedures: (1) recording the intensity of the interference pattern formed by the AUT and the reference field and (2) performing the phase retrieval of the unknown field (AUT’s field) by means of a filtering process of the recorded pattern or hologram in the spectral domain. Conventional setup is usually implemented as shown in \nFigure 1\n employing a radiated reference field [21, 25] that is obtained from a sample of the source by means of a directional coupler. A variable attenuator (or amplifier) is usually included in the AUT or reference branches in order to balance the power between both branches and to increase the dynamic range of the hologram.
\n
Another option is to create a plane reference wave by means of a shaped plane mirror which is employed as the collimator in compact antenna ranges [37]. Nevertheless, correctly shaping the mirror for high frequency indirect holography requires accurate and expensive machining.
\n
The hologram is recorded at each point of the acquisition plane as the squared sum of the fields of the AUT \n\n\n\nE\n\naut\n\n\n\n\n and the reference antenna \n\n\n\nE\n\nref\n\n\n\n\n as:
being \n\n\n\ne\n\naut\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\ne\n\nref\n\n\n\n\n the Fourier transform (FT) of \n\n\n\nE\n\naut\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nE\n\nref\n\n\n,\n\n\n respectively, and \n\n⊗\n\n is the convolution operator.
\n
As it is depicted in \nFigure 2\n, the spectrum of the hologram is composed of four different terms: the two zero-frequency harmonics in the center, known as autocorrelation terms, and the cross-correlation or image terms, which contain shifted and distorted (in case of using a nonplanar wave reference field) information about the complex field of the AUT.
\n
Figure 1.
Basic setup for conventional indirect off-axis holography antenna measurement.
\n
Providing no overlap between the autocorrelation terms and the image term corresponding to \n\n\n\ne\n\naut\n\n\n(\n\n\nk\n→\n\n\n)\n⊗\n\ne\n\nref\n\n*\n\n(\n−\n\n\nk\n→\n\n\n)\n\n\n exists, the latter can be bandpass-filtered as
where \n\n\nΠ\n(\n\n\n\nk\n→\n\n\n1\n\n,\n\n\n\nk\n→\n\n\n2\n\n)\n\n\n is a rectangular window defined by its corners at the spectral points \n\n\n\n\n\nk\n→\n\n\n1\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\n\n\nk\n→\n\n\n2\n\n\n\n to filter the desired image term.
\n
From the filtered term, the unknown field of the AUT can be easily retrieved back in the spatial domain by removing the effect of the complex conjugate of the reference field as
It is relevant to remark that \n\n\n\nE\n\nref\n\n*\n\n(\n\n\nr\n→\n\n\n)\n\n\n is a term whose amplitude usually suffers small changes along the spatial domain and, consequently, Eq. (5) can be evaluated without the risk of divisions by zero.
\n
Quality of the phase retrieval will mostly depend on the degree of overlapping between the autocorrelation and cross-correlation terms, which for radiated reference fields is related to the off-axis position of the reference antenna, as it will be addressed next.
\n
At this point it is worth noting two facts: first, the retrieved field corresponds to one of the tangential components of the electric field. In order to obtain the FF pattern of the AUT, both tangential fields are needed [1] and, thus, the process has to be repeated after turning the AUT \n\n\n\n\n90\n\n∘\n\n\n\n to acquire the other component [23]. Second, for the sake of simplicity, the offset of the reference antenna has only been introduced in the x-axis (as shown in \nFigure 1\n) without loss of generality.
\n
\n
2.1.1. Overlapping control: off-axis reference and sampling requirements
\n
Central position of the image terms is defined by the off-axis angle of the reference antenna as
being \n\n\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n the propagation vector in vacuum, defined as \n\n\n\nk\n0\n\n=\n2\nπ\n/\nλ\n\n\n, with \n\nλ\n\n the wavelength of the fields, and \n\n\n\nθ\nr\n\n\n\n the off-axis angle formed by the reference antenna and the normal to the acquisition plane (see \nFigure 1\n).
\n
According to Ref. [1], the maximum spatial bandwidth3\n[1] - of a radiated field in a planar acquisition is \n\n\n\nW\nk\n\n=\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n. On the other hand, since the autocorrelation terms are the FT of a squared field, their bandwidth doubles the bandwidth of the original field [21, 28, 38] and, thus, the no overlapping condition is given by
Nevertheless, due to the limitations imposed by the topology of the setup, the maximum off-axis angle is limited to \n\n\n\n\n90\n\n∘\n\n\n\n, yielding a maximum value of \n\n\n\nk\n\nr\n,\nx\nmax\n\n\n=\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n. Therefore, although overlapping can be reduced by employing certain techniques (e.g., filtering after backpropagation of the planar wave spectrum (PWS) of the hologram toward the aperture or employing the so-called modified hologram, described later), it cannot be completely avoided in these setups with radiated reference waves.
\n
On the other hand, sampling in the spatial domain is related to the extension of the k-space and has to be carefully selected in order to avoid aliasing. According to the Nyquist theorem, the extension of the k-space is related to the sampling step \n\n\nΔ\nx\n\n\n by Ref. [12]:
\n
\n\n\n\n\nk\ns\n\n=\n\nπ\n\nΔ\nx\n\n\n\n\n\n\nE8
\n
As previously mentioned, the image terms are centered in \n\n\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n (\n\n\n\nk\n\nr\n,\nx\n\n\n=\n\nk\n\nr\n,\nx\nmax\n\n\n\n\n) and have a bandwidth of \n\n\n\nW\nk\n\n=\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n, yielding a total extension of \n\n\n\nk\ns\n\n=\n2\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n. Therefore, sampling in the spatial domain can be calculated from Eq. (8) as
In practice, the off-axis angle is lower than \n\n\n\n\n90\n\n∘\n\n\n\n and the sampling step can be slightly larger. Furthermore, overlapping degree varies depending on the type of reference antenna and the measured AUT. Directive antennas have narrower spectra [28] and the part of the spectrum associated to the squared signals often decays faster as it is computed for the convolution of two signals of bandwidth \n\n\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n [5].
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.2. Modified hologram
\n
The modified hologram technique was first employed for setups with radiated reference fields in Refs. [21, 38] and successively adapted for synthesized reference fields (see Section 2.3) in Refs. [27–29]. The technique consists in the removal of the autocorrelation terms of the hologram prior to the filtering process and can be implemented by means of two different approaches. First of them requires an extra measurement to characterize the amplitude of \n\n\n\nE\n\naut\n\n\n\n\n (the amplitude of \n\n\n\nE\n\nref\n\n\n\n\n is a priori known) [21, 23, 29, 30, 39]. Second approach, commonly known as opposite-phase holography [28, 40], introduces a hybrid-T component in the setup, which provides simultaneously the complete hologram in the sum port and the autocorrelation terms in the difference port. Another approach, used in imaging applications, is to increase the reference level several times above the level of the AUT’s field in order to reduce the autocorrelation terms of the hologram [41, 42].
\n
Thanks to the removal of the autocorrelation terms, separation between the image terms can be reduced, meaning that physical separation between the AUT and the reference antenna can also be reduced yielding the following advances:
\n
Overlapping is diminished and thus quality of the phase retrieval is improved.
The extension of the k-space can also be reduced, involving larger sampling steps and less acquisition time [21, 28].
Since the antennas can be placed close to each other and the off-axis angle can be reduced, the size of the setup is decreased and the paths of the reference and AUT fields are similar, resulting in less sensitive setups to scanning errors and source instability [21, 43].
\n
Another advantage of this technique is that since the intensity of \n\n\n\nE\n\naut\n\n\n\n\n is measured, the final field can be composed with the measured amplitude and the retrieved phase rather than retrieving both, amplitude and phase, from the interferometric pattern as supposed so far. Thus, the quality of the phase retrieval is improved.
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Main disadvantage for the modified hologram technique is that an extra measurement for the characterization of the amplitude of the AUT is required.
\n
\n
\n
2.3. Synthesized reference field off-axis holography
\n
Main differences between optical and microwave holography are stated in Ref. [27]. One of the most important remarks is that in microwave (and mm- and submm-wave bands) the hologram can be (coherently) recorded by scanning the probe across the acquisition plane, meaning that, instead of using radiated reference waves, they can be electronically synthesized and added to the field of the AUT.
\n
Conventional approach to implement synthesized wave setups is schematically shown in \nFigure 3\n. A plane wave is synthesized by means of a phase shifter by cyclically modifying the phase of the sample of the field in the output of the directional coupler for each point of the acquisition plane. The synthesized wave is added to the acquired field of the AUT by means of a power combiner in the receiver’s end.
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In synthesized reference wave setups, position of the image terms is no longer related to the physical position of the reference antenna but to spatial sampling and the phase shifts \n\n\nΔ\nφ\n\n\n, between each point of the acquisition plane, and can be defined as:
The use of electrically synthesized waves removes the limitation imposed by the off-axis angle and makes possible to displace the image terms to the nonvisible part of the spectrum defined by \n\n\n\nk\nx\n2\n\n+\n\nk\ny\n2\n\n<\n\nk\n0\n2\n\n\n\n [1].
\n
Considering the nonoverlapping condition imposed in Eq. (7), the sampling step has to be selected depending on the value of the introduced phase shifts, which are typically selected as \n\n\nπ\n/\n2\n\n\n, \n\n\n2\nπ\n/\n3\n\n\n, or \n\n\n3\nπ\n/\n4\n\n\n, yielding sampling steps of \n\n\nλ\n/\n4\n\n\n, \n\n\nλ\n/\n6\n\n\n, or \n\n\nλ\n/\n8\n\n\n, respectively [5, 28, 29].
\n
This technique has several advantages:
\n
Overlapping can be controlled by selecting the phase shifts and the corresponding sampling rate.
Modified hologram approaches can also be applied, thus sampling rate can also be relaxed.
Since the reference wave is synthesized, it is not necessary to previously characterize it in amplitude and phase and its analytical expression can be employed in Eq. (5) for the phase retrieval. Hence, completely scalar acquisitions are made. Nevertheless, the nonideal behavior of the phase shifter and the rest of the components introduce modulations in the signal and, thus, its characterization is recommended [44].
\n
However, synthesized reference field indirect off-axis holography also presents the following limitations:
\n
The sampling rate has to be increased in order to displace the image terms to the nonvisible part of the spectrum and to extend its limits. Thus, the acquisition time is increased and so it is the required system stability.
The increased sampling step can also be a problem at mm- and submm-wave bands if too dense sampling grids are required, due to the positioning accuracy of the system.
Two new components have to be included in the setup which can also pose a problem at high frequency bands due to the cost and complexity of those types of devices.
\n
\n
\n
2.4. Main drawbacks and limitations of indirect off-axis holography
\n
Despite the multiple advantages of conventional indirect off-axis techniques versus complex field measurements, such as robustness and cost reduction [21, 43], and also versus other amplitude-only techniques based on iterative approaches, conventional indirect off-axis techniques exhibit several limitations, which are summarized next:
\n
The reference field needs to be characterized in amplitude and phase at least once, and thus, the technique cannot be implemented only by means of scalar acquisitions since an initial vector calibration is required. Nevertheless, the use of synthesized waves [28, 29, 40] solves this problem, since the phase can be obtained analytically. Other methods to avoid the phase acquisition of the reference antenna such as the use of well-known antennas whose phase behavior can be modeled have also been proposed [21, 45].
Setups based on synthesized waves solve the previous drawback and also allows to control overlapping of the image terms. However, implementation of this type of setups involves the use of more radiofrequency (RF) components, i.e., phase shifters and power combiners. Implementation of these types of devices is not trivial at high frequency bands and the cost of the system can be highly increased.
In addition, as shown in \nFigure 3\n, the reference signal has to be conveyed from the output of the directional coupler and phase shifter to the power combiner, located at the receiver’s end. Nevertheless, high frequency equipment (e.g., over \n\n\n110\n\n\n\n\nGHz) usually requires the use of waveguide sections to convey the signal. In general, these waveguides cannot be arbitrarily bent. Other choice is to convey, by means of flexible cables, a low-frequency signal as reference and, at the end of the cable, resort to a frequency multiplier. However, this approach can suffer from phase inaccuracies due to cable flexing and temperature drift; also the use of frequency multipliers can increase the cost of the measurement system.
The use of the modified hologram technique can alleviate the dense sampling demanded at the expenses of an extra measurement for the characterization of the amplitude of the AUT.
Conventional indirect off-axis holography is a monochromatic technique. Thus, its use for broadband antennas characterization might be unfeasible if each frequency analysis requires an independent spatial acquisition.
\n
Other phase retrieval approaches have been proposed in order to overcome the dense sampling requirements. In Refs. [41] and [46], a new approach, known as phase-shifting, derived from digital inline microscopy, employs three different holograms recorded after introducing phase shifts in the reference field to perform the phase retrieval in the spatial domain; in this case, the phase can be retrieved point-by-point. The method presented in Ref. [47] for a bistatic imaging setup can also be directly employed in antenna measurement setups. In this case, the phase retrieval is performed by solving a set of equations formed by the modified hologram expression and the expression that relates \n\n\n∥\n\nE\n\naut\n\n\n(\n\n\nr\n→\n\n\n)\n\n∥\n2\n\n\n\n to its real and imaginary parts. For both cases the phase is retrieved directly in the spatial domain and, therefore, a sampling rate of \n\n\nλ\n/\n2\n\n\n can be used. An added advantage is that there is no restriction in the position of the reference antenna.
\n
Figure 2.
Schematic representation of the spectrum of the hologram for an off-axis angle in the x-axis.
\n
Figure 3.
Conventional setup for synthesized wave off-axis holography.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Indirect off-axis holography with mechanical phase shifts
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In order to overcome some of the above-mentioned limitations of conventional techniques, two methods allowing either to substitute the phase shifter for mechanical displacements or to control the position of the image terms in setups with radiated reference waves are described in this section.
\n
\n
3.1. Synthesized reference field by means of mechanical shifts
\n
As mentioned before, main advantages of the use of synthesized reference waves are overlapping control of the image terms and that the reference field can be analytically obtained by means of a phase shifter from a sample of the field. Nevertheless, phase shifters can increase the cost of the measurement system or simply not be available for a specific frequency band.
\n
The proposed method aims for the substitution of the phase shifter (see \nFigure 3\n) with mechanical displacements of the probe to create the interference-like pattern. The reference branch will provide a constant sample of the source added to the field recorded by the probe by means of a power combiner.
\n
The expression of the hologram in Eq. (2) can be particularized for the case of using synthesized plane waves (\n\n\n\nE\n\nref\n\n\n(\n\n\nr\n→\n\n\n)\n=\nA\n\ne\n\n−\nj\n\nk\n0\n\nr\n\n\n\n\n) as:
On the other hand, the recorded hologram, over a planar conventional acquisition grid, in the setup of \nFigure 3\n, when no phase shifter is employed, could be expressed in the following way:
where \n\nC\n\n is the constant reference level added to the power combiner.
\n
If small mechanical displacements \n\n\n\n\nd\n→\n\n\n=\nd\n\n\nr\n→\n\n\n/\n|\n|\n\n\nr\n→\n\n\n\n\n|\n|\n\n2\n\n\n\n are added between each of the points of that conventional acquisition grid, the field of the AUT can be approximated in those new points, disregarding the amplitude variation and taking into account only the phase change by
Therefore, if the mechanical displacements are selected so that the term \n\n\n\ne\n\n−\nj\n\nk\n0\n\nd\n\n\n\n\n in Eq. (13) introduces appropriate phase shifts, the use of phase shifters can be avoided.
\n
The new grid will be a three-dimensional layered grid with as many layers as number of considered phase shifts \n\n\n\nN\nφ\n\n=\n2\nπ\n/\nΔ\nφ\n\n\n. \n\n\n\nN\nφ\n\n\n\n is fixed together with the sampling rate to control the position of the image terms of the hologram, see Eq. (10), and of course, the modified hologram technique (Section 2.2) can also be applied.
\n
\n\nFigure 4\n shows two different views of the measurement grid generated for the experimental validation of the setup presented next. For those examples, the mechanical displacements are selected to introduce a phase shift of \n\n\nπ\n/\n2\n\n\n and thus, \n\n\n\nN\nφ\n\n=\n4\n\n\n, as it can be clearly seen in \nFigure 4(a)\n. \nFigure 4(b)\n shows the top view of the grid in which the cyclically repeated pattern can be observed. The orange dots represent the top layer with regular sampling of \n\n\nλ\n/\n2\n\n\n, whereas the blue ones are those corresponding to the modified points introduced to generate the phase shifts, yielding a final sampling step of \n\n\nλ\n/\n8\n\n\n. The solid line interconnecting the dots indicates the sweep direction. The grid creation process can equivalently be seen as a modification of \n\n\n\nN\nφ\n\n−\n1\n\n\n of every \n\n\n\nN\nφ\n\n\n\n points in the sweep axis of a regular grid to introduce the desired phase shifts.
\n
For the phase retrieval, there are two different options: (i) either Eq. (4) is transformed back to the spatial domain and only the points corresponding to the top layer of the grid are selected, or (ii) the field is retrieved as in Eq. (5) analytically modeling the phase of the reference field. A compensation for the \n\n\n\ne\n\n+\nj\n\nk\n0\n\nr\n\n\n\n\n term introduced in the modified acquisition points (see Eq. (13)) has to be considered for the latter case.
\n
Despite the approximation in Eq. (13), it is only valid in the FF of the AUT, the maximum phase shift that can be considered is \n\nπ\n\n. This phase shift is associated to a displacement of \n\n\nλ\n/\n2\n\n\n, which does not have an influence in the amplitude level; therefore, as it will be proven in the experimental validation, the method provides good results when applied to NF acquisitions.
\n
\n
3.1.1. Experimental validation in the Ku-band for antenna measurement and diagnostics
\n
A small \n\n\n15\n\n\n\n\ndB standard gain horn (SGH) antenna is characterized at \n\n\n15\n\n\n\n GHz. The measurements are repeated for the case in which a metallic plate blocks part of the antenna aperture as shown in \nFigure 5\n. In order to perform antenna diagnostics, in both cases, the retrieved field on the measurement plane is backpropagated to the aperture plane of the AUT. The setup is equivalent to those for imaging applications measured in transmission [41, 45].
\n
The regular acquisition grid is a XY rectangular grid of \n\n\n700\n\n\n\n\nmm × \n\n\n700\n\n\n\n\nmm with \n\n\n10\n\n\n\n\nmm sampling (\n\n\nλ\n/\n2\n\n\n at \n\n\n15\n\n\n\n\nGHz) in the y-axis and \n\n\n2.5\n\n\n\n\nmm (\n\n\nλ\n/\n8\n\n\n) in the x-axis, placed at \n\n\n\nz\n0\n\n=\n620\n\n\n\n\nmm of the aperture of the AUT. As \n\n\nπ\n/\n2\n\n\n phase shifts are being considered, three more layers of modified points, as shown in \nFigure 4\n, are considered, being the sampling step considering all the points in the y-axis also of \n\n\nλ\n/\n8\n\n\n.
\n
Figure 4.
Three-dimensional acquisition grid for the proposed method. Note that a different scale has been used for all the axes: (a) complete grid and (b) detail of the top view.
\n
If Eq. (10) is applied for the proposed configuration, the central position of the image terms is \n\n\n±\n2\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n. \nFigure 6(a)\n shows the recorded NF hologram while its spectrum is shown in \nFigure 6(b)\n. Since the sweep (and the phase shifts) is made along the y-axis direction, the image terms will appear shifted in the \n\n\n\nk\ny\n\n\n\n axis of the spectrum. The abrupt decay of the autocorrelation terms makes possible to correctly filter the desired image term between \n\n\n0.4\n\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n3.6\n\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n, and correctly retrieve the field of the AUT.
\n
The retrieved amplitude and phase of the acquired NF are shown in Figure 7(a)\n and, respectively, for the case in which the horn is not blocked. The backpropagated field in the aperture is shown in \nFigure 7(c)\n together with the size of the aperture. The retrieved amplitude and phase for the case of the blocked aperture are shown in \nFigure 7(d)\n and. Some discrepancies with respect to the first case can be observed and when the field is backpropagated to the aperture of the AUT, \nFigure 7(f)\n, the blockage can be clearly detected.
\n
Thus, the proposed method can be successfully applied to antenna measurement and diagnostics with equivalent results to the conventional indirect off-axis method with synthesized reference wave.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Multiplexed holograms with radiated reference field
\n
As explained in Section 2.4, setups with synthesized reference waves for antenna characterization are challenging at high frequency bands, being necessary to resort to setups with radiated reference waves [21, 30]. The main limitation of these setups is that the position of the image terms is determined by the off-axis angle of the reference antenna, see Eq. (6), and will always be below \n\n\n±\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n, that is, in the visible part of the spectrum. This separation might not be enough to avoid overlapping for certain types of antennas such as nondirective antennas, which have wider spectra [28]. Overlapping can also be observed when the level in the AUT branch is higher than the reference level, due to the differences between the level of the autocorrelation and image terms [30].
\n
The previously presented technique with mechanical phase shifts of the probe cannot be applied when radiated reference waves are employed because the displacements of the probe antenna will introduce the phase shifts in both the reference and the AUT fields, leading to an erroneous approach of the off-axis holography technique.
\n
In order to control the position of the image terms and displace it to the nonvisible part of the spectrum as with synthesized reference waves, this subsection describes a new method for the case of using radiated reference waves. The method consists in multiplexing two subsampled holograms, Eq. (1), obtained from two \n\n\n\n\n180\n\n∘\n\n\n\n phase-shifted reference waves. The phase shift can be generated by means of a phase shifter or displacing the reference antenna a distance of \n\n\nλ\n/\n2\n\n\n.
\n
The first subsampled hologram, blue grid in \nFigure 8(a)\n, is acquired in a grid with \n\n\n2\nΔ\nx\n\n\n and \n\n\nΔ\ny\n\n\n sampling. The samples are stored in the odd columns of the multiplexed hologram. Then, a displacement of \n\n\nλ\n/\n2\n\n\n is introduced in the reference antenna and the second subsampled hologram, which is stored in the even columns of the multiplexed hologram (orange grid in \nFigure 8(b)\n) is acquired over a grid identical to the first one but with an offset of \n\n\nΔ\nx\n\n\n.
\n
By combining the two subsampled holograms with \n\n\n\n\n180\n\n∘\n\n\n\n phase-shifted references, the amplitude of the final hologram remains almost unchanged with respect to a hologram acquired in the complete grid, while the phase steps of the reference field (\n\n\nΔ\nφ\n\n\n) in the acquisition plane will be increased by a factor of \n\nπ\n\n (see Ref. [30] for a step-by-step proof), leading to the following position of the image terms (see Eqs. (8) and (10)):
Two replicas of the image terms of the hologram appear at a distance of \n\n\n\nk\ns\n\n=\n\nπ\n\nΔ\nx\n\n\n\n\n of the original image terms as shown in \nFigure 8(b)\n. The replicas are in the nonvisible part of the spectrum, shaded in gray, and have the same information than the original image terms, which are overlapped with the autocorrelation terms. Hence, the field can be retrieved by filtering the desired replica without the need to resort to the modified hologram technique. It has been demonstrated that if the reference field is a plane wave, the original terms are completely canceled allowing a cleaner filtering [30].
\n
Position of the image terms depends on the off-axis angle of the reference antenna, Eq. (6). A common option to convey the reference signal in holography setups is to use mirror reflection (see \nFigure 9\n). This option has multiple advances since it is possible to increase the path of the reference field and interfere with a quasi-plane wave. Furthermore, by modifying the position and orientation of the reflector it is possible not only to control the off-axis angle but also to modify the shape of the pattern of the reference field in the acquisition plane, which also influences the shape and the width of the image terms and their replicas in the k-space.
\n
\n
3.2.1. Corrections
\n
Two small corrections have to be applied to the retrieved field to compensate the effect that the high frequency replicas introduce in the retrieved field. First, the retrieved phase is contaminated with high frequency noise that can be eliminated by low-pass filtering. Second, since only a fraction of the spectral density of the image term is being considered (the replica), the retrieved amplitude of the AUT is slightly smaller than the one directly acquired. A correction factor can be obtained from the analysis of the reference field, which is known. The spectrum of the reference field is filtered using the same filter that will be used to filter the image term of the complete hologram; then, that filtered part is transformed back to the spatial domain and its amplitude level is compared to the initial amplitude of the reference field. The difference can be used as a correction factor for the retrieved amplitude of the AUT.
The measurement setup shown in \nFigure 9\n has been implemented for the experimental validation of the method. A \n\n\n64\n\n\n\n\nmm circular lens fed with a horizontally polarized WR10 open-ended waveguide (OEWG) is characterized at \n\n\n94\n\n\n\n\nGHz. A \n\n\n20\n\n\n\n\ndB SGH is employed as reference antenna. A plane metallic mirror with a tilt of \n\n\n\n\n22\n\n∘\n\n\n\n is placed at \n\n\n270\n\n\n\n\nmm of the aperture of the reference antenna and used to direct the reference field toward the acquisition plane, at \n\n\n200\n\n\n\n\nmm of the AUT.
\n
The NF is acquired for a \n\n\n200\n\n\n\n\nmm cut at \n\n\ny\n=\n0\n\n\n with \n\n\nλ\n/\n2\n\n\n sampling for the first position of the mirror. Then, the mirror is displaced \n\n\nλ\n/\n2\n\n\n toward the acquisition plane by means of a micropositioner and the second subsampled hologram is acquired. Direct acquisition of the phase and acquisition with conventional off-axis holography with \n\n\nλ\n/\n4\n\n\n sampling have also been made to compare the results to those obtained with the proposed method.
\n
\n\nFigure 10(a)\n shows the hologram for the proposed method and for conventional indirect off-axis holography. An off-axis angle of \n\n\n\n\n22\n\n∘\n\n\n\n produces two image terms centered in \n\n\n±\n0.38\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n and two replicas at \n\n\n∓\n2.38\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n, which means that, in the \n\n\n[\n−\n2\n\nk\n0\n\n,2\n\nk\n0\n\n]\n\n\n interval, the replicas are swapped and centered at \n\n\n∓\n1.64\n\nk\n0\n\n\n\n, as it can be clearly seen. While the replicas for the proposed method can be filtered, there is some overlapping between the image term and the autocorrelation terms for the conventional case. This is due to the high amplitude level of the AUT, which produces a large autocorrelation term, highly above the level of the image terms of the spectrum.
\n
\n\nFigure 10(b)\n depicts the error of the phase retrieval process calculated as
where \n\n\n\n\nE\n\n\n\nm\ne\na\ns\nu\nr\ne\nd\n\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\n\nE\n\n\n\nr\ne\nt\nr\ni\ne\nv\ne\nd\n\n\n\n\n\n are vectors containing the samples of the measured (with amplitude and phase) and the retrieved field (from amplitude-only acquisitions) at the acquisition points, and \n\n\n∥\n⋅\n\n∥\n2\n\n\n\n denotes the Euclidean norm. Due to the overlapping with the autocorrelation term, the mean error of the conventional method is \n\n\n32.8\n%\n\n\n while the error achieved with the proposed method is only of \n\n\n5.70\n%\n\n\n.
\n
\n\nFigure 11(a)\n shows the retrieved amplitude in the acquisition plane with both methods compared to the amplitude directly acquired, whereas in \nFigure 11(b)\n the same data are shown for the phase. It can be clearly observed that, while with the proposed method, the retrieved amplitude and phase are in very good agreement with the data from the direct acquisition the retrieved fields with the conventional method exhibit some discrepancies, especially in the areas with larger error (see \nFigure 10(b)\n) due to the overlapping of the spectrum.
\n
Figure 5.
Ku band SGH with blocked aperture.
\n
Figure 6.
(a) Recorded hologram in the modified three-dimensional grid, normalized amplitude in dB. (b) Spectrum of the hologram, normalized amplitude in dB.
\n
Figure 7.
Retrieved NF of the AUT without blocking metallic plate (a)–(c) and with blocking metallic plate (d)–(f): (a) and (d) normalized amplitude in dB, (b) and (e) phase in degrees, and (c) and (f) backpropagation of the retrieved field toward the aperture, normalized amplitude in dB.
\n
Figure 8.
(a) Spatial multiplexation of the subsampled grids for the hologram formation. (b) Spectrum of the hologram for the proposed method for an example with \n\n\nΔ\nx\n=\nλ\n/\n6\n\n\n sampling.
\n
Figure 9.
Measurement setup for the lens antenna characterization at 94 GHz. Rear view.
\n
Figure 10.
(a) Spectrum of the hologram and filtering windows, normalized amplitude in dB and (b) percentual error of the phase retrieval.
\n
Figure 11.
(a) Amplitude of the AUT, normalized in dB and (b) phase of the AUT in degrees.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Broadband indirect off-axis holography
\n
Previous techniques are monochromatic techniques that might not be suitable for characterization of broadband antennas, for whose measurement it is usual to resort to time-domain (TD) techniques [48, 49].
\n
The herein presented technique is an extrapolation of conventional off-axis holography that allows for efficient characterization of broadband antennas by means of amplitude-only acquisitions. Although the data acquisition and phase retrieval are different to the previous methods, as they are carried out in the TD, the physical layout of the elements is identical to the one already presented in \nFigure 1\n. This layout is presented in \nFigure 12(a)\n again in order to define some relevant distances that will be discussed later.
\n
Figure 12.
Broadband indirect off-axis holography: (a) layout of the measurement setup and (b) spectrum of the modified hologram.
\n
During the acquisition process, a frequency sweep is made for each point of the spatial grid and the hologram is acquired over the studied frequency band, Eq. (17); then the spectrum is computed in the TD by means of an inverse FT, Eq. (18):
The subindex \n\nt\n\n in the \n\n\nF\nT\n\n\n indicates that the spectrum is computed in the TD.
\n
This allows to retrieve one of the components of the tangential field in the acquisition plane, in order to obtain the FF of the AUT, as in the previous methods, the second tangential component also needs to be retrieved for NF-FF transformation. To do that, the process has to be repeated after a turn of \n\n\n\n\n90\n\n∘\n\n\n\n of the AUT to change the acquired polarization.
\n
Main advantages of this method are that position of the image terms can be controlled with the distance between the AUT and the reference antenna, the physical length of the AUT and reference branches, and the separation between the antennas and the acquisition plane, as it will be addressed next. Furthermore, as the phase is retrieved point-by-point in the spatial grid, the technique is compatible with array thinning techniques that allow to drastically reduce the number of acquisition points with the consequent time reduction [22, 31, 50].
\n
On the other hand, the method also presents some disadvantages. As in conventional indirect off-axis holography, the reference antenna has to be previously known in amplitude and phase, also all the components of the setup, mainly the AUT, must be broadband; otherwise their time responses will be spread and may cause overlapping in the spectrum of the recorded hologram [23].
\n
\n
4.1. Main parameter constraints
\n
As in the previous methods, quality of the retrieved fields depends on how clean the filtering process is. Since the spectrum of the hologram is computed in the TD, position of the image terms is dependent on the starting times of the signals coming from the AUT \n\n\n\nt\n\naut\n\n\n\n\n and from the reference antenna \n\n\n\nt\n\nref\n\n\n\n\n, and thus, it can be controlled with the distance and the length \n\n\n\nL\n\neff\n\n\n\n\n of the transmission lines employed in the setup.
\n
In order to avoid overlapping two main restrictions have to be fulfilled:
\n
The length of the elements in the reference branch must be selected so that the image terms of the spectrum are swapped, \n\n\n\nt\n\naut\n\n\n−\n\nt\n\nref\n\n\n+\nΔ\nτ\n<\n0\n\n\n. Thus, the desired term can be easily filtered, as shown in \nFigure 12(b)\n.
In terms of the distances between elements in the setup, as defined in \nFigure 12(a)\n, the previous condition yields the following expression considering the worst-case scenario (points in the corners of the acquisition plane closer to the reference antenna for whose \n\n\n\nt\n\nref\n\n\n>\n\nt\n\naut\n\n\n\n\n):
4.2. Numerical validation for the characterization of a horn antenna in the Ka-band
\n
For the numerical validation of the method, a \n\n\n25\n\n\n\n\ndB SGH is characterized in the Ka-band from \n\n\n26.5\n\n\n\n to \n\n\n40\n\n\n\n\nGHz. The physical layout is shown in \nFigure 13\n. The acquisition plane is a square grid of \n\n\n300\n\n\n\n\nmm side with spatial sampling of \n\n\n3.7\n\n\n\n\nmm in both directions, that is, \n\n\nλ\n/\n2\n\n\n at \n\n\n40\n\n\n\n\nGHz, and is located at a distance of \n\n\nD\n=\n260\n\n\n\n\nmm of the aperture of the AUT. A \n\n\n15\n\n\n\n\ndB horn is employed as reference antenna placed at \n\n\nL\n=\n200\n\n\n\n\nmm from the center of the aperture of the AUT with an off-axis angle of \n\n\n\nθ\nr\n\n=\n\n\n37.5\n\n∘\n\n\n\n. A coaxial cable of \n\n\n\nL\n\neff\n\n\n≈\n48\n\n\n\ncm is employed to connect the directional coupler to the reference antenna.
\n
Figure 13.
Setup for the 25 dB SGH antenna characterization in the Ka-band.
\n
\n\nFigure 14(a)\n shows the modified hologram for the three points highlighted in \nFigure 12(a)\n. The position of the image terms varies depending on the position of the probe in the acquisition plane. \nFigure 14(b)\n shows a detail of the retrieved phase in the central part of the frequency band for the worst-case scenario. Apart from some \n\n\n\n\n180\n\n∘\n\n\n\n phase shifts, the agreement between the retrieved and directly measured phase is almost complete. Finally, \nFigure 14(c)\n depicts the error computed as in Eq. (16). Mean value of the error in the complete frequency band is \n\n\n2.24\n%\n\n\n. The large values above \n\n\n37\n\n\n\n\nGHz are due to the signal level of the reference antenna, which decays in that part of the band.
\n
Figure 14.
Phase retrieval process: (a) spectrum of the modified hologram for three different acquisition points, (b) detail of the retrieved phase in the central frequency band, and (c) error for the phase retrieval in the complete frequency band.
\n
The retrieved phase in the acquisition plane at \n\n\n30\n\n\n\n\nGHz is shown in \nFigure 15\n compared to the phase directly acquired at that frequency. For this frequency, the error of the phase retrieval is \n\n\n0.25\n%\n\n\n; thus, the retrieved phase is practically identical to the measured one.
\n
Figure 15.
Retrieved phase of the AUT at 30 GHz compared to the direct measurement: (a) directly acquired phase in the NF, degrees, and (b) retrieved phase, degrees.
\n
After the phase is retrieved simultaneously for all the frequencies at each point of the acquisition plane, conventional NF-FF transformation and backpropagation techniques can be applied for the computation of the FF pattern and the fields in the aperture of the AUT [1]. \nFigure 15(a)\n shows the copolar pattern of the FF at \n\n\n30\n\n\n\n\nGHz, while the \n\n\n\nE\nx\n\n\n\n component of the field in the aperture is shown in \nFigure 15(b)\n. The black rectangle depicts the position of the aperture whose size is \n\n\n700\n\n\n\n\nmm × \n\n\n500\n\n\n\n\nmm.
\n
Figure 16.
AUT characterization at 30 GHz from the retrieved data: (a) normalized FF copolar pattern in dB and (b) normalized \n\n\n\nE\nx\n\n\n\n component of the field in the aperture of the AUT in dB.
\n
Finally, \nFigure 16\n shows the main cuts for \n\n\nφ\n\n\n=\n0\n\n∘\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nφ\n\n\n=\n90\n\n∘\n\n\n\n of the copolar pattern in \nFigure 15(a)\n (blue line labeled as Retrieved NF) compared to the cuts of a direct FF acquisition in an spherical anechoic chamber (labeled as Measured FF) and the cuts obtained for a NF-FF transformation of a field acquired with amplitude and phase (labeled as Measured NF). The valid margin of the NF-FF transformation, in which the data are comparable, is \n\n\n±\n\n\n25\n\n∘\n\n\n\n [1]. High level of coincidence can be observed between the three measurements. The small differences between the data directly acquired in FF and the transformed data are attributed to the lack of application of probe correction techniques during the NF-FF transformation (\nFigure 17\n) [1].
\n
Figure 17.
Comparison of the main cuts of the normalized amplitude of the AUT: (a) \n\n\nφ\n\n\n=\n0\n\n∘\n\n\n\n and (b) \n\n\nφ\n\n\n=\n90\n\n∘\n\n\n\n. The gray shaded areas indicate the valid margin of the NF-FF transformation [23].
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
Indirect off-axis holography is a method that allows for phase retrieval of an unknown field from amplitude-only acquisitions. This technique has been widely employed for antenna measurement and diagnostics for which phase acquisition is challenging, especially at high frequency bands, where very accurate positioning and high environmental stability are required.
\n
Several modifications such as the modified hologram technique and the use of synthesized reference waves have been discussed, in order to overcome known disadvantages of the conventional technique regarding the required sampling rates or the spectral overlapping issues. Nevertheless, even with these modifications, indirect off-axis holography exhibits some limitations, and thus, three novel methods developed in order to overcome them are proposed.
\n
Two of the presented techniques employ mechanical shifts, the first one to avoid the use of phase shifters and reduce the cost of the measurement system, and the second to control the position of the image terms in the same way that it is controlled with synthesized reference waves but with radiated reference fields. This enables to apply synthesized reference-like techniques in high frequency bands. The last technique is an extrapolation of the conventional technique employed for efficient phase retrieval of broadband antennas in which the phase is retrieved point-by-point in the acquisition plane and simultaneously for all frequency bands, by filtering the hologram in the TD instead of the k-space. \nTable 1\n summarizes the main advantages and disadvantages of the conventional and novel indirect off-axis techniques employed for antenna metrology.
Standard antenna measurement sampling (\n\n\nλ\n/\n2\n\n\n)
\n
\n
\n
Phase retrieval point-by-point
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Main features of the presented indirect off-axis holography techniques for antenna metrology.
\n
Experimental validation has been presented for each of the proposed methods with very good agreement with the reference results obtained from acquisitions performed directly with amplitude and phase.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work has been partially supported by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación of Spain/FEDER under projects TEC2014-55290-JIN (PortEMVision) and TEC2014-54005-P (MIRIIEM); by the Gobierno del Principado de Asturias through PCTI 2013-1017 GRUPIN14-114 and by grant LINE 525-002; and by the Academy of Finland through DYNAMITE project. The authors would like to thank M.Sc. Luis Díaz for his help with 3D modeling.
\n
\n',keywords:"antenna measurement, antenna diagnostics, amplitude-only, interferometry, off-axis holography, indirect holography, phaseless, microwave holography, millimeter-wave, submillimeter-wave",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54092.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54092.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54092",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54092",totalDownloads:1500,totalViews:296,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 16th 2016",dateReviewed:"December 19th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 22nd 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Phase acquisition in antenna measurement, especially at millimeter- and submillimeter-wave frequencies, is an expensive and challenging task. The need of a steady phase reference demands not only a very stable source but unvarying temperature conditions and strong positioning accuracy requirements. Indirect off-axis holography is an interferometric technique that allows for characterization of an unknown field by means of a simple filtering process of the hologram or intensity interference pattern in the spectral domain, provided that the reference field, employed to interfere with the unknown field, is known in amplitude and phase. This technique can be used to avoid the effect of the errors related to the phase acquisition and to further develop new efficient and robust techniques capable of phase retrieval from amplitude-only acquisitions allowing for cost and complexity reduction of the measurement setup. A short review of the state-of-the-art in antenna metrology is presented in this chapter, as well as a description of conventional indirect off-axis techniques applied to this field. Last sections are devoted to the description of novel measurement techniques developed by the authors in order to overcome the main limitations of the conventional methods.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54092",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54092",book:{slug:"holographic-materials-and-optical-systems"},signatures:"Ana Arboleya, Jaime Laviada, Juha Ala-Laurinaho, Yuri Álvarez,\nFernando Las-Heras and Antti V. Räisänen",authors:[{id:"35795",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Las-Heras",fullName:"Fernando Las-Heras",slug:"fernando-las-heras",email:"flasheras@tsc.uniovi.es",position:null,institution:null},{id:"151926",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Laviada-Martinez",fullName:"Jaime Laviada-Martinez",slug:"jaime-laviada-martinez",email:"jlaviada@tsc.uniovi.es",position:null,institution:null},{id:"191702",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Arboleya",fullName:"Ana Arboleya",slug:"ana-arboleya",email:"aarboleya@tsc.uniovi.es",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"192399",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez",fullName:"Yuri Álvarez",slug:"yuri-alvarez",email:"yalopez@tsc.uniovi.es",position:null,institution:null},{id:"195296",title:"Dr.",name:"Juha",middleName:null,surname:"Ala-Laurinaho",fullName:"Juha Ala-Laurinaho",slug:"juha-ala-laurinaho",email:"juha.ala-laurinaho@aalto.fi",position:null,institution:null},{id:"195297",title:"Prof.",name:"Antti V.",middleName:null,surname:"Räisänen",fullName:"Antti V. Räisänen",slug:"antti-v.-raisanen",email:"antti.raisanen@aalto.fi",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Conventional indirect off-axis holography review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Indirect off-axis holography",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1. Overlapping control: off-axis reference and sampling requirements",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2. Modified hologram",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3. Synthesized reference field off-axis holography",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.4. Main drawbacks and limitations of indirect off-axis holography",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Indirect off-axis holography with mechanical phase shifts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1. Synthesized reference field by means of mechanical shifts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.1. Experimental validation in the Ku-band for antenna measurement and diagnostics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2. Multiplexed holograms with radiated reference field",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.1. Corrections",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.2. Experimental validation: 94 GHz lens antenna NF characterization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Broadband indirect off-axis holography",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.1. Main parameter constraints",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.2. Numerical validation for the characterization of a horn antenna in the Ka-band",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nA.D. Yaghjian. An overview of near-field antenna measurements. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., 34(1):30–45, Jan. 1986.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nM.S. Castaner, A. Munoz-Acevedo, F. Cano-Fácila, and S. Burgos. Overview of novel post-processing techniques to reduce uncertainty in antenna measurements. In Md. Zahurul Haq, editor, Advanced Topics in Measurements, Chapter 9. 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A comparison of interferometric methods applied to array diagnosis from near-field data. IEE Proc. Microwaves Antennas Propag., 148(4):261–267, Aug. 2001.\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nG. Junkin, T. Huang, and J.C. Bennett. Holographic testing of terahertz antennas. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., 48(3):409–417, Mar. 2000.\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nJ. Laviada and F. Las-Heras. Phaseless antenna measurement on non-redundant sample points via Leith-Upatnieks holography. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., 61(8):4036–4044, Aug. 2013.\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nA. Arboleya, J. Laviada, J. Ala-Laurinaho, Y. Álvarez, F. Las-Heras, and A.V. Räisänen. Phaseless characterization of broadband antennas. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., 64(2):484–495, Feb. 2016.\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nE.N. Leith and J. Upatnieks. Reconstructed wavefronts and communication theory. J. Optical Soc. Am., 52(10):1123–1128, Oct. 1962.\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nP.J. Napier and R.H.T. Bates. Antenna - aperture distributions from holographic type of radiation-pattern measurement. Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., 120(1):30–34, Jan. 1973.\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nJ.C. Bennett, A.P. Anderson, P. McInnes, and A.J.T. Whitaker. Microwave holographic metrology of large reflector antennas. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., 24(3):295–303, May 1976.\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nG.A. Deschamps. Some remarks on radio-frequency holography. Proc. IEEE, 55(4):570–571, Apr. 1967.\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nM.P. Leach, D. Smith, S.P. Skobelev, and M. Elsdont. An improved holographic technique for medium-gain antenna near field measurements. In 2007 2nd European Conf. on Antennas and Propag. (EuCAP), pages 1–6, Edinburgh, UK, Nov. 2007.\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nV. Schejbal, V. Kovarik, and D. Cermak. Synthesized-reference-wave holography for determining antenna radiation characteristics. IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag., 50(5):71–83, Oct. 2008.\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nA. Arboleya, J. Ala-Laurinaho, J. Laviada, Y. Álvarez, F. Las-Heras, and A.V. Räisänen. Millimeter-wave phaseless antenna measurement based on a modified off-axis holography setup. J. Infrared Millimeter Terahertz Waves, 37(2):160–174, 2016.\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nA. Arboleya, J. Laviada, J. Ala-Laurinaho, Y. Álvarez, F. Las-Heras, and A.V. Räisänen. Reduced set of points in phaseless broadband near-field antenna measurement: Effects of noise and mechanical errors. In 2016 10th European Conf. on Antennas and Propag. (EuCAP), pages 1–5, Davos, Switzerland, Apr. 2016.\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nA. Arboleya, Y. Álvarez, and F. Las-Heras. Millimeter and submillimeter planar measurement setup. In 2013 IEEE Antennas and Propag. Soc. Int. Symp. (APSURSI), pages 1–2, Orlando, FL, Jul. 2013.\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nA.V. Räisänen, J. Ala-Laurinaho, A. Karttunen, J. Mallat, A. Tamminen, and M. Vaaja. Measurements of high-gain antennas at THz frequencies. In 2010 4th European Conf. on Antennas and Propag. (EuCAP), pages 1–3, Barcelona, Spain, Apr. 2010.\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nD. Gabor. Microscopy by reconstructed wave-fronts. Proc. R. Soc. London A: Math., Phys. Eng. Sci., 197(1051):454–487, Jul. 1949.\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nA.P. Anderson. Microwave holography. Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., 124(11):946–962, Nov. 1977.\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nG. Tricoles and N.H. Farhat. Microwave holography: Applications and techniques. Proc. IEEE, 65(1):108–121, Jan. 1977.\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nA.V. Räisänen and J. Ala-Laurinaho. Holographic principles in antenna metrology at millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths. In 2015 9th European Conf. on Antennas and Propag. (EuCAP), pages 1–2, Lisbon, Portugal, Apr. 2015.\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nP.H. Gardenier. Antenna Aperture Phase Retrieval. PhD thesis, Electrical and Electronic Engineering School, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, Apr. 1980.\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nP.J. Napier. Reconstruction of Radiating Sources. PhD thesis, Electrical and Electronic Engineering School, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, Apr. 1971.\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nD. Smith, M. Leach, M. Elsdon, and S.J. Foti. Indirect holographic techniques for determining antenna radiation characteristics and imaging aperture fields. IEEE Mag. Antennas Propag., 49(1):54–67, Feb. 2007.\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nJ. Marín García. Off-axis Holography in Microwave Imaging Systems. PhD thesis, Departament de Telecomunicació i Enginyeria de Sistemes, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 2015.\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nM.S. Heimbeck, M.K. Kim, D.A. Gregory, and H.O. Everitt. Terahertz digital holography using angular spectrum and dual wavelength reconstruction methods. Opt. Express, 19(10):9192–9200, May 2011.\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nV. Schejbal, J. Pidanic, V. Kovarik, and D. Cermak. Accuracy analyses of synthesized-reference-wave holography for determining antenna radiation characteristics. IEEE Mag. Antennas Propag., 50(6):89–98, Dec. 2008.\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nA. Arboleya, J. Laviada, Y. Álvarez, and F. Las-Heras. Versatile measurement system for imaging setups prototyping. In 2015 9th European Conf. Antennas Propag. (EuCAP), pages 1–5, Lisbon, Portugal, Apr. 2015.\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nA. Tamminen, J. Ala-Laurinaho, and A.V. Räisänen. Indirect holographic imaging at 310 GHz. In 2008 European Radar Conf. (EuRAD), pages 168–171, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Oct. 2008.\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nG. Junkin. Planar near-field phase retrieval using GPUs for accurate THz far-field prediction. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., 61(4):1763–1776, Apr. 2013.\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nA. Enayati, A. Tamminen, J. Ala-Laurinaho, A.V. Räisänen, G.A.E. Vandenbosch, and W. De Raedt. THz holographic imaging: A spatial-domain technique for phase retrieval and image reconstruction. In 2012 IEEE MTT-S Int. Microw. Symp. Digest (MTT), pages 1–3, Montreal, Canada, Jun. 2012.\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nJ. Young, D. Svoboda, and W.D. Burnside. A comparison of time- and frequency-domain measurement techniques in antenna theory. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., 21(4):581–583, Jul. 1973.\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nY. Huang, K. Chan, and B. Cheeseman. Review of broadband antenna measurements. In 2006 1st European Conf. on Antennas and Propag. (EuCAP), pages 1–4, Nice, France, Nov. 2006.\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nO. Bucci, C. Gennarelli, and C. Savarese. Fast and accurate near-field far-field transformation by sampling interpolation of plane polar measurements. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag., 39:48–55, Jan. 1991.\n'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"The far-field distance is defined by \n\n\nR\n=\n2\n\nD\n2\n\n/\nλ\n\n\n (\n\n\nR\n>\n>\nλ\n\n\n), being D the maximum dimension of the antenna and λ the wavelength [1]."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"The mm-wave band is defined according to the IEEE Standard 521-2002 from 110 to 300 GHz. This standard is a review of the standard published in 1984 that also considered the lower bands defined from 30 to 110 GHz (Ka, V, and W bands) as part of the mm-wave band. This older definition is still commonly accepted. Frequency bands above 300 GHz are not included in the standard; the submm-wave or Terahertz band corresponds, depending on the author, to the fraction of the spectrum from 300 GHz to either 3 or 10 THz in the lower limit of the far-infrared spectrum [8]."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"Bandwidth is defined for the positive half-space of the spectrum. Since the spectrum of the hologram is symmetric, the total bandwidth is twice the defined bandwidth."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ana Arboleya",address:"aarboleya@tsc.uniovi.es",affiliation:'
Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Escuela Politécnica de Ingeniería, Universidad de Oviedo, Gijón, Spain
Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Escuela Politécnica de Ingeniería, Universidad de Oviedo, Gijón, Spain
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Antti V. Räisänen",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Radio Science and Engineering and MilliLab, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"5518",title:"Holographic Materials and Optical Systems",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Holographic Materials and Optical Systems",slug:"holographic-materials-and-optical-systems",publishedDate:"March 22nd 2017",bookSignature:"Izabela Naydenova, Dimana Nazarova and Tsvetanka Babeva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5518.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32332",title:"Prof.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Naydenova",slug:"izabela-naydenova",fullName:"Izabela Naydenova"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"53618",title:"Volume Holography: Novel Materials, Methods and Applications",slug:"volume-holography-novel-materials-methods-and-applications",totalDownloads:2315,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Tina Sabel and Marga C. 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Carbajal Dominguez",authors:[{id:"29025",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez-Niconoff",fullName:"Gabriel Martinez-Niconoff",slug:"gabriel-martinez-niconoff"},{id:"140189",title:"Prof.",name:"Martínez",middleName:null,surname:"Vara",fullName:"Martínez Vara",slug:"martinez-vara"},{id:"140192",title:"Prof.",name:"J",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz Lopez",fullName:"J Muñoz Lopez",slug:"j-munoz-lopez"},{id:"140193",title:"Prof.",name:"Adrián",middleName:null,surname:"Carbajal Dominguez",fullName:"Adrián Carbajal Dominguez",slug:"adrian-carbajal-dominguez"}]},{id:"23025",title:"Optimization of Hologram for Security Applications",slug:"optimization-of-hologram-for-security-applications",signatures:"Junji Ohtsubo",authors:[{id:"32623",title:"Prof.",name:"Junji",middleName:null,surname:"Ohtsubo",fullName:"Junji Ohtsubo",slug:"junji-ohtsubo"}]},{id:"23026",title:"Nanophotonic Hierarchical Holograms: Demonstration of Hierarchical Applications Based on Nanophotonics",slug:"nanophotonic-hierarchical-holograms-demonstration-of-hierarchical-applications-based-on-nanophotonic",signatures:"Naoya Tate, Makoto Naruse, Takashi Yatsui, Tadashi Kawazoe, Morihisa Hoga, Yasuyuki Ohyagi, Yoko Sekine, Tokuhiro Fukuyama, Mitsuru Kitamura and Motoichi Ohtsu",authors:[{id:"32567",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoya",middleName:null,surname:"Tate",fullName:"Naoya Tate",slug:"naoya-tate"},{id:"43823",title:"Dr.",name:"Makoto",middleName:null,surname:"Naruse",fullName:"Makoto Naruse",slug:"makoto-naruse"},{id:"43824",title:"Dr.",name:"takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Yatsui",fullName:"takashi Yatsui",slug:"takashi-yatsui"},{id:"43825",title:"Dr.",name:"Tadashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kawazoe",fullName:"Tadashi Kawazoe",slug:"tadashi-kawazoe"},{id:"43826",title:"Dr.",name:"Morihisa",middleName:null,surname:"Hoga",fullName:"Morihisa Hoga",slug:"morihisa-hoga"},{id:"43827",title:"MSc",name:"Yasuyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Ohyagi",fullName:"Yasuyuki Ohyagi",slug:"yasuyuki-ohyagi"},{id:"43830",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitsuru",middleName:null,surname:"Kitamura",fullName:"Mitsuru Kitamura",slug:"mitsuru-kitamura"},{id:"43831",title:"Prof.",name:"Motoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Ohtsu",fullName:"Motoichi Ohtsu",slug:"motoichi-ohtsu"}]},{id:"23027",title:"Photonic Microwave Signal Processing Based on Opto-VLSI Technology",slug:"photonic-microwave-signal-processing-based-on-opto-vlsi-technology",signatures:"Feng Xiao, Kamal Alameh and Yong Tak Lee",authors:[{id:"16282",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Alameh",fullName:"Kamal Alameh",slug:"kamal-alameh"},{id:"17370",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",fullName:"Feng Xiao",slug:"feng-xiao"},{id:"17871",title:"Prof.",name:"Yong Tak",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Yong Tak Lee",slug:"yong-tak-lee"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"70529",title:"Thyroid Storm: Clinical Manifestation, Pathophysiology, and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89620",slug:"thyroid-storm-clinical-manifestation-pathophysiology-and-treatment",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
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Thyroid storm, also known by its synonyms thyroid crisis, thyrotoxic storm, or thyrotoxic crisis, is an extremely rare but life-threatening endocrine emergency. It is an acute exaggerated clinical manifestation of thyrotoxic state [1]. It was first described by Frank Howard Lahey in 1926 as “the crisis of exophthalmic goiter” [2]. Till date, clinicians are puzzled to accurately describe the signs and symptoms of thyroid storm as it involves almost all systems of the body. Accurately diagnosing the condition is very difficult, and groups around have been working to define a clear diagnostic criterion based on universal clinical parameters [3]. Diagnosing the storm early is crucial in order to improve the morbidity and mortality associated with it.
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2. Epidemiology
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2.1 Incidence
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Incidence of thyroid storm is not precisely known. Incidence in general population was reported as 0.57-0.76 per lac per year in USA and 0.20 per lac per year in Japan, whereas incidence in hospitalized patients was 4.8-5.6 per lac per year [4, 5, 6]. Hospital data suggest that it occurs in 1–2% of patients admitted for thyrotoxicosis [5]. It occurs more commonly in women and patients with Graves’ disease [7]. Autonomous nodules are the culprit in elderly patients [8].
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2.2 Mortality
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Seventy-five percent of patients hospitalized with thyroid storm die [9]. Overall mortality rate has been reported to be 10–20% [4, 10, 11, 12]. Multiple system dysfunction is the commonest cause of death, followed by heart failure [13], respiratory failure [13], and sepsis [3, 14].
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3. Pathophysiology of storm
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In order to understand the pathophysiology and rationale of treatment for thyroid storm, we need to understand the normal thyroid hormone physiology. Normal thyroid function is under control of feedback mechanisms between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and thyroid gland. “Thyrotropin-releasing hormone” (TRH) stimulates anterior pituitary to release “thyroid-stimulating hormone” (TSH), which binds to its receptor on thyroid gland and stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormone. The thyroid hormone synthesis is a five-step process comprising of: (a) iodide trapping; (b) organification—oxidation and iodination; (c) coupling; (d) storage; and (e) release. Transport of iodide into the thyroid follicular cell via a sodium-iodide symporter is the first step in hormone synthesis, known as “iodide trapping.” Iodide is then “oxidized and organified” by thyroid peroxidase enzyme (TPO). Iodination of tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin (framework protein for thyroid hormone synthesis) is catalyzed by TPO forming thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroid hormone acts through intranuclear action of T3 with T4 acting more as a “prohormone” [15]. Twenty percent of T3 comes directly from thyroid gland and 80% of circulating T3 comes from peripheral conversion of T4 to T3. The entire process is controlled by a negative feedback loop with peripheral thyroid hormone inhibiting the release and synthesis of TSH and TRH. Majority of the thyroid hormone is protein-bound (>99%) to thyroid-binding globulin (TBG), transthyretin, and albumin [16] making a “circulating storage pool,” while unbound or free hormone is available for uptake into the tissues.
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Peripheral conversion of T4 to T3 is done by the 5′-deiodinases. The deiodinase D2 is active in euthyroid state whereas in hyperthyroid state deiodinase D1 is more prevalent. The deiodinase D1 is susceptible to inhibition by thionamide and propylthiouracil (PTU). Glucocorticoids and β-blockers inhibit peripheral conversion of T4 to T3. This understanding will help us understand the rationale behind use of various classes of drugs in the treatment of thyroid storm.
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Exact pathophysiology of thyroid storm is poorly understood. Several hypotheses have been postulated for the storm, which are as follows:
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3.1 Acute increase in release of T4 or T3 from thyroid gland
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It is the most important mechanism behind thyroid storm [17]. Acute increase in T4 or T3 hormones is seen after radioiodine therapy, thyroidectomy, discontinuation of antithyroid drugs, and administration of iodinated contrast agents or iodine [18]. Rapid improvements in clinical condition after reduction in T4 or T3 concentration after peritoneal dialysis or plasmapheresis support this theory [19].
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3.2 Acute illness causes decrease in protein binding of T4 and T3 in serum resulting in increase of free T4 and T3
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Acute illnesses lead to decrease in protein binding of T4 and T3 [20], either due to decrease in production of transthyretin or due to production of inhibitors of T4- and T3-binding protein [21]. They lead to decrease in bound form of T4 and T3, which ultimately leads to relative increase in serum concentration of the hormones, which causes storm [22].
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3.3 Role of sympathetic nervous system activation
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Many symptoms and signs of thyroid storm mimic those of catecholamine excess, suggesting the role of sympathetic nervous system activation [23]. Dramatic improvement in symptoms following beta blocker administration supports this hypothesis [24].
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3.4 Augmentation of cellular responses to thyroid hormone
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In patients with condition of hypoxemia, ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, and infection, there is augmentation of cellular response to thyroid hormone [25]. There is uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation leading to generation of ATP, which results in excess utilization of substrate, increased oxygen consumption, thermogenesis, and hyperthermia [26]. Excess heat is dissipated by increased sweating and cutaneous vasodilation, the most common symptoms of thyroid storm.
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4. Triggers of thyroid storm
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The transition from simple thyrotoxicosis to thyrotoxic crisis requires a superimposed insult. Any primary cause of hyperthyroidism can escalate into thyrotoxic crisis. There are triggers that can induce thyroid storm in patients with unrecognized thyrotoxicosis, which includes nonthyroidal surgery, parturition, major trauma, infection, or iodine exposure from radiocontrast dyes or amiodarone [27]. Common and rare triggers are listed in \nTable 1\n. Infection is the most common precipitant of thyroid storm in the hospitalized patients [3, 17, 27, 28]. There is no identifiable precipitating factor in about 25–43% of patients of storm [29].
The diagnosis of thyroid storm is purely clinical, and if suspected, treatment should be initiated simultaneously without any delay. Clinical picture comprises of an exaggerated feature of hyperthyroidism accompanied by manifestations of multiorgan dysfunction, with the presence of an acute precipitating factor [46]. Symptoms, signs, and clinical features are listed in \nTables 2\n\n–\n\n4\n respectively.
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Hyperactivity, irritability, dysphoria
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Heat intolerance and sweating
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Palpitations
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Fatigue and weakness
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Weight loss with increased appetite
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Diarrhea
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Polyuria
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Oligomenorrhea, loss of libido
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Table 2.
Symptoms of thyroid storm.
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Tachycardia, atrial fibrillation
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Tremor
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Goiter
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Warm, moist skin
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Muscle weakness, proximal myopathy
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Lid retraction or lag
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Gynecomastia
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Signs of ophthalmopathy and dermopathy specific for Grave’s disease
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Table 3.
Signs of thyroid storm.
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Abrupt onset
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Fever—high grade
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Progressively increasing to lethal levels within 24–48 h
Hyperpyrexia (104–106°F) with diaphoresis is the key presenting feature. High fever induces profuse sweating and leads to insensible fluid losses, which is a differentiating feature between thyroid storm and thyrotoxicosis [1]. Cardiovascular manifestations include palpitations, tachycardia, exercise intolerance, dyspnea on exertion, widened pulse pressure, myocardial ischemia, and atrial fibrillation. Heart rate > 140/min is out of proportion to the underlying illness [47]. The increased cardiac output and tachyarrhythmia may progress to cardiogenic shock [48, 49]. The central nervous system (CNS) manifestations include agitation, delirium, confusion, stupor, obtundation, and coma. CNS involvement is a poor prognostic factor for mortality [3]. Gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, intestinal obstruction, and acute hepatic failure [29]. Vomiting and diarrhea add to significant fluid loss. Liver dysfunction and hepatomegaly are due to hepatic congestion and hypoperfusion, or directly due to hyperthyroidism [17]. Jaundice is a poor prognostic indicator [50]. Unusual presentations include acute abdomen, status epilepticus, rhabdomyolysis, hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis, and disseminated intravascular coagulation [51, 52, 53, 54].
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Various clinical entities that mimic thyroid storm exist, which confounds the existent diagnostic dilemma, namely, peritonitis [55], sepsis/septic shock [56], heat stroke [57], malignant hyperthermia [58], acute pulmonary edema [59], neuroleptic malignant syndrome [60], and serotonin syndrome [61]. The mimics of thyroid storm are listed in \nTable 5\n.
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Peritonitis
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Sepsis/septic shock
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Heat stroke
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Malignant hyperthermia
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Acute pulmonary edema
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Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
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Serotonin syndrome
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Peritonitis
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Table 5.
Mimics of thyroid storm.
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Burch and Wartofsky [28] assigned a numerical score to each of the different signs and symptoms of thyroid storm to establish a diagnostic criterion based on the total score calculated as shown in \nFigure 1\n. Japan Thyroid Association surveyed the incidence of thyroid storm in Japan and formulated population-specific diagnostic criteria based on the presence of the classic organ system manifestations as shown in \nTable 6\n.
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Figure 1.
Burch and Wartofsky’s diagnostic criteria for thyroid storm [28].
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Prerequisite for diagnosis
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Presence of thyrotoxicosis with elevated levels of free triiodothyronine (FT3) or free thyroxine (FT4)
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Symptoms
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1. Central nervous system (CNS) manifestations: restlessness, delirium, mental aberration/psychosis, somnolence/lethargy, coma (≥1 on the Japan Coma Scale or ≤14 on the Glasgow Coma Scale)
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2. Fever: ≥ 38°C
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3. Tachycardia: ≥130 beats per minute or heart rate ≥ 130 in atrial fibrillation
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4. Congestive heart failure (CHF): pulmonary edema, wet crackles over more than half of the lung field, cardiogenic shock, or Class IV by the New York Heart Association or ≥Class III in the Killip classification
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5. Gastrointestinal (GI)/hepatic manifestations: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or a total bilirubin level ≥ 3.0 mg/dL
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\nDiagnosis\n
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Grade of thyroid storm (TS)
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Combinations of features
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Requirements for diagnosis
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TS1
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First combination
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Thyrotoxicosis and at least one CNS manifestation and fever, tachycardia, CHF, or GI/ hepatic manifestations
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TS1
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Alternate combination
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Thyrotoxicosis and at least three combinations of fever, tachycardia, CHF, or GI/ hepatic manifestations
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TS2
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First combination
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Thyrotoxicosis and a combination of two of the following: fever, tachycardia, CHF, or GI/hepatic manifestations
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TS2
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Alternate combination
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Patients who met the diagnosis of TS1 except that serum FT3 or FT4 level are not available
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\nExclusion and provisions\n
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Cases are excluded when clear cut underlying pathology is present for the following symptoms: fever (e.g., pneumonia and malignant hyperthermia), impaired consciousness (e.g., psychiatric disorders and cerebrovascular disease), heart failure (e.g., acute myocardial infarction), and liver disorders (e.g., viral hepatitis and acute liver failure). Therefore, it is difficult to determine whether the symptom is caused by TS or is simply a manifestation of an underlying disease; the symptom should be regarded as being due to a TS that is caused by these precipitating factors. Clinical judgment in this matter is required.
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Table 6.
The diagnostic criteria for thyroid storm (TS) of the Japan Thyroid Association.
Both Burch and Wartofsky score (BWS) and the Japan Thyroid Association (JTA) guidelines are acceptable. However, in one study, BWS ≥45 was reported to be more sensitive than JTA guidelines in detecting patients with storm [62, 63]. It is recommended to use both criteria to increase the accuracy of the diagnosis of thyroid storm [44, 63].
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Although diagnosis of thyroid storm is clinical, laboratory values aid in the diagnosis and treatment. A complete workup including estimation of TSH, free T4, and free T3 should be done in the intensive care unit (ICU) setting. Leukocytosis indicates infection (commonest factor for storm). Elevated blood urea nitrogen [3] and liver function abnormalities with elevation in the transaminases and hyperbilirubinemia indicate irreversible abnormalities. Hypercalcemia may be found due to the high bone resorption that accompanies hyperthyroidism and can exacerbate dehydration. Hyperglycemia is due to a combination of increased catecholamine inhibition of insulin release and increased gluconeogenesis [64].
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6. Management
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The treatment of thyroid storm should be initiated as soon as the diagnosis is suspected. Patients should be triaged to an intensive care setting for close monitoring and aggressive treatment. A multidisciplinary team approach is important in order to successfully offer the patient all possible therapeutic options. Immediate goals of thyroid-specific therapy should be targeted to decrease thyroid hormone synthesis and release, decrease peripheral action of thyroid hormone, and treat the precipitating cause.
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6.1 Inhibiting new thyroid hormone synthesis
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The first-line therapy in treating thyroid storm consists of inhibiting new thyroid hormone production. This approach most commonly utilizes thionamides which includes thiouracils (PTU) and imidazoles (methimazole and carbimazole). They inhibit thyroid peroxidase (TPO), thereby inhibiting formation of T3 and T4 from thyroglobulin [65]. Both methimazole and PTU are used but PTU is favored during thyroid storm due to its additional benefit over carbimazole and methimazole, namely rapid onset of action and inhibition of peripheral conversion of T4 to T3 mediated by peripheral deiodinase. In addition, PTU can be safely used in pregnancy.
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The dose of PTU is 600–1500 mg/day in divided doses every 4–6 h [27, 28, 66] with a loading dose of 600 mg. Dose of methimazole is 80–120 mg daily in divided doses every 4–6 h [27, 28, 66]. The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologist/American Thyroid Association guidelines recommend 500–1000 mg loading dose of PTU followed by 250 mg every 4 h and 60–80 mg/day of methimazole in divided doses [67]. Routes of administration include intravenous, enteral, and per rectal as suppository or retention enema. PTU is relatively insoluble at physiologic pH, therefore its intravenous preparation and administration are difficult. Intravenous methimazole can be prepared easily by dissolving methimazole powder in normal saline [68].
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Nonradioactive iodine also decreases new thyroid hormone synthesis. It is due to the inhibition of organic binding of iodide to thyroglobulin as plasma iodide levels reach a critical threshold, a phenomenon known as the Wolff-Chaikoff effect. The effect is transient, lasting for about 50 h, as the thyroid eventually escapes/adapts to prolonged iodide excess [69]. Inorganic iodine may be given orally as a saturated solution of potassium iodide (SSKI) by administering five drops (0.25 mL or 250 mg) every 6 h or as Lugol’s solution (eight drops given every 6 h) [28, 67]. Routes can be enteral, rectal, or intravenous. SSKI is prepared for rectal dosing by mixing 1 g of iodide in 60 mL of water and administering 2 g/day in divided doses [70]. Lugol’s solution can be given rectally in doses of 4 mL (80 drops) per day [71]. Iodine should be given at least 30 min after administering thionamides to avoid the iodine serving as a substrate for new thyroid hormone production and worsening the hyperthyroidism. Thionamides must be continued during therapy with iodine to avoid organification of iodine and increased thyroid hormone production. Iodine administration delays definitive treatment of patients’ hyperthyroidism with radioactive iodine [27, 28]. Therefore, iodine should be used only when the end goal is thyroidectomy.
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Lithium hampers T4 and T3 synthesis by inhibiting the coupling of iodotyrosine residues. When iodine administration is not possible (secondary to iodine induced anaphylaxis) or desired, lithium may be substituted. It is administered at doses of 300 mg every 6–8 h with monitoring of serum levels.
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6.2 Inhibiting thyroid hormone release
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The next line of treatment is inhibiting the release of preformed hormone. Iodine administration, additionally, blocks the release of preformed hormone by inhibiting the release of iodothyronines (T3 and T4) from thyroglobulin [28, 72]. This effect of iodine has a faster onset than PTU, which blocks synthesis in a thyroid gland that has a large store of already formed hormone [73]. The combination therapy of thionamides and iodine decrease serum T4 levels to normal range in 4–5 days [74].
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6.3 Inhibiting the peripheral effect of thyroid hormone
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Both α- and β-adrenergic stimulation are enhanced in thyroid storm. Thus, adrenergic blockade is an integral part of the treatment. β-Blockers have been used in treatment of both uncomplicated and complicated hyperthyroidism [75]. Propranolol is the most commonly used β-blocker due to its nonselective β-adrenergic antagonism and its ability to block the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3. The recommended dose is 60–120 mg orally every 6 h [64]. For a more rapid effect, intravenous propranolol or a shorter acting β-blocker such as esmolol can be used. The dose of intravenous propranolol is 0.5–1.0 mg slow infusion for an initial dose and then 1–2 mg at 15-min intervals while monitoring the heart rate carefully. Esmolol is given as an initial bolus of 0.25–0.5 mg/kg followed by a continuous infusion rate of 0.05–0.1 mg/kg per minute [73].
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6.4 Inhibiting enterohepatic circulation of thyroid hormone
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Enterohepatic circulation of thyroid hormone is targeted for severe and refractory thyroid storm. Thyroid hormone is metabolized in the liver where it is conjugated to glucuronides and sulfates. Conjugated products are excreted into the intestine through bile, where free hormones are released, reabsorbed, and circulated. This is enterohepatic circulation of thyroid hormone. Cholestyramine binds the conjugation products and promotes their excretion, and can be used to decrease thyroid hormone levels. The recommended dose is 1–4 g twice a day [76, 77, 78].
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6.5 Other therapies
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The oral iodinated contrast agents are inhibitors of both deiodinases D1 and D2 and help in lowering T3 levels. Additionally, they inhibit new thyroid hormone synthesis and release of preformed hormones from the gland. They are given as 2 g loading dose followed by 1 g daily [74, 79]. Lower doses are given for preoperative preparation for thyroid surgery [80, 81] and as an adjunct to thionamides in treatment of Graves’ disease [82].
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6.6 Supportive and resuscitative measures
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Resuscitative measures should be initiated immediately in an ICU setting. Urgent addressal of systemic decompensation requires correction of hyperthermia, dehydration, congestive heart failure, dysrhythmia, and prevention of adrenal crisis [73]. Hyperthermia should be controlled with peripheral cooling and antipyretics. Acetaminophen is preferred over salicylates as salicylates increase free hormone levels by decreasing binding to T4-binding globulin, thereby exacerbating thyroid storm [83]. The peripheral cooling should be done with ice packs, cooling blankets, or alcohol sponges. Fluid loss due to hyperpyrexia, diarrhea, and vomiting should be corrected immediately.
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The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis is impaired in thyrotoxicosis with a decrease in adrenal reserve. Despite increased production of cortisol by the adrenal gland to compensate for accelerated glucocorticosteroid metabolism in hyperthyroid states, a subnormal response of the adrenal glands to adrenocortico-stimulating hormone occurs. Corticosteroids are therefore used as adjunct therapy in thyroid storm to prevent adrenal insufficiency. It also helps in decreasing the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3 [84]. A loading dose of 300 mg of hydrocortisone intravenously followed by 100 mg every 8 h is recommended [67].
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The treatment of thyroid storm is not complete and effective until correctable precipitating factors are addressed (\nTable 1\n). Any focus of infection should be thoroughly investigated and proper antibiotics should be started based on sensitivity. In addition, any metabolic abnormalities, such as diabetic ketoacidosis, stroke, or pulmonary emboli, should be treated as per standard protocols.
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6.7 Therapeutic plasma exchange
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In refractory cases of thyrotoxic crisis with no clinical improvement alternative measures to clear thyroid hormone from the circulation should be instituted. Therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) is effective in rapidly reducing thyroid hormone levels [85]. The patient’s plasma is extracted from the components of blood, and replaced with albumin or fresh frozen plasma [85, 86]. TBG with bound thyroid hormone is removed from circulation, and the colloid replacement (usually albumin) provides unsaturated binding sites for circulating free thyroid hormone. Various techniques of exchange transfusion have evolved since its first description in 1970 by Ashkar et al. [87]. Plasma exchange, single pass albumin dialysis, and charcoal hemoperfusion have all demonstrated a reduction in free T3 and free T4 levels [85].
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TPE is an option when clinical deterioration in thyroid storm occurs despite the use of first- and second-line therapies. Muller et al. suggested early initiation of TPE with the following indications: severe symptoms (cardio-thyrotoxicosis, neurologic manifestations, and severe myopathy); rapid clinical deterioration; contraindications to other therapies; and failure of conventional therapeutics [88]. The American Society for Apheresis (ASFA) recommends that TPE be performed at a frequency of daily to every 2–3 days until clinical improvement is noted. Complications of TPE are seen in 5% of patients and include hypotension, hemolysis, allergic reactions, coagulopathy, vascular injury, and infection [86, 88, 89].
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6.8 Surgical management
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Achieving a euthyroid state is first and foremost requisite prior to surgical management using the above-mentioned medical treatment strategies [27]. However, there is a subset of patients who fail medical management despite all of the most aggressive treatment modalities. This occurs more commonly in iodine-deficient areas, where thyroid storm is mostly related to iodine contamination in patients with thyroid autonomy. These patients are particularly resistant to even high-dose thionamides or iodine therapy because of the large intrathyroidal iodine pool [90]. The broad indications of surgery have been listed in \nTable 7\n.
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Absolute indication
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Relative indication
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Failed medical therapy
\n
Symptomatic goiter
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Severe reaction to antithyroid drugs
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Pregnancy
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Not a candidate for radio ablation therapy
\n
Severe Grave’s ophthalmopathy
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Persistent thyrotoxicosis despite maximum antithyroid drug/radio ablation therapy Underlying thyroid carcinoma Suspicious/malignant nodules on FNAC
\n
Refractory thyroiditis Amiodarone related Toxic adenoma
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Table 7.
Indications of surgery.
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All measures should be employed to stabilize the patient prior to considering emergent surgical management. Surgical team should be involved early (within 12–72 h) if the patient is not responding to medical therapy. The surgical options involve a subtotal or near-total thyroidectomy [73]. The surgery produces rapid resolution of the hyperthyroidism as very little thyroid tissue remains. This allows cessation of the thionamides soon after the surgery. Corticosteroid and β-blocker should be continued perioperatively and slowly weaned off over the ensuing weeks [27].
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6.9 Newer agents
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Biological agent Rituximab (anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody which depletes B lymphocytes) and various other emerging therapies have shown promise in the treatment of Graves’ ophthalmopathy, but the role of these agents in the management of the thyrotoxic state is less clear [17, 91, 92, 93].
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7. Conclusion
\n
Thyroid storm is an endocrine emergency that is associated with high morbidity and mortality if not promptly recognized and treated. Multidisciplinary treatment in an intensive care setting is usually needed. Treatment involves addressing all steps of thyroid hormone synthesis, release, and action, in a well-defined order, while providing supportive care. Remember five B’s in thyroid storm as listed in \nTable 8\n. Treating precipitating factors is an integral part of the management.\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Block synthesis (anti thyroid drugs)
\n
\n
\n
Block release (iodine)
\n
\n
\n
Block T4 to T3 conversion (high dose PTU, propranolol, corticosteroid)
\n
\n
\n
Beta blocker
\n
\n
\n
Block enterohepatic circulation (cholestyramine)
\n
\n\n
Table 8.
Five B’s of thyroid storm.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"thyroid storm, endocrine emergency, thyroid crisis, thyrotoxic storm, thyrotoxic crisis",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70529.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70529.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70529",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70529",totalDownloads:414,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 6th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 9th 2019",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2019",datePublished:"April 8th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Thyroid storm is a rare but life-threatening endocrine emergency. It is an acute exaggerated clinical manifestation of thyrotoxic state. The exact incidence is unknown. It occurs in 1–2% of patients admitted for thyrotoxicosis. It has a mortality of 10–20%. This chapter would help us to understand its clinical manifestations, pathophysiology, and effective treatment. Terminal learning objective would be to diagnose impending storm early and start prompt treatment in day-to-day practice. The chapter would cover pathophysiology including triggers, clinical features including various diagnostic criteria, diagnosis, and treatment of thyroid storm. Indications of surgical treatment in storm will be discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70529",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70529",signatures:"Rahul Pandey, Sanjeev Kumar and Narendra Kotwal",book:{id:"9077",title:"Goiter",subtitle:"Causes and Treatment",fullTitle:"Goiter - Causes and Treatment",slug:"goiter-causes-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",bookSignature:"N.K. Agrawal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9077.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"136647",title:"Dr.",name:"N.K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agrawal",slug:"n.k.-agrawal",fullName:"N.K. Agrawal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"309356",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Pandey",fullName:"Rahul Pandey",slug:"rahul-pandey",email:"rahuladviksimpy@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Army Hospital Research and Referral",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310903",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjeev",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Sanjeev Kumar",slug:"sanjeev-kumar",email:"drsanjeevk1@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Army Hospital Research and Referral",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310904",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kotwal",fullName:"Narendra Kotwal",slug:"narendra-kotwal",email:"narendrakotwal@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Army Hospital Research and Referral",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Epidemiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Incidence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Mortality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Pathophysiology of storm",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Acute increase in release of T4 or T3 from thyroid gland",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Acute illness causes decrease in protein binding of T4 and T3 in serum resulting in increase of free T4 and T3",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 Role of sympathetic nervous system activation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4 Augmentation of cellular responses to thyroid hormone",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Triggers of thyroid storm",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Clinical features and diagnosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.1 Inhibiting new thyroid hormone synthesis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.2 Inhibiting thyroid hormone release",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.3 Inhibiting the peripheral effect of thyroid hormone",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.4 Inhibiting enterohepatic circulation of thyroid hormone",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"6.5 Other therapies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"6.6 Supportive and resuscitative measures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"6.7 Therapeutic plasma exchange",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"6.8 Surgical management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.9 Newer agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nLeung AM. Thyroid Emergencies. PubMed-NCBI [Internet]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27598067\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nLahey FH. Apathetic thyroidism. 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Thyroid. 1999;9(4):359-364\n'},{id:"B84",body:'\nTsatsoulis A, Johnson EO, Kalogera CH, Seferiadis K, Tsolas O. The effect of thyrotoxicosis on adrenocortical reserve. European Journal of Endocrinology. 2000;142(3):231-235\n'},{id:"B85",body:'\nSzczepiorkowski ZM, Winters JL, Bandarenko N, Kim HC, Linenberger ML, Marques MB, et al. Guidelines on the use of therapeutic apheresis in clinical practice—Evidence-based approach from the apheresis applications Committee of the American Society for apheresis. Journal of Clinical Apheresis. 2010;25(3):83-177\n'},{id:"B86",body:'\nEzer A, Caliskan K, Parlakgumus A, Belli S, Kozanoglu I, Yildirim S. Preoperative therapeutic plasma exchange in patients with thyrotoxicosis. Journal of Clinical Apheresis. 2009;24(3):111-114\n'},{id:"B87",body:'\nAshkar FS, Katims RB, Smoak WM, Gilson AJ. Thyroid storm treatment with blood exchange and plasmapheresis. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1970;214(7):1275-1279\n'},{id:"B88",body:'\nMuller C, Perrin P, Faller B, Richter S, Chantrel F. Role of plasma exchange in the thyroid storm. Therapeutic Apheresis and Dialysis. 2011;15(6):522-531\n'},{id:"B89",body:'\nChen J-H, Yeh J-H, Lai H-W, Liao C-S. Therapeutic plasma exchange in patients with hyperlipidemic pancreatitis. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 2004;10(15):2272-2274\n'},{id:"B90",body:'\nScholz GH, Hagemann E, Arkenau C, Engelmann L, Lamesch P, Schreiter D, et al. Is there a place for thyroidectomy in older patients with thyrotoxic storm and cardiorespiratory failure? Thyroid. 2003;13(10):933-940\n'},{id:"B91",body:'\nAbraham P, Acharya S. Current and emerging treatment options for Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management. 2010;6:29-40\n'},{id:"B92",body:'\nBahn RS. Graves’ ophthalmopathy. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2010;362(8):726-738\n'},{id:"B93",body:'\nRoizen M, Becker CE. Thyroid storm. A review of cases at University of California, San Francisco. California Medicine. 1971;115(4):5-9\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rahul Pandey",address:"rahuladviksimpy@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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