\r\n\tThis publication will aim to collect those projects and research that seek to make buildings, including urban environments, self-sufficient in terms of energy, focusing here on the solutions for HVAC and the energy systems they require and doing so from a double point of view: \r\n\t- Complexity. As is the case with the automobile and aeronautics industries, buildings have become human-inhabited spaces with an ever-increasing technological load, which will presumably also be used in other ways, as the pandemic associated with COVID-19 has shown. In these scenarios, will HVAC systems be considered as before, or will new solutions have to be considered for new challenges? \r\n\t- Disruptive technologies. In the coming years, the implementation of technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells, polygeneration of energy, the use of second-use electric batteries in buildings to accumulate energy from renewable energies, or the resolution of constructive solutions with 3D printing will become widespread in buildings. In this scenario, what will be the answers given by those responsible for HVAC systems? \r\n\tIn addition, concepts such as artificial intelligence, technology transfer, biomimicry, or stigmergy will undoubtedly provide high-value solutions to new and refurbished buildings that society demands.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-174-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-173-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-175-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c911b61042fae2c465f4ee69077e0a4b",bookSignature:"Dr. César Martín-Gómez",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12033.jpg",keywords:"Heating, Cooling, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning, Renewable, Biomass, Hydrogen, Geothermal, Heat-Pump, Engineering, nZEB, Integration",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"15 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Gómez (Ph.D. Architect) has been responsible for building services and energy systems in complex buildings such as the Auditorium of Navarra and the Spanish Pavilion at the Saragossa Expo since 2000. 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1. Introduction
Cancer, which has unrestricted cell growth with the potential to invade or metastasize to other parts of the body is a complex group of diseases with many possible causes. The American Cancer Society reported that the most common type of cancer and the leading cause of cancer-related mortality among females in the world is breast cancer (BC), with about 235,000 new cases expected in the United States in 2014. One in eight women has a chance of developing BC in her lifetime.
Technological improvements in the last decade have helped researchers to understand this complex disease more thoroughly. In spite of the presence of promising tools for breast cancer therapy, the mortality rate of metastatic breast cancer cases is still high. Thus it is necessary to identify significant therapeutic targets by investigating the molecular basis of the disease. In recent years, studies aimed at determining the possible molecular mechanisms of breast cancer have increased in number. Many treatment strategies have been developed. Nevertheless, these methods induce a range of therapeutic responses and therapeutic resistance can develop in breast cancer patients, therefore new methods must be developed.
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been reported as playing important roles in cancer development. miRNAs are potential alternative therapeutic targets for cancer. They are also candidate diagnostic and prognostic indicators of breast cancer. miRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that bind to the 3\' untranslated region of target mRNAs and down-regulate their translation to protein or degrade the mRNAs. miRNAs play critical roles in many different cellular processes including metabolism, apoptosis, differentiation, and development. They are also linked to human diseases, including cancer. Since their initial discovery in 1993, during a study of the gene lin-4 in Caenorhabditis elegans, more than 2000 molecules have been identified in humans, regulating the expression of almost 30% of genes.
miRNAs role as mainly in a tumor suppressive or oncogenic manner. Significantly increased miRNA expression can cause differences in cancer initiation, progression, migration, invasion and metastasis. If circulating extracellular miRNAs are detectable in plasma of BC patients, they can supply novel, non-invasive biomarkers for BC diagnosis and prognosis. Furthermore, new discoveries about miRNAs indicate that they may be involved in the response to chemotherapy or radiotherapy. For instance, MiR-21 is a significant BC-related intracellular and extra-cellular biomarker and a therapeutic target with upregulated expression detected in human BC tissues and cell lines, and plays a key role in all phases of BC pathogenesis. Today, investigation of the association of miRNAs with breast cancer has advanced. miRNAs are being utilized as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for patient stratification and also as therapeutic targets and agents in clinical laboratories.
Consequently, the aim of this chapter is to present the current knowledge and concepts concerning the involvement of microRNAs in breast cancer. The oncogenic role of miRNAs in BC etiopathogenesis and as treatment response predictors and therapeutic targets in BC management will be described.
2. The regulation of MicroRNAs
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of endogenous small RNAs displaying a role in gene regulation at the post transcriptional level in the cell. They have roles in the central dogma and exist extensively in the genome of high level eukaryotic cells in which miRNA genes constitute 1–2% of introns or genes [1]. miRNAs control gene expression via transcription and translation of genes, including mRNA deterioration and translation suppression. The removal of an adenylate group is followed by loss of poly(A)-binding protein initiation 5\' decapping, hence promoting exonucleolytic digestion from the 5\' end [2]. miRNA interferes with gene expression through inhibition of translation. miRNAs can thereby independently stop translation, beginning by a cap-dependent mechanism. For translationally active polysomes of lower mass initiation is impaired [3]. Furthermore, recent studies indicate that miRNAs cause an m7 G cap-dependent impediment to the recruitment of 80S ribosomes to mRNA [4]. As a result, the basis of the cap binding affinity of the miRNA-binding protein Ago was identified, in which the cap is inaccessible and thus unable to be bound to the initiation factor eIF4E [5]. Although, several proteins interfere with mRNA degradation and translational repression, some of them are necessary components of the RNA induced silencing complex (RISC) that transports those small RNAs to complementary sites within mRNA [6]. miRNAs assert their silencing role generally by interactions with the 3\'-untranslated related RISC complex and can affect miRNA targeting specificity. The result of these miRNA interactions is that they regulate a huge number of protein coding genes. These targets include several signalling pathways, and their effects trigger amplification of certain genes. miRNAs have characteristic roles in changing cellular and signalling pathways which can induce cancer developmnet and progression [7] (Figure 1).
miRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase II by using large RNA precursors known as pri-miRNAs [8]. The variation of transcription factors just as of protein-coding genes regulate transcription of miRNA genes [9]. The regulatory network of miRNAs and their targets is complicated. A single miRNA can regulate various mRNAs, and conversely a single mRNA can be targeted by a number of distinct miRNAs. Based on computational estimations, it has been determined that miRNAs regulate one third of all human protein-coding genes [10].
Figure 1.
The changes induced by miRNAs in breast cancer pathogenesis. The decreased of suppressive miRNA control inhibition on oncogenes in breast cancer. The upregulation of miRNA inhibits tumor suppressors. Both mechanisms control gene expression and play specific roles in BC predisposition, initiation, cell proliferation, resistance to apoptosis, invasion, angiogenesis, inflammation and metastasis in BC cells. (RISC: RNA-induced silencing complex)
3. Types of microRNAs
miRNAs are 20-21 nucleotides in length and regulate the expression of almost 30% of genes. Approximately 706 miRNAs have been identified in humans. In the miRBase database there are more than 5000 miRNAs that have been identified in various organisms, each with a different genomic organization and different biogenetic mechanisms [11]. Since their initial discovery in 1993, in a study of the gene lin-4 in Caenorhabditis elegans, more than 2000 molecules have been identified in humans so far, and these are involved in regulating the expression of almost 30% of genes identified. The first microRNA gene to be discovered was lin-4 in C. Elegans, a gene associated with development [12]. miRNAs have different roles in gene regulation, and thereby control complex networks in eukaryotic organisms, including hematopoietic cell differentiation, cell proliferation, apoptosis and organ development [13].
While clustering miRNA genes, they were stratified as hosted and non-hosted. miRNA clusters generally contain between two to three miRNA genes, however there are also larger clusters. For example, the human hsa-miR-17 cluster has six members [14].
Lately, the expression of an enormous cluster of 40 miRNA genes located in the ~1 Mb human imprinted 14q32 domain was identified [15]. miRNA genes are clustered according sequence similarities. However, some of them can differ [16].
These miRNAs have different roles in oncogenesis, tumor-suppression, cancer initiation, progression and metastasis. Recent studies have shown that the miR-17-92 family contain miRNAs which play a role in carcinogenesis. These miRNAs are miR-17, miR-18a, miR-19a, miR-20a, miR-19b, and miR- 92a. The same polycistronic cluster are all transcribed from chromosome 13. In mammals, the miR-106b-25 cluster on chromosome 7, and the miR-106a-363 cluster on the X chromosome are also two paralogs, miRNAs which have the same seed sequence and can share the same targets. According to the homology of the seed sequences, miRNAs in these paralogous clusters can be grouped into four different families, miR-17, miR-18, miR-19 and miR-92 [1].
4. MicroRNA biogenesis and function
By using RNA polymerase II, miRNA joins transcription of pri-miRNA precursor generally. In the nucleus, an endonuclease enzyme plays a role in the processing of the pri-miRNA and conversion into precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA). The pri-miRNAs are processed to mature miRNAs by the RNaseIII family enzymes, Drosha and Dicer. Drosha and Dicer, the RNaseIII family enzymes, process the pri-miRNAs to mature miRNAs. The Drosha and pasha cleaves pri-miRNA to pre-miRNA in the nucleus a nd subsequently Dicer processes it to a miRNA/miRNA* duplex of ~20 bp in the cytoplasm. This constitutes the miRNA-induced silencing complex, miRISC. miRNA (pre-miRNA) contain a stem loop secondary structure and have 80-100nt long sequences. Transportation of pre-miRNA from the nucleus to cytoplasm happens thanks to Exportin-5. Translation of a complement messenger RNA is controlled by the RNA induced silencing complex. Mature miRNA can detect and attach the 3` untranslated regions of an mRNA from the core region, that is generally position 2-7 in the miRNA. High complementarity is not required for regulation and a single miRNA can target multiple genes. miRNAs have a variety of roles including the development of heart and skeletal muscle, cell cycle control, different cell signalling pathways, neurogenesis, insulin secretion, cholesterol metabolism, aging, immune responses and viral replication [17]. Furthermore, miRNAs regulate histone modification and DNA methylation of promoter sites for expression of target genes [18].
Some miRNAs, such as the miR-17/20 cluster, the miR-221/222 cluster, and the let-7 and miR-34 families, play important roles in cell cycle control by targeting cell cycle regulators. These regulators include myc, E2Fs, and cyclin D1 which regulate miR-17/20 during transcription which triggers regulation of translation levels of E2F, pRb, and cyclin D1. miR-15/16 inhibits cyclin D1, cyclin E, CDK4/6 and the miR-34 family suppresses E2F, cyclin D1, and cyclin E expression and they, in turn, control cell cycle [11] (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
miRNAs in cell cycle regulation
miRNAs detect the specificity and sensitivity of post-transcriptional gene silencing. In order to find out mechanisms of miRNA, provide a chance to get knowledge about biological processes of organisms and covered reasons of diseases [19].
5. MicroRNAs and diseases
In eukaryotic organisms, altered expression of miRNAs can trigger disease development [20]. The association between human disease and miRNA dysregulation can be seen in miR2Disease, a publicly available database [21]. miRNAs play various roles in cell proliferation, metabolism, apoptosis, development, neuronal gene expression, brain morphogenesis [22] cell differentiation, muscle differentiation [23], cell growth and stem cell division [24, 25].
In addition, miRNAs have significant roles in cancer development. miRNAs make decisions as to the fate of the cell [26]. miRNAs are regulated differently in each human cancer, with some of them upregulated and others down-regulated [27].
miRNAs have been determined to play a role in most biological processes and different human diseases including: cardiovascular disease [28], acute and chronic disease [29], neurodevelopmental diseases [30], autoimmune disease [31], liver disease [32], skeletal muscle disease [33] and skin disease [34].
Scientists foresee that miRNA present an immense prospect in diagnosis as well as therapy of diseases in thefuture. Recently, miRNA, antisense blocking and miRNA alteration techniques have been considered as alternative treatments for different cancers [35].
6. MicroRNAs and cancer
Thanks to advancing technology, the genetic study of disease at the molecular level has increased precipitously. The majority of these molecular studies are concerned with understanding cancer. At the molecular level, the etiology of cancer lies in various signalling pathways. Cancer is a multifactorial disease with many different varieties which differ significantly from one another. Due to its complexity and variety, common occurence and high death rate, scientists have focused heavily on cancer research. In Singh and Mo’s reserach, they indicated that miRNAs can be used to predict response to therapy as well as in prognosis in clinical cases. To illustrate, a variety of anticancer agents, when combined with miRNA reagents, such as anti-miR-21, result in more effective therapeutic approaches [7].
7. MicroRNAs and breast cancer
7.1. The role of MicroRNAs in breast cancer
Recently, the importance of microRNAs (miRNA/miRs) in cellular regulation has been shown. Some miRNAs are oncogenic and are related to breast cancer. They cause metastasis and then deregulation in cancer [36] (Figure 3). Circulating miRNAs can potentially be used to detect and prognose cancer early [37]. While in this field there are no studies about treatment with circulating miRNA, they can be used as a marker of chemoresistance in BC [38]. In the blood plasma of patients with BC, let-7, miR-10b, miR-34, miR-155 and miR-200c are low, while miR-21, miR-195 and miR-221 are abundant.. Plasma levels of these miRNAs were measured and used to characterize treatment response [39].
In each breast cancer subtype, the expression and regulation of miRNAs in disease initiation is different. In a comparison of 10 normal breast samples and 76 breast cancer samples, the most significantly dysregulated miRNAs were identified as miR-125b, miR-145, miR-21 and miR-155 [40]. These miRNAs play different roles in BC. In order to prove the miRNAs capability of regulation of transition from ductal carcinoma in situ to invasive ductal carcinoma, 94 biopsies were analysed. Then, a nine-miRNA signature was identifiedin invasion, and five miRNAs were identified in metastasis. The downregulation of let-7d, miR-210 and miR-221 in ductal carcinoma in situ, and upregulation of them in the invasive transition is indicated [41]. There are a number of studies about miRNA in BC. In one of these, the peripheral blood samples of 189 patients and89 healthy individuals were collected to determine characteristic miRNA genotyping and expression. miR-499, miR-146a and miR-196a-2 were detected in postmenopausal patients and miR- 196a-2 was determined in premenopausal breast cancer patients. This differs from healthy individuals [42]. In another study that included 23 BC patients and10 controls, next-generation sequencing was used for analysis. Specific miRNAs were found to be co-expressed in the serum and tissue of BC patients. miR-103, miR-23a, miR-29a, miR-222, miR-23b, miR-24 and miR-25 are all upregulated. miR-222 has an especially high level in the serum of BC patients and serves as a specific biomarker [43].
Figure 3.
Classes of miRNAs in breast cancer
7.2. Tumor Suppressor MicroRNAs in Breast Cancer
7.2.1. let-7 family
The Let-7 family is crucial for cell type determination during embryogenesis. This family was first discovered in Caenorhabditis elegans and was one of the first two microRNAs to be identified [44]. The subtypes of the let-7 family are: let-7a, let-7b, let-7c, let-7d, let-7e, let-7f, let-7g, let-7i, miR-98 and miR-202. They have functions in cell regulation, gene expression and development. Lin28 regulates biogenesis of let-7 at the post- transcriptional stage [45]. Downregulation of let-7 causes different cancers. The role of let-7 was determined in stem cells. Let-7 was found to play role in self-renewal, differentiation and tumorigenicity in both breast tumor initiating cells (BT-IC) and non-BT-IC, all of which were isolated from primary breast cancer, Overexpression of let-7 family miRNAs decreases proliferation, leads to formation of mammospheres by BT-ICs in vitro and tumor formation and metastasis in NOD/SCID mice. Let-7 also targets H-RAS and HMGA2 and regulates BT-IC stem cell-like properties [46].
7.2.2. miR-200 family
The miR-200 family includes five subgroups: miR-200a, miR-200b, miR-200c, miR-141 and miR-429. The miR-200 family suppresses EMT which is mediated via the regulation of E-cadherin. The miR-200 family is not present in invasive breast cancer cell lines of mesenchymal phenotype; also, these cell lines did not express e-cadherin. [47]. There is a correlation between miR-200 family and E-cadherin, so it alters cell morphology. miR-200c controls breast cancer cell migration, invasion, elongatioon and stress fiber formation, and metastasis targets FHOD1 and PPM1F which are direct regulators of the actin cytoskeleton. In addition, downregulation of miR-200c is associated with drug resistance in human breast cancer. On the other hand, the role of miR-200c family is not clear in metastasis. miR-200c controls regulation of PLCG1, BMI1, TGF-β2, FAP-1, ZEB and Suz12 [48]. Upregulation of the miR-200 family in metastatic 4TO7 cells regulates metastatic colonization [49].
7.2.3. miR-205
This miRNA is involved in the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and tumor invasion by targeting the transcriptional repressors of E-cadherin, ZEB1 and ZEB2 in breast cancer [50]. miR-205 is expressed at low levels in breast tumor as compared to normal breast tissue [51]. The observed down-regulation in breast cancer cell lines such as MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 is absent in the non-malignant cell line MCF-10A. It targets the HER3 receptor and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) via interaction with a binding site in the 3\'-untranslated region (3\'-UTR) of ErbB3 and VEGF-A. Also, activation of the downstream mediator Akt is inhibited by miR-205 which has a role in the proliferation pathway mediated by the HER receptor family [51, 52].
7.2.4. miR-145
When Iorio et al. compared normal breast tissue and breast cancer by microarray and northern blot analyses, they found that miR-145 in downregulated in breast cancer. miRNAs can be a novel biomarker for early cancer detection, because of its early appearance [53]. Spizzo et al. also reported the relation of TP53 activation and miR-145 as pro-apoptotic. The target of miR-145 may be estrogen receptor-α (ER-α) protein expression and cause apoptosis in both ER-α positive and wild type TP53-expressing breast cancer cells [54]. The oncogene c-Myc, which plays a role in cell proliferation and development in vitro and in vivo, is a target of miR-145 [7]. The transcription factor p53 is mutated in breast cancer. Several miRNAs such as miR-145 play a role in the trancriptional control of p53. There are different mechanisms in response to DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis associated with p53 [55] (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
The effect of miRNAs in the p53 pathway. A. The main genes involved in the posttranscriptional control of p53. B. The mission of transcription factor p53 and activation of it by proteins and miRNAs. C. Post-transcription stage of p53. An association between miRNAs, p53, and apoptotic genes was demonstrated [55].
7.3. Oncogenic MicroRNAs in breast cancer
Some miRNAs, which suppress the expression of antioncogenes in apoptosis, metastasis, invasion and cell proliferation play roles as oncomirs and their expression is increased in breast cancer [56]. The oncogenic miRNAs and their families have been identfied as miR-10, miR-15, miR-16, miR-17~92 cluster, miR-18, miR-19, miR-20, miR-21 family, miR-92 miR-155, miR-569.
7.3.1. miR-10
miR-10a and miR-10b are subtypes of the miR-10 family and play a role in metastasis and development [57]. The miR-10 family regulate Hox transcripts, and thus function in development [58]. The dysregulation of this miRNA family was identified not only in breast cancer, but also in colon cancer [59], melanoma [57], acute myeloid leukemia [60], glioblastoma [61], hepatocellular carcinoma [62] and pancreatic cancer [63].
The expression level of miR-10b is negatively correlated with E-cadherin, but it increases metastasis, tumor size, and clinical staging. It was observed in a murine xeno- graft model of breast cancer that when miR-10b is overexpressed, it increases invasion and migration [64].
7.3.2. miR-17
This miRNA was identified firstly as a member of the OncomiR-1. miR-17 plays a role in the cell cycle with transcription factor E2F1 and leads to cancerous growth [65]. The miR-17~92 cluster is amplified in lymphomas [66]. Although researchers detected that this miRNA cluster is downregulated in metastasis, miR-17-5p was different from them. It is expressed at very/extremely high levels in invasive MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells but not in non-invasive MCF-7 breast cancer cells. This group can cause migration in MCF-7 cells by targeting the HBP1/β-catenin pathway and reduction of miR-17-5p suppresses the invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells in vitro [67]. In addition, this miRNAs has subtypes including miR-18b, miR-19b, miR-20a, miR-92, miR-93 and miR-106 which are found to be amplified in lymphomas [66, 68].
7.3.3. miR-21
Chan et al. first reported high levels of miR-21 in human glioblastoma tumor tissues [69]. It is a major miRNA for breast cancer, because of it roles in cell migration, invasion and tumor progression [70]. This is confirmed by studies from several groups. For instance, Singh et al., using real time RT-PCR array analysis, reported that overexpression of miR-21 in breast tumors as compared with normal breast tissues [71]. Iorio et al. used microarray and northern blot analyses, and found the aberrant expression of miR-21, miR-125b, miR-145 and miR-155 in human breast cancer [40].
Clinicopathologic features of miR-21 and the association of PTEN were determined in a study by Huang et al. using real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry (IHC) analyses. They researched miR-21 expression in non-tumor and tumor tissues of 40 human invasive ductal carcinoma of the breast and reported that the association of PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10) and miR-21 expression inversely correlated in breast cancer and that miR-21 causes metastasis [72].
7.3.4. miR-155
This oncomir is highly expressed in human cancers. Suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1) is a target gene of miR-155 in human breast cancer. Research indicates that SOCS1 is negatively regulated by miR-155, and may be a potential target in breast cancer therapy [73].
7.4. Metastatic MicroRNAs in breast cancer
Metastasis is the primary cause of mortality in breast cancer. In metastasis, cancer migrates from a primary solid tumor to distant parts of the body [74]. Mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET) and epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) are causes of metastasis [75]. Recent research shows that some miRNAs levels decrease, but others accumulated during metastasis of breast cancer [76]. The miR-9,36 miR-10b,37,38 miR-21,39-45 miR-29a,46 miR-15547 and miR-373/520 families promote metastasis in BC [77]. For instance, miR-9 plays a role cell motility focusing on E-cadherin and raises the level of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) [78]. Tristetraprolin, the target of miR-29a, regulates EMT and metastasis in BC [79]. miR-373/520 can increase invasion and migration by CD44. The connection of miR-373 and CD44 expression was displayed thanks to clinical metastasis samples [77]. Subgroups of miRNA that prevent metastasis in BC are: miR-7,50-52 miR-17/20, 53, 54 miR-22,55- 57 miR-30, 58, 59 miR-31,60-62 miR-126,63-68 miR-145,69-72 miR- 146, 73, 74 miR-193b,75 miR-205,76,77 miR-206,78-80 miR-335,32,81 miR-448,82 miR-66183,84 and let-7 [46].
Some miRNAs were selected to determine their roles in metastasis. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), a regulator of cellular processes and overexpressed in breast cancer, is associatede with miR-7 and causes metastatis [80]. Several cancer types are inhibited by miR-7 include p21-activated kinase 1 expression which is a signaling kinase. If overexpression of miR-7 is present in BC cells, it causes migration to other tissues in BC [81].
miR-17 is known as an oncogenic miRNA in other cancers. When miR-17/20 is overexpressed in breast cancer cell lineage, it stops cell proliferation and causes G1 cell cycle arrest. This miRNA’s target is cyclin D1 rolled in G1-S phase transition. In ~50% of human breast cancers cyclin D1 expression is increased. It has an inverese correlation with miR-17/20 [82].
When analyzed non-invasive breast cancer cell MCF-7 and invasive MDA-MB-231 cell line, miRNAs’ role in inhibition of invasion was determined. While miRNA is inhibiting invasion, it connects IL-8 and cytokeratin 8 through cyclin D1 [83]. In vivo and in vitro investigation about breast cancer shows that overexpression of miRNA causes a reduction in cell motility through targetting CDK6, SIRT1 and Sp1. Furthermore, miR-22 targets estrogen receptor α (Erα) and supresses cell proliferation on ERα-dependent breast cancer [84]. miR-145 and miR-146 are very important tumor suppressors miRNAs in breast cancer. miR-145 prevents metastasis by targeting IRS-1, mucin-1, c-myc, JAM-A and fascin [54]. In an MDA-MB-231 mouse model experiment, miR-146 induces EGFR, which plays a role in inhibition of metastasis [85]. It also downregulates interleukin receptor associated kinase and TNF associated factor 6 and controls NFκB [86]. Mo’s research displayed that the overexpession of miR-30 suppresses cell growth by targetting Ubc9, and plays a role in cell growth and cancer development. This pathway was also seen in breast cancer [87].
8. Conclusion
Recently, breast cancer has been thoroughly studied, because approximately 13 million women will be diagnosed with breast cancer globally and about 465,000 will die from the disease [10]. Researchers have conducted a variety of experiments concerning breast cancer and its pathways. Although there are many breast cancer therapies, alternative methods are being developed. In particular, research focused on molecular mechanisms are currently popular. miRNAs are an alternative methodology as a potential therapeutic target for breast cancer. The association of miRNAs and breast cancer is discussed, including miRNAs as candidate diagnostic and prognostic indicators in breast cancer. Combinations of different anticancer agents with miRNA can be more effective as therapeutic approaches. Hence, some of miRNAs can be utilized as breast cancer biomarkers. Briefly, the main subtypes of miRNAs are discussed in this chapter, and several lines reseache focus on other types of miRNAs.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The regulation of MicroRNAs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Types of microRNAs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. MicroRNA biogenesis and function",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. MicroRNAs and diseases",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. MicroRNAs and cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. MicroRNAs and breast cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"7.1. The role of MicroRNAs in breast cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"7.2. Tumor Suppressor MicroRNAs in Breast Cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"7.2.1. let-7 family",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"7.2.2. miR-200 family",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"7.2.3. miR-205",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"7.2.4. miR-145",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.3. Oncogenic MicroRNAs in breast cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"7.3.1. miR-10",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"7.3.2. miR-17",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"7.3.3. miR-21",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"7.3.4. miR-155",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"7.4. Metastatic MicroRNAs in breast cancer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Walker, K.E.C.a.A.M., Potential Roles of miR-106a in Breast Cancer in intech, m. gündüz, Editor. 2011. p. 523-540.'},{id:"B2",body:'Eulalio, A., et al., Target-specific requirements for enhancers of decapping in miRNA-mediated gene silencing. Genes Dev, 2007. 21(20): p. 2558-70.'},{id:"B3",body:'Pillai, R.S., et al., Inhibition of translational initiation by Let-7 MicroRNA in human cells. Science, 2005. 309(5740): p. 1573-6.'},{id:"B4",body:'Mathonnet, G., et al., MicroRNA inhibition of translation initiation in vitro by targeting the cap-binding complex eIF4F. 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Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Turgut Ozal University, Ankara, Turkey
Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Turgut Ozal University, Ankara, Turkey
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1. Introduction
The word char, is a common terminology used for the solid product of the combustion of carbonaceous material [1]. Generally, char product is rich in carbon content; an example is charcoal, which is almost the earliest invention of humans from fire or heat creation. Another vivid example of char is biochar. In this case, the study, is made from organic compounds such as forest, agricultural or animal products but in the absence/limited supply of oxygen compared to charcoal. Therefore, biochar is derived from biomass combustion in the presence of a limited oxygen supply and at relatively low temperatures below 700°C. The earliest known purpose for creating biochar was specifically for soil application such as carbon storage or sequestration in soil; improvement of soil performance such as increase in nutrient availability, reduction of compactness in soil, soil pH improvement; soil water filtration. Recent applications involve energy production, biochemical process stability and improvement, climate change mitigation, and construction additive [1, 2, 3]. The raw material determines carbonized organic matter properties and the operational parameters used during it production. Pyrolysis (slow or fast) and gasification are the main methods for the production of biochar. The physical nature of the biochar produced is directly affected by the chemical composition of the biomass feedstock. Most organic matter begin to thermally decompose at temperatures above 120°C. Hemicelluloses degrade between 200 and 260°C, cellulose between 240 and 350°C, and lignin between 280 and 500°C. As a result, the proportions of these components will affect the degree of reactivity and, as a result, the extent to which the physical structure is modified during processing [4]. Biochar is characterized with high porosity with pores ranging in size from micro to macropores. Large holes, which originate from the raw biomass’s vascular bundles, are critical for increasing soil quality because they can serve as habitats for symbiotic microbes. Biochar major components are carbon, volatile matter, mineral matter (ash), and moisture. The percentage composition of each components varies based on the feedstock material and the operating parameters [1]. Biochar from plant-based materials have higher carbon composition which range from as low as 51% to as high. The understanding of the key mechanisms for changes in physicochemical properties of biochar during processing for various feedstock types and operating parameters is required to determine biochar’s potential for application both now and in future. Therefore, this chapter explains biochar production techniques, factors affecting its properties and compositions and its application.
2. Biochar production techniques
An ever-growing appetency for using biochar for various applications has orchestrated an increase in converting it into biochar. Thermochemical conversion is a common technology for making biochar. Thermochemical conversion techniques are pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), gasification, torrefaction, and hydrothermal liquefaction [5, 6].
2.1 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical technique that produces biochar, bio-oil, and syngas derived from biomass [7]. The process involves heating and thermally decomposing biomass under anaerobic conditions or limited oxygen supply (low stoichiometric oxygen atmosphere) with temperatures ranging between 400°C and 1200°C [2]. The absence of oxygen enables biomass heating beyond its thermal stability limit, causing the creation of more robust products, including solid residues. By creating an anaerobic atmosphere, it is also ensured that combustion will not occur when the biomass is heated. It is a highly complex process involving many distinct reactions in the reacting zone [8]. In another study, a low-temperature range for pyrolysis was recorded between 250°C and 900°C. Biomass from Agriculture comprises lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and silica. Typically, cellulose pyrolyzes at 350°C, whereas the melting point of lignin is well above 350°C [6]. Although the product yield depends on various operating variables, char formation is generally favored by low temperatures and long residence times [9]. Therefore, it can be decoded that the effective temperature range for pyrolysis was between 300 and 700°C. The cracking of heavy chemicals happens in secondary pyrolysis and converts biomass into biochar or gases. Figure 1 is a summary of the pyrolysis technique and the operating variables affecting pyrolysis.
Figure 1.
Schematic representation of pyrolysis process [3].
In essence, this is an alternative way to valorize biomass into various products such as bio-oil, syngas and biochar. Depolymerization, fragmentation, and cross-linking are chemical mechanisms that occur during the process at specific temperature points, resulting in a different product state for lignocellulosic components, including cellulose and hemicellulose (solid, liquid and gas). Biochar and bio-oil are the solid and liquid products, whereas CO2, CO, H2, (collectively known as syngas) are evolved as the gaseous by-products (C1-C2 hydrocarbons) [3]. Biochar is made in a different type of reactors, such as paddle kiln, bubbling fluidized bed, wagon reactor, and agitated sand rotating kiln. The biomass nature and employed type determine the biochar yield during the pyrolysis route. The major operating parameter that impacts product efficiency is the temperature [10, 11]. When the pyrolysis temperature is increased, biochar’s yield decreases and the generation of syngas increases. The gas yield is represented by the initial section of the product side (as shown in Eq. (1)), with various gases created during the process.
C6H6O6n→H2+CO+CH4+…+C5H12+H2O+CH3OH+CH3COOH+…+CE1
The mixture of multiple sorts of liquid outputs is shown in the second part of the products’ side, and the solid yield is represented in the last component [12]. One of the most significant masteries of this technology is that it may be optimized to achieve the desired outcomes. Slow pyrolysis, for example, can be utilized to produce a considerable amount of biochar, whereas fast pyrolysis is better for dominantly producing bio-oil [13].
2.1.1 Types of pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is strongly dependent on the operating parameters, namely temperature, heating rate, and residence time [14]. These operating conditions further help to categorize pyrolysis into other six subclasses. These subclasses are slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, flash pyrolysis, vacuum pyrolysis, intermediate pyrolysis, and hydropyrolysis [15]. Each classification of pyrolysis has its own documented benefits and drawbacks. The subclasses in question foster an environment for different reaction conditions and mechanisms to have various products. The pyrolysis technology mechanism is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Representation of a pyrolysis process [6].
2.1.1.1 Slow pyrolysis
As indicated by the name, to complete the process, slow pyrolysis has a long residence time (more than 1 hour), and biochar is produced as a major product [16]. Slow pyrolysis is dubbed conventional pyrolysis, where biomass is heated at temperatures ranging between 300 and 600°C accompanied by a heating rate of 5–7°C/min [12, 17]. A lower heating rate and longer vapor residence time provide a suitable environment and adequate time for the secondary reactions to proceed. Furthermore, a prolonged residence period permits vapors created during the secondary reaction to be evacuated [15, 18]. This leads to the creation of solid carbonaceous biochar in the end. Slow pyrolysis favors char development, but liquid and gaseous products are also created in modest quantities. Biochar is formed as a primary product (35–45%) together with other products such as bio-oil (25–35%) and syngas (20–30%), as indicated in Eq. (1) [6, 19].
2.1.1.2 Fast pyrolysis
Fast pyrolysis is a direct thermochemical process for converting solid biomass into high-energy liquid bio-oil. A high-efficiency thermochemical technique to produce biomass-derived biofuels, with reduced amounts of solids and gases produced [20, 21]. Fast pyrolysis is carried out without oxygen at temperatures above 500°C and a heating rate of over 300°C/min. Fast pyrolysis is a rapid biochar generation technique that takes only a few seconds. Fast pyrolysis produces 60% bio-oil, 20% biochar, and 20% syngas, as reported in other studies [21, 22]. Even higher temperatures in the range of 850–1250°C with a heating rate of 10–200°C for a short residence time ranging from 1 to 10 s have been reported in several experiments. 60%-75% of liquid products, 15%-25% of biochar and 10–20% of non-condensable gaseous products are produced by a typical pyrolysis process [23]. Fast pyrolysis takes biomass to temperatures in which thermal cracking can occur and minimizes the exposure time, which supports biochar production [24].
2.1.1.3 Flash pyrolysis
This is dubbed to be an enhanced and modified version of fast pyrolysis. Biomass decomposes quickly, usually in less than a minute, at 1000°C and even higher temperatures. Heating rates of above 1000°C/sec have been recorded on occasion. Flash pyrolysis is carried out at temperatures between 900 and 1200°C, which can be reached in less than one second (usually between 0.1 and 1 s) [25, 26]. A high bio-oil yield combines a high heating rate with a high temperature and a short vapor residence time. However, the yield of biochar is reduced because of the process [27, 28]. In flash pyrolysis, heat and mass transfer processes, reaction chemical kinetics and biomass phase transition behavior all play a role in product distribution. Although flash pyrolysis is performed in a fluidised bed reactor and a twin-screw mixing reactor, it has limited industrial applicability because of the reactor’s architecture, which requires it to run at a high temperature with a very high heating rate [12].
2.1.1.4 Vacuum pyrolysis
This is the thermal decomposition of biomass under vacuum or relatively low pressure in an isolated oxygen environment [15, 29]. Pressure is usually regulated in the region between 0.5 and 2 bar, and temperature is maintained at 450–600°C [30]. Like slow pyrolysis, vacuum pyrolysis has comparably low heating rates. However, these two techniques, in comparison, yield significantly different products. This owes to the constant and effective discharge of the vapor produced during vacuum pyrolysis through condensation train. The rapid evacuation of organic vapors created during the primary pyrolysis also considerably minimizes the vapor residence time, which in turn minimizes the occurrence of secondary reactions and assures a high liquid product yield during the secondary pyrolysis [31]. As a result, only vacuum or low-pressure extraction is utilized to remove vapor evolved during pyrolysis, which substantially affects product quality and yield by preventing inorganic devolatilisation.
2.1.1.5 Intermediate pyrolysis
As the name suggests, this is a combination of slow and fast pyrolysis processes, and it is crucial when there is a need to balance solid and liquid products. This means that slow pyrolysis is more efficient at producing large amounts of char, but it also results in lower amounts of liquid products, while it is vice versa with fast pyrolysis. Generally, pressure is kept at 1 bar during the process. Intermediate pyrolysis has temperatures ranging between 500 and 650°C, with heating rates between 0.1 and 10°C/min and residence time between 5 and 17 mins [32]. 40–60% liquid, 20–30% non-condensable gases, and 15–25% biochar are typical constituents of finished products [33, 34]. Using intermediate pyrolysis conditions prevents the synthesis of high molecular reactive tars and results in dry biochar, which can be utilized for agricultural purposes or directly in boilers and engines in conjunction with high-quality bio-oil [2].
2.1.1.6 Hydropyrolysis
It relatively a novel technique that is used for the conversion of biomass into high quality products by injection of hydrogen or hydrogen based material into the reactor under high pressure, typically above the atmospheric pressure, stretching from 50 bar to 200 bar [15, 35]. The heating rate (10–300°C/s), residence time (over 15 sec) and temperature (350–600°C) are not highly deviated from fast pyrolysis [36]. In essence, hydropyrolysis can be considered a special type of fast pyrolysis subjected to high pressure in an atmosphere infused with hydrogen or hydrogen-based material. This method is not ideal for the production of biochar as the introduction of hydrogen under high temperature and pressure acts as a reducing agent, hence reducing oxygen content in the bio-oils produced and synchronously inhibiting the production of biochar [37, 38]. The employment of a catalyst to eradicate oxygen, water, and COx from the liquid product is typically linked with hydropyrolysis. Catalysts also reduce depolymerisation and coking reactions [39]. However, developing the catalyst for this intention remains a notable example of the difficult aspects of catalytic hydropyrolysis.
2.2 Carbohydrate decomposition
The majority of the material used in biochar production via pyrolysis contain carbohydrates in various forms (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin), and these react differently based on the operating conditions they are subjected to, thus influencing the product yield of pyrolysis [15]. More specifically, lignin and cellulose are the major parts of biomass, making up its bulk [40]. On pyrolysis, cellulose mostly creates tar, a mixture of discrete ketones, aldehydes, organic liquids, and char, whereas lignin essentially produces char and a minimal amount of water. As the cellulose content grows but the char and tar content decreases, the yield of gaseous content increases. It’s also been discovered that structural differences in biomass cause changes in the pyrolysis product’s composition [41].
2.2.1 Cellulose decomposition
By lowering the extent of polymerization, the process of cellulose degradation is determined, which consists of two principal reactions:
Slow pyrolysis involves cellulose degradation over a prolonged period with a lower heating rate.
Fast pyrolysis occurs at high heating rates through speedy volatilization and leads to levoglucosan formation.
In addition to producing the solid product biochar, levoglucosan is dehydrated to generate hydroxymethylfurfural, which can break down to produce liquid and gaseous products such as bio-oil and syngas, respectively. Furthermore, the hydroxymethylfurfural can undergo several processes, including aromatization, condensation, and polymerization, to generate solid biochar [42, 43]. At low temperatures, cellulose degrades to a reasonably stable anhydrocellulose that produces a lot of char, but it decomposes into volatiles [25, 44].
2.2.2 Hemicellulose decomposition
The hemicellulose degradation mechanism is like that of cellulose. Depolymerisation of hemicellulose leads to oligosaccharides production [45]. Decarboxylation, intramolecular rearrangement, depolymerisation, and aromatisation reactions can be used to synthesize biochar or the compound can degrade into syngas and bio-oil [46]. The volatile products and lignin are responsible for the char yield of the cellulose and hemicellulose components in biomass [40].
2.2.3 Lignin decomposition
Unlike the degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose, lignin decomposition is more complicated [47]. The creation of a more condensed solid structure and the shattering of relatively weak bonds result in the formation of char from lignin [48]. The β-O-4 lignin bond is broken and causes free radicals to be released. The protons emanating from other particles are captured by these free radicals, causing the production of degraded substances or compounds. Chain propagation is accomplished by free radicals moving to other molecules. Different amounts of lignin related to variable wood types bring about different breakdown rates. Coniferous lignin has been discovered to be more stable than deciduous lignin, and the former creates more char [49, 50].
2.3 Gasification
This is a thermochemical process that decomposes carbon-rich materials into gaseous products, including CO, CO2, CH4, H2, and traces of hydrocarbons; these gases are referred to as syngas [51, 52]. Gasification happens at high temperatures between 700 and 900°C in an environment with restricted oxidizing agents such as oxygen, air, nitrogen, steam, carbon dioxide, or a mixture of these gases. It was discovered that when the temperature rose, carbon monoxide and hydrogen production increased, while other components such as methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons declined [53]. The main product of this process is syngas (mostly hydrogen), while char is referred to as a by-product (or waste) with a lower yield, along with ash, tar, and some oil [51]. Partial oxidation of biomass, unlike combustion, takes the energy available in the biomass and bundles it into chemical bonds in the form of gaseous products. The intrinsic chemical energy of carbon in biomass is transformed into combustible fuel gases, which are more efficient and convenient to utilize than raw biomass [54]. Commercial use of the gasification technique has also been documented. Because of its lower Levelised emissions and higher volume of syngas, gasification outperforms other traditional techniques including pyrolysis, combustion, and fermentation. The O/C ratio is critical to achieving high gasification efficiency. High gasification efficiency is achieved by using biomass with a low O/C ratio during gasification. Biomass can be reduced in its O/C ratio by the process of torrefaction. Before conventional gasification, torrefaction might be regarded as a pretreatment for better product quality. It is a low-temperature process between 200 and 300°C with a heating rate of roughly 50°C/min depending on the biomass composition and type [55, 56]. Pyrolysis and gasification are closely related processes. When gasification and pyrolysis are combined, there is no apparent separation between the two approaches [57, 58]. The little composition of oxygen used in gasification causes the biomass to undergo partial oxidation, changing the final product’s characteristics. The product type is one of the most significant variations between pyrolysis and gasification. Gasification produces around 85% gaseous products, 10% solid char, and 5% liquid products [15, 58]. The schematic of the gasification process is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Process diagram for gasification [54].
The gasification mechanism can be sub-divided into many steps as follows [5]:
2.3.1 Drying
Biomass moisture is entirely removed from the material, and no energy is recovered in the process. Different types of biomass have varying moisture contents. When the biomass has a high moisture content, drying is used as a distinct step during gasification.
2.3.2 Pyrolysis
The biomass is heated from 200 to 700°C with restricted oxygen or air during the pyrolysis process. The volatile components of the biomass are evaporated under these circumstances. The volatile vapor contains CO, CO2, CH4, H2, tar (heavier hydrocarbon) gases, and water vapor [59]. Tar and char are also formed [60].
2.3.3 Oxidation/combustion
The oxidation and combustion reactions of the gasification agents are the primary energy sources for the gasification process. These gasification agents react with the gasifier’s combustible species to create CO2, CO, and water.
2.3.4 Reduction
The CO2 and H2O are produced when the oxygen provided to the gasifier combines with the combustible elements. Upon contact with the char formed by pyrolysis, some of this CO2 and H2O are converted to CO and H2 [60, 61]. Furthermore, the hydrogen in the biomass can be oxidized, resulting in the production of water. The reduction reactions that take place inside the gasifier are endothermic, and the energy necessary for them comes from the combustion of char and volatiles. Through a series of reactions, biomass reduction produces combustible gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane [62, 63].
2.3.5 Cracking
Furthermore, during the gasification process, the tar gases formed during the pyrolysis step are cracked, resulting in non-condensable gasses, light hydrocarbons, and unconverted tar [64]. The cracking stage follows more or less Eq. (2).
aCnHx→bCmHy+CH2E2
Where CnHx is tar and CmHy is dehydrogenated hydrocarbons; a, b and c are mole ratios.
3. Factors affecting the properties of biochar
3.1 Feedstock
Biomass is a composite solid substance made up of organic, inorganic and biological material produced from living or non-living creatures/organisms. There are two main categories of biomass, namely Woody and Non-woody biomass. Woody biomass is mainly forestry and tree residue [1]. It is characterized by low moisture and ash content, high calorific and bulk density values, and low voidage; in contrast, Non-woody biomass is made up of agricultural crop residue, animal waste, and municipal and industrial solid waste [1]. Non-woody biomass is characterized by high moisture and ash content, decreased calorific value, low bulk density, and increased voidage compared to woody biomass [1]. The moisture content of the biomass has been shown to have a significant effect on the physicochemical characteristics of the derived biochar [2]. A study conducted by [3] comparing the pyrolytic charcoals produced from hard and softwood bark samples reported a direct correlation between initial sample moisture content and the surface chemistry derived charcoal; the study found that a decrease in the moisture content of maple bark resulted in charcoal surface becoming more graphite-like and polyaromatic attributed to prolonged pyrolysis time. The effect of feedstock lignin and cellulose content on biochar formation is a well-researched area [4]. Lignin is an amorphous, high molecular weight polymer that is hydrophobic in nature and has several aromatic functional groups in comparison; cellulose and hemicelluloses are made up of simple sugar monomers that disintegrate at temperatures below 450 degrees Celsius [5]. Studies conducted by Tripathi et al. 2016 and Yu et al. 2014 [2, 6] showed that the cellulose content of feedstock aided the formation of tar (which comprises aldehydes, organic liquids, ketones, and char); while a high lignin concentration is beneficial to the formation of char during pyrolysis. According to Demirba (2004) [7], high feedstocks lignin content will increase char formation. It has been shown that increased lignin content in plant biomass promotes carbonization and increases biochar carbon and ash content [8, 9].
3.2 Residence time
Residence (pyrolysis time) has been shown to affect the degree of carbonization and biochar yield of feedstock; this effect is particularly pronounced at low temperatures [18]. According to Zornoza et al. (2016), increased residence time during pyrolysis results in a higher degree of carbonization, reducing the liable organic matter mitigation the vulnerability of the biochar to microbial attack [19]. Residence time has also been shown to influence the specific surface area of biochar produced. A study conducted by Wang et al. (2019) found that the surface area of biochar’s derived from the co-pyrolysis of sewage sludge and cotton stalks increased as residence time increased from 30 minutes to 90 minutes [20]. This was attributed to the formation and extension of pore structures of the biochar caused by the increased thermal decomposition of organic matter and volatiles released from etching pores during the increased residence time [21]. The same study noted a decrease in the surface area of the biochar’s as the residence time was increased from 90 minutes to 150 minutes; this reduction was accounted for by the collapse of the pore structure of the biochar during the extended residence time [20]. Residence time has also been shown to affect the calorific value of the biochar produced; a study conducted by Ahmad et al. (2020) on coconut shell derived biochar showed an increase in calorific value from 25.99 MJ/kg to 29.54 MJ/kg as residence time increased for 45 minutes to 75 minutes [22].
3.3 Biomass pretreatment
The pre-treatment of biomass before the pyrolysis has been shown to influence biochar characteristics. Pre-treatment is primarily divided into four categories: physical, physiochemical/thermal, chemical, and biological. Physical pre-treatment describes methods (milling, grinding etc.) that use mechanical energy to alter biomass properties. The most common form of physical pre-treatment is particle size reduction via mechanical comminutions. The effect of particle size reduction and fractionation of ash content is well researched. A study conducted by Liu et al. showed that the ash content of switchgrass and pine bark varied considerably with particle size fractions [22]. The study also reported the potential 20% removal of inorganic constituents from switchgrass and a 30% removal of inorganic constituents from raw pine bark. A similar study conducted by Bridgeman et al. found that the ash content of switchgrass and reed canary greatly increased in fines with particle sizes smaller than 90 micrometers, increasing to 3.62 wt. % to 6.0 wt. % for reed canary grass and 3.12 wt. % to 6.88 wt. % (dry basis) for switchgrass [23]. Besides the ash content, feedstock particle size is also correlated to biochar particle size, with finer feedstocks producing finer biochar particle sizes [18]. Studies have found that biochar’s derived from finer feedstocks exhibit lower nitrogen content as well as increased surface area, electrical conductivity, and pH [24, 25]. A study conducted by Sun et al. (2012) evaluating the properties of fine apple wood and corn stover-derived biochar (feedstock = 0.25 mm) reported a higher surface area when compared to applewood or corn stover-derived biochar stover-derived biochar of feedstock particle size = 1.5 mm [27]. Thermal pre-treatment describes methods that make use of thermal energy to produce changes in biomass properties; the most common forms of thermal pre-treatment are steam explosion, HTC and hot water extraction. Steam explosion involves the subjection of biomass to high temperatures and pressures between (160-260°C) and (0.69–4.83 MPa); the biomass subsequently undergoes sudden decompression scattering the fiber material and breaking the covalent bonds between the hemicellulose and lignin [28, 29]. Steam explosion increases the lignin content of the biomass by facilitating the depolymerisation of lignin into lower molecular weight molecules, which then condense with other degradation products [30]. A study conducted by Chen et al. 2017 [46] evaluating the effect of the steam explosion of crop straws before pyrolysis reported a change in the surface structure of the derived biochar; exhibiting a rougher surface when compared to the smoother, clearer and distinct pore structure of the untreated crop straw [31]. The same study also showed an approximate increase in the specific surface area of oil-rape straw-derived biochar 16 times greater than that on the untreated sample.
4. Biochar characterization
Properties of biochar produced depend on the composition, type of biomass and the conditions under which it is carbonized. Both physical and chemical characterizations are necessary when identifying the basic properties of biochar and predicting the various application uses. Biochar serves as a promising alternative to its surface area, charged surfaces and functional groups. Figure 4 below displays the different physical and chemical methods used for biochar characterization, focusing on BET and FTIR, belonging to the chemical characterization and SEM as physical characterization.
Figure 4.
Overview of a proposed characterization techniques for biochar [65].
The main aim of quantification to distinguish biochar from organic matter and other forms of black carbon produced. Majority of the potential technology is dependent on spectroscopic characteristics rather than physical separation or isolation.
Biochar being produced from a range of biomass that has different chemical and physical properties results in materials of different properties. Properties of each biomass are important during thermal conversion processes, proximate analysis (ash and moisture content); calorific value; fractions of fixed carbon; volatile components; fractions of lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose; inorganic substances; true density; particle size and moisture content.
4.1 Porosity and surface area
Chemical composition of biomass feedstock and biomass is subjected to a range of analyses to achieve the basic physicochemical characteristics of each raw material. Figure 5displays the physiochemical characteristics of biochar. Biochar production is often assessed through changes in the elemental concentrations of C, H, O, S and N and the associated ratios. The fixed carbon is the solid residue that remains after the particle size is carbonized and the volatile matter is expelled. The H/C and O/C ratios are used to determine the degree of aromaticity and maturation. Elemental ratios of O/C, O/H and C/H have been used to provide a reliable measure of the extent of pyrolysis and the level of oxidative adjustment of the biochar. Irrespective of the pyrolytic temperature, the BET areas increased with an increase in carbon burn off, indicating that the carbon burns off had a significant role in increasing pore volume and surface area while the average pore size increased with residence time and pyrolytic temperature. The BET surface area of biochar value of (1057 m2 .g − 1) has been reported, which appears slightly higher than that of activated carbon (970m2 .g−1). Biochar micropore volume of (0.24 mL .g−1) also appeared smaller than that of activated carbon, having a value of (0.32 mL .g−1), however having an average pore diameter of (5.2 nm).
Figure 5.
Fourier-transform infrared spectra (FTIR) of the biochar samples [66].
4.2 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Scanning electron microscopy is categorized as a physical characterization technique used to determine the samples macroporosity and the physical morphology of solid substance (Figure 6). A study by Amin 2016 [1] approximated that the biochar produced from cellulose plant materials had a pore diameter of 1 𝜇m. This characteristic is highly dependable in the intrinsic architecture of the feedstock use.
Figure 6.
SEM micrograph of biochar with magnification of 500x [67].
SEM micrographs displayed that the biochar produced at different pyrolytic temperatures has a distinguishable and clear honeycomb structural appearance due to the original tubular structures present in plant cell materials (Figure 6). The well-developed pores have a direct impact on the high surface area. According to Cantrell et al. (2012), biochar produced at lower temperatures is appropriate for regulating fertilizer nutrients and absorbing pollutants from the soil. Higher temperatures lead to material analogous to activated carbon and environmental remediation. SEM micrographs of biochar displayed a clean surface as the pyrolysis process had stabilized the volatile hydrocarbons, therefore smoothening the surface of the biochar. Pyrolysis at lower temperatures displays molded structures with small pores and uneven surface structure. In general, it is safe to say that since the biomass wastes contain lignin and high volatile matter content, the pore creation in biochar is directly affected.
FTIR spectroscopy serves as a great tool to observe the shift change of chemical compositions. The commonly used technique for biochar characterization using the FTIR is the pellet technique, which mixes 1 mg of dried biochar with 300 mg of pre-dried and pulverized spectroscopic grade KBr. Novak ae al. (2012) used the pellet technique to conclude 3400to 3410 cm−1, H-bonded O–H stretching vibrations of hydroxyl groups from alcohols, phenols, and organic acids, 2850 to 2950 cm−1, C–H stretching of alkyl structures; 1620–1650 cm−1, aromatic and olefinic CDC vibrations, CDO in amide (I), ketone, and quinone groups; 1580 to 1590 cm−1, COO- asymmetric stretching; 1460 cm−1, C–H deformation of CH3 group; 1280–1270 cm−1, O–H stretching of phenolic compounds; and three bands around 460, 800, and 1000–1100 cm−1, bending of Si–O stretching [68]. Figure 5 illustrates the FTIR spectra of biochar collected during different stages of the production, i.e. (Biochar: Original, −1: pre-incubation, −2: jointing, −3: Heading; −4: Mature).
5. Applications of biochar and future perspective
Biochar is a product (together with bio-oil and gases) resulting from biomass pyrolysis. Biochar usage has increased because it reduces the negative impacts of biomass on the environment [69]. The physicochemical properties of biochar are what govern the applications of this material. Depending on the feedstock type, production technology and process conditions [70]; the quality, yield and toxicity of the resulting biochar differs (as shown in Table 1) [72, 73]. These applications (including potential applications) range from adsorption for water and air pollutants [74], activated carbon [75], anaerobic digestion promoter/catalyst [76], construction material [77], agriculture and horticulture use such as soil conditioning, compost additive [78], carbon sequestration, etc. [73]. Figure 7 demonstrates these applications and how biochar contributes to the circular economy through its uses in agriculture and horticulture. Also, these numerous biochar benefits show a great potential to contribute to the economic sustainability of emerging cellulosic bioenergy production systems [79, 80]. It is worth noting that as the number of applications of biochar increases, so does the number of manufacturers, leading to a need for regulated standards and guidelines for the production of this material (see Table 2) [81, 82].
Type of characterization
Determination method
Results and remarks
Elemental analysis
C, H, O, S and N associated ratios
The H/C, O/C and N ratios are used to determine the aromaticity and maturity of the biochar
BET
Surface area, pore structure, average pore diameter, pore volume and average pores of biochar
Changes which occur in the biochar preparations as well as its functional groups present from the original biochar.
Changes include dehydration, pyrolysis, graphene nucleation, and finally carbonization; O–H (3600–3100 cm − 1), C=C and C=O stretching (1740–1600 cm − 1), C–O–C symmetric stretching (1097 cm − 1), –COOMe (1400–1500 cm − 1), and so on
Table 1.
List of notable chemical characterisations of biochar.
Figure 7.
Biochar uses in agriculture and horticulture and its contribution to the circular economy [78].
Process
Process temperature
Residence time
Solid product yield on a dry wood feedstock basis (mass %)
Comparison of typical operating conditions and product properties of various biochar production processes [81].
5.1 Biochar in agriculture and horticulture
Biochar application in agriculture and horticulture has been explored both on a laboratory scale and in the field. These applications include being used as a component of chemical fertilizer [83], soil microbial activity, soil amendment for crop productivity improvement through nutrient availability [84, 85] as well as water holding capacity [86]. Biochar has also been reported to alleviate heavy metals release in the soil while having a limiting effect that aids in increasing the pH of highly acidic soils [87, 88]. Though biochar is another soil conditioner type, it differs from compost by production pathways. Biochar is produced by thermal decomposition of food, horticultural and municipal solid waste in the absence of oxygen, while natural biodegradation of organic substrates produces compost by the microbial community under aerobic conditions. Another difference is that; compost degrades fast, making its benefits relatively short-lived compared to biochar which persists in the soil for more prolonged periods [78, 89].
5.1.1 Biochar as a compost additive
Low soil organic carbon and fertility are challenges faced by many agricultural farmers around the globe. Biochar offers a solution to this challenge because it gives two options, i.e. returning nutrients and carbon to the soil while producing energy [90]. Also, the compositing rate can be increased by using biochar as an additive. Zhang and Sun [91] have examined spent mushroom compost and biochar co-composting. Their results showed a great increase in nutrients content of the resultant compost product and an improved composed quality while reducing the composting time from 90 to 270 days to only 24 days. Also, the large porosity of biochar enables it to facilitate microbial growth in the compost pile, leading to accelerated nutrient recycling [92]. The addition of biochar to poultry manure has been found to increase the maximum temperature reached and shorten the thermophilic phase [93].
5.1.2 Biochar as an adsorbent
An issue of heavy metals/metalloids (HMS) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil and water poses detrimental environmental problems and poor quality of agriculture, affecting all forms of life [94, 95]. These pollutants are toxic, persistent, non-biodegradable and potentially bioaccumulate [96]. Among other bioremediation technologies used to solve the HMS and PAHs issue, biochar is one of the best solutions due to its advantages [97]. These advantages include sustainability, low costs, sequestration of carbon, etc. [94]. Various physical and chemical characteristics of biochar, such as pore structure, specific surface area and functional groups, have been used to adsorption different pollutants [98]. For instance, Mahmoud, et al. [99] have used modified Switchgrass biochar for efficient decolorization of reactive red 195 A dye from aqueous and wastewater samples. Other biomass materials such as rice husks and dairy manure have also been used for biochar production with varying adsorption capacities according to the biomass used upon other factors [100].
5.2 Biochar in construction
Biochar has been used in road construction and as a concrete admixture. Wang, et al. [77] assessed this where a novel production of fill material and pedestrian/vehicle paving blocks were done. In this study, biochar addition was found to be beneficial to cement hydration even though it was noticed that the studied particle sizes could incur microcracks and strength degradation. Also, biochar’s incorporation resulted in enhanced immobilization of potentially organic contaminants and toxic elements in the sediment product, which is significant for moderately to heavily contaminated products. Therefore, biochar from wood can be used as a green combination for cement-based recycling procedures for highly contaminated waste. The use of biochar in construction material to trap atmospheric carbon dioxide in buildings also offers the potential to reduce greenhouse gasses by 25%. High pH and high water retention rate of biochar enable it to absorb some of the mixing water used in concrete mixing, thereby reducing the amount of free water in the concrete [101].
5.3 Future perspective
Since biochar’s applications depend greatly on its properties, future research must elucidate the production process effects on biochar’s properties. Biochar used in water treatment would differ from the one used in energy/agriculture. Likewise, there are diverse literature findings on the effects of biochar on agriculture, particularly on crop production caused by soils being different. For instance, crop yields may be increased or decreased by adding biochar depending on the soil type and fertilizer management [90, 102]. Also, the chemical behavior of biochar with heavy metal ions has been found to be inconsistent [103]. It is apparent that the interaction mechanisms between biochar, soil and plants are critical and yet not thoroughly known. Therefore, more efforts are still needed concerning biochar properties to soil and crop responses equally in the field and climate-controlled environment.
6. Conclusion
Biochar has been applied to remediate contaminated agricultural soil and improve soil fertility by reducing acidity and increasing the availability of nutrients. Thus, the addition of biochar to soils can be one of the best practices to overcome any biotic stress in soil and increase crop productivity, mainly in the agricultural sector. The properties of biochar have significantly been influenced by processes such as pyrolyscould, which have been discussed in this chapter. Thus, biochar appears as a highly promising option for pollutant removal. Economic impacts and recyclability should be considered in developing recoverable biochar for wide environmental applications. The relationship between various solutions for waste management and energy production differs in parameters and multiple techniques for its production and economic, social and ecological constraints. This review paper detailed the state-of-art information that would be helpful to find new opportunities in scientific innovation in the field of biochar research.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the Green Engineering and Sustainability research group in the Department of Chemical engineering at the Durban University of Technology, South Africa.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"biochar, biomass, characterization, future perspective, pyrolysis, pretreatment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82129.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82129.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82129",totalDownloads:19,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 19th 2022",dateReviewed:"April 26th 2022",datePrePublished:"June 6th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 6th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Biochar, or carbon obtained from biomass, is a particularly rich source of carbon created by thermal burning of biomass. There is a rise of interest in using biochar made from waste biomass in a variety of disciplines to address the most pressing environmental challenges. This chapter will provide an overview on the methods employed for the production of biochar. Biochar has been considered by a number of analysts as a means of improving their ability to remediate pollutants. Process factors with regards to biochar properties are mostly responsible for determining biomass production which is discussed in this present chapter. Several characterization techniques which have been employed in previous studies have received increasing recognition. These includes the use of the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and the Scanning electron microscope which duly presented in this chapter. This chapter also discusses the knowledge gaps and future perspectives in adopting biochar to remediate harmful contaminants, which can inform governmental bodies and law-makers to make informed decisions on adopting this residue.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82129",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82129",signatures:"Edward Kwaku Armah, Maggie Chetty, Jeremiah Adebisi Adedeji, Denzil Erwin Estrice, Boldwin Mutsvene, Nikita Singh and Zikhona Tshemese",book:{id:"11537",type:"book",title:"Biochar - Productive Technologies, Properties and Application",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biochar - Productive Technologies, Properties and Application",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli, Dr. Mauro Giorcelli and Prof. Alberto Tagliaferro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11537.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-252-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-251-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-253-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biochar production techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Pyrolysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Types of pyrolysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_4",title:"2.1.1.1 Slow pyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_3_4",title:"2.1.1.2 Fast pyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"2.1.1.3 Flash pyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"2.1.1.4 Vacuum pyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"2.1.1.5 Intermediate pyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"2.1.1.6 Hydropyrolysis",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.2 Carbohydrate decomposition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.1 Cellulose decomposition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.2.2 Hemicellulose decomposition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.2.3 Lignin decomposition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"2.3 Gasification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.3.1 Drying",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.3.2 Pyrolysis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.3.3 Oxidation/combustion",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"2.3.4 Reduction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"2.3.5 Cracking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21",title:"3. Factors affecting the properties of biochar",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"3.1 Feedstock",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"3.2 Residence time",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"3.3 Biomass pretreatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25",title:"4. Biochar characterization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.1 Porosity and surface area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.2 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"4.3 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29",title:"5. Applications of biochar and future perspective",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"5.1 Biochar in agriculture and horticulture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"5.1.1 Biochar as a compost additive",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"5.1.2 Biochar as an adsorbent",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"5.2 Biochar in construction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"5.3 Future perspective",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35",title:"6. 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Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal–a review. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 2002;35(4):219-230'},{id:"B84",body:'Pandit NR, Mulder J, Hale SE, Martinsen V, Schmidt HP, Cornelissen G. Biochar improves maize growth by alleviation of nutrient stress in a moderately acidic low-input Nepalese soil. Science of the Total Environment. 2018;625:1380-1389'},{id:"B85",body:'Purakayastha T et al. A review on biochar modulated soil condition improvements and nutrient dynamics concerning crop yields: Pathways to climate change mitigation and global food security. Chemosphere. 2019;227:345-365'},{id:"B86",body:'Mohamed BA, Ellis N, Kim CS, Bi X, Emam AE-R. Engineered biochar from microwave-assisted catalytic pyrolysis of switchgrass for increasing water-holding capacity and fertility of sandy soil. Science of the Total Environment. 2016;566:387-397'},{id:"B87",body:'Rizwan M et al. Cadmium phytoremediation potential of brassica crop species: A review. Science of the Total Environment. 2018;631:1175-1191'},{id:"B88",body:'Ruzickova J et al. A comprehensive assessment of potential hazard caused by organic compounds in biochar for agricultural use. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2021;403:123644'},{id:"B89",body:'Tratsch MVM, Ceretta CA, Silva LSD, Ferreira PAA, Brunetto G. Composition and mineralization of organic compost derived from composting of fruit and vegetable waste. Revista Ceres. 2019;66:307-315'},{id:"B90",body:'Gaskin JW et al. Effect of peanut hull and pine chip biochar on soil nutrients, corn nutrient status, and yield. Agronomy Journal. 2010;102(2):623-633'},{id:"B91",body:'Zhang L, Sun X. Changes in physical, chemical, and microbiological properties during the two-stage co-composting of green waste with spent mushroom compost and biochar. Bioresource Technology. 2014;171:274-284'},{id:"B92",body:'Sanchez-Monedero M, Cayuela M, Roig A, Jindo K, Mondini C, Bolan N. Role of biochar as an additive in organic waste composting. Bioresource Technology. 2018;247:1155-1164'},{id:"B93",body:'Czekała W, Malińska K, Cáceres R, Janczak D, Dach J, Lewicki A. Co-composting of poultry manure mixtures amended with biochar–the effect of biochar on temperature and C-CO2 emission. Bioresource Technology. 2016;200:921-927'},{id:"B94",body:'Anae J et al. Recent advances in biochar engineering for soil contaminated with complex chemical mixtures: Remediation strategies and future perspectives. Science of the Total Environment. 2021;767:144351'},{id:"B95",body:'Pérez RM, Cabrera G, Gómez J, Abalos A, Cantero D. Combined strategy for the precipitation of heavy metals and biodegradation of petroleum in industrial wastewaters. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2010;182(1-3):896-902'},{id:"B96",body:'Hadia-e-Fatima AA. Heavy metal pollution–a mini review. Journal of Bacteriol Mycology Open Access. 2018;6(3):179-181'},{id:"B97",body:'Alaboudi KA, Ahmed B, Brodie G. Effect of biochar on Pb, Cd and Cr availability and maize growth in artificial contaminated soil. Annals of Agricultural Sciences. 2019;64(1):95-102'},{id:"B98",body:'Beesley L, Moreno-Jiménez E, Gomez-Eyles JL. Effects of biochar and greenwaste compost amendments on mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of inorganic and organic contaminants in a multi-element polluted soil. Environmental Pollution. 2010;158(6):2282-2287'},{id:"B99",body:'Mahmoud ME, Nabil GM, El-Mallah NM, Bassiouny HI, Kumar S, Abdel-Fattah TM. Kinetics, isotherm, and thermodynamic studies of the adsorption of reactive red 195 a dye from water by modified switchgrass biochar adsorbent. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 2016;37:156-167'},{id:"B100",body:'Xu X, Cao X, Zhao L. Comparison of rice husk-and dairy manure-derived biochars for simultaneously removing heavy metals from aqueous solutions: Role of mineral components in biochars. Chemosphere. 2013;92(8):955-961'},{id:"B101",body:'Gupta S, Kua HW. Factors determining the potential of biochar as a carbon capturing and sequestering construction material: Critical review. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering. 2017;29(9):04017086'},{id:"B102",body:'Asai H et al. Biochar amendment techniques for upland rice production in northern Laos: 1. Soil physical properties, leaf SPAD and grain yield. Field Crops Research. 2009;111(1-2):81-84'},{id:"B103",body:'Abdelhafez AA, Li J, Abbas MH. “Feasibility of biochar manufactured from organic wastes on the stabilization of heavy metals in a metal smelter contaminated soil”. Chemosphere. 2014;117:66-71'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Edward Kwaku Armah",address:"ekarmah@cktutas.edu.gh",affiliation:'
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, Green Engineering and Sustainability Research Group, South Africa
Department of Applied Chemistry, C.K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Sciences, School of Chemical and Biochemical Sciences, Ghana
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, Green Engineering and Sustainability Research Group, South Africa
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, Green Engineering and Sustainability Research Group, South Africa
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, Green Engineering and Sustainability Research Group, South Africa
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, Green Engineering and Sustainability Research Group, South Africa
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Durban University of Technology, Steve Biko Campus, South Africa
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While there I worked for Dr. Ayad Al-Katib on the ubiquitination of Bcl2 and the novel biological agent Bryostatin 1. I completed two post-doctoral fellowships at first (2000-2002) Yale University in the lab of Dr. Dario Altieri where I started my chosen area of work on the inhibitor of apoptosis, Survivin. I next (2003-2004) developed my molecular skills in the laboratory of Dr. Yang Shi at the Medical School at Harvard. In September 2004 I was recruited to the Center for Molecular Biology & Gene Therapy, now Center for Health Disparities & Molecular Medicine at Loma Linda University. I am joint appointed in the Depts. of Basic Sciences, Pediatrics and Radiation Medicine. 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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
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In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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The IntechOpen timeline
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2004
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Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
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Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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2005
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
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2008
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Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
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2009
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Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
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2010
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Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
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IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
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2011
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
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IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
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IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
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IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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High titer of Tobamovirus species accumulates in reproductive organs leading to viral particles adsorbed to seed coat, which potentially establish a primary infectious source. Tobamovirus-contaminated seeds show very low virus transmission in grow-out experiments as detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. Interestingly, in situ immunofluorescence analysis of Cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV) reveals that the perisperm-endosperm envelope (PEE) is contaminated as well by the Tobamovirus. Indeed, chemical seed disinfection treatments that affect primarily the seed coat surface are efficient for several Tobamovirus species but apparently do not prevent seed transmission of CGMMV to occur. Tobamovirus infection of the seed internal layers, which rarely includes the embryo, may partially follow the direct invasion pathway of Potyviruses such as Pea seed-borne mosaic virus (PSbMV) to pea embryo.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Aviv Dombrovsky and Elisheva Smith",authors:[{id:"207747",title:"Dr.",name:"Aviv",middleName:null,surname:"Dombrovsky",slug:"aviv-dombrovsky",fullName:"Aviv Dombrovsky"}]},{id:"62227",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79006",title:"Cowpea: A Strategic Legume Species for Food Security and Health",slug:"cowpea-a-strategic-legume-species-for-food-security-and-health",totalDownloads:3011,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"In this chapter, several characteristics of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), including nutritional and nutraceutical properties, and economic and social aspects of production were analysed with the objective to demonstrate that cowpea is a culture suitable for inclusion in food security programs. Cowpea is rich in diverse nutrients, highlighting high levels of protein. Cowpea also is rich in nutraceuticals compounds such as dietary fibre, antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids and polyphenols. Widely cultivated and consumed cowpea is the very important legume for the nutrition and health of millions of people in many countries. In addition to being nutritious and safe, cowpea has high relative productivity, production stability and high tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought. Cowpea also has economic viability, low environmental impact and contributes to the conservation of natural resources and the sustainability of production systems. Cowpea is a safe food, always available in most regions, low priced compared to other sources of protein. Based on the analyses performed, it is possible to infer that cowpea is a strategic culture for the promotion of food security and health of populations on all continents.",book:{id:"7337",slug:"legume-seed-nutraceutical-research",title:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research",fullTitle:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research"},signatures:"Alexandre Carneiro da Silva, Dyego da Costa Santos, Davair Lopes\nTeixeira Junior, Pedro Bento da Silva, Rosana Cavalcante dos Santos\nand Amauri Siviero",authors:null},{id:"62638",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78799",title:"Nutraceutical Properties of Legume Seeds and Their Impact on Human Health",slug:"nutraceutical-properties-of-legume-seeds-and-their-impact-on-human-health",totalDownloads:1624,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Legume seeds known to produce richer quality of proteins than cereals provide nutritious food for people around the world. Legume seeds contain around 20–40% protein. Apart from protein, it is also composed of carbohydrates, fiber, amino acids, micronutrients including several vitamins and minerals. Legume seeds can be considered a potent nutraceutical as it provides beneficial effects on human health as well as it helps in the prevention or treatment of certain diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, digestive tract diseases, overweight, obesity, cancer, etc. Legume seeds also contain anti-nutritional compounds which may be toxic when consumed raw, but when processed and treated may play a positive role on human health. There are many more underutilized food legume seeds that may be a potential source of nutraceutical food. The main aim of this chapter is to describe the nutraceutical properties of legume seeds and their impact on human health.",book:{id:"7337",slug:"legume-seed-nutraceutical-research",title:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research",fullTitle:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research"},signatures:"Arindam Barman, Chinky M. Marak, Rituparna Mitra Barman and\nCheana S. Sangma",authors:null},{id:"57027",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70743",title:"Genetic Improvement of Oilseed Crops Using Modern Biotechnology",slug:"genetic-improvement-of-oilseed-crops-using-modern-biotechnology",totalDownloads:2427,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"In 2009, big challenges facing the agricultural sector in the twenty-first century were presented to the world. Human population growth, increased life expectancy, loss of biodiversity, climate change and accelerated land degradation are the main factors contributing to rethink agriculture system production. In that scenery, modern biotechnology has set a stage for the advancement of agricultural practices and it is clearly an important ally to apply a broad array of technologies and innovative systems where they are most needed, such as enhancing crop productivity, increasing yields, and ultimately ensuring food security. One of the biggest challenges is related to technify production systems, but with no doubt, developing genetic improvement toward getting an efficient and sustainable agriculture, generating new seed qualities (new traits), such as, among others, to upset fatty acids content in oilseed crops have been growing up significantly due to industry interest. In this study, a review about the main advances in genetic improvement of some oilseed crops, starting with omics to understand metabolic routes and to find out key genes in seed oil production, and also, getting in use of modern biotechnology to alter the production of fatty acids, and to face biotic challenges in oilseed crops is presented.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Diego Villanueva-Mejia and Javier Correa Alvarez",authors:[{id:"206827",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:"F.",surname:"Villanueva-Mejía",slug:"diego-villanueva-mejia",fullName:"Diego Villanueva-Mejía"},{id:"214479",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Correa Alvarez",slug:"javier-correa-alvarez",fullName:"Javier Correa Alvarez"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56975",title:"Metabolic Processes During Seed Germination",slug:"metabolic-processes-during-seed-germination",totalDownloads:6169,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Seed germination is crucial stage in plant development and can be considered as a determinant for plant productivity. Physiological and biochemical changes followed by morphological changes during germination are strongly related to seedling survival rate and vegetative growth which consequently affect yield and quality. This study is aimed to focus on proceeding of the most vital metabolic processes namely reserve mobilization, phytohormonal regulation, glyoxylate cycle and respiration process under either stressful or non-stressful conditions that may be led to suggest and conduct the more successful experimental improvements. Seed imbibition triggered the activation of various metabolic processes such as synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes which resulted in hydrolysis of reserve food into simple available form for embryo uptake. Abiotic stresses potentially affect seed germination and seedling establishment through various factors, such as a reduction in water availability, changes in the mobilization of stored reserves, hormonal balance alteration and affecting the structural organization of proteins. Recent strategies for improving seed quality involved classical genetic, molecular biology and invigoration treatments known as priming treatments. H2O2 accumulation and associated oxidative damages together with a decline in antioxidant mechanisms can be regarded as a source of stress that may suppress germination. Seed priming was aimed primarily to control seed hydration by lowering external water potential, or shortening the hydration period.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Awatif S. Ali and Alaaeldin A. Elozeiri",authors:[{id:"207241",title:"Dr.",name:"Awatif",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"awatif-ali",fullName:"Awatif Ali"}]},{id:"57027",title:"Genetic Improvement of Oilseed Crops Using Modern Biotechnology",slug:"genetic-improvement-of-oilseed-crops-using-modern-biotechnology",totalDownloads:2423,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"In 2009, big challenges facing the agricultural sector in the twenty-first century were presented to the world. Human population growth, increased life expectancy, loss of biodiversity, climate change and accelerated land degradation are the main factors contributing to rethink agriculture system production. In that scenery, modern biotechnology has set a stage for the advancement of agricultural practices and it is clearly an important ally to apply a broad array of technologies and innovative systems where they are most needed, such as enhancing crop productivity, increasing yields, and ultimately ensuring food security. One of the biggest challenges is related to technify production systems, but with no doubt, developing genetic improvement toward getting an efficient and sustainable agriculture, generating new seed qualities (new traits), such as, among others, to upset fatty acids content in oilseed crops have been growing up significantly due to industry interest. In this study, a review about the main advances in genetic improvement of some oilseed crops, starting with omics to understand metabolic routes and to find out key genes in seed oil production, and also, getting in use of modern biotechnology to alter the production of fatty acids, and to face biotic challenges in oilseed crops is presented.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Diego Villanueva-Mejia and Javier Correa Alvarez",authors:[{id:"206827",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:"F.",surname:"Villanueva-Mejía",slug:"diego-villanueva-mejia",fullName:"Diego Villanueva-Mejía"},{id:"214479",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Correa Alvarez",slug:"javier-correa-alvarez",fullName:"Javier Correa Alvarez"}]},{id:"62227",title:"Cowpea: A Strategic Legume Species for Food Security and Health",slug:"cowpea-a-strategic-legume-species-for-food-security-and-health",totalDownloads:3006,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"In this chapter, several characteristics of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), including nutritional and nutraceutical properties, and economic and social aspects of production were analysed with the objective to demonstrate that cowpea is a culture suitable for inclusion in food security programs. Cowpea is rich in diverse nutrients, highlighting high levels of protein. Cowpea also is rich in nutraceuticals compounds such as dietary fibre, antioxidants and polyunsaturated fatty acids and polyphenols. Widely cultivated and consumed cowpea is the very important legume for the nutrition and health of millions of people in many countries. In addition to being nutritious and safe, cowpea has high relative productivity, production stability and high tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought. Cowpea also has economic viability, low environmental impact and contributes to the conservation of natural resources and the sustainability of production systems. Cowpea is a safe food, always available in most regions, low priced compared to other sources of protein. Based on the analyses performed, it is possible to infer that cowpea is a strategic culture for the promotion of food security and health of populations on all continents.",book:{id:"7337",slug:"legume-seed-nutraceutical-research",title:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research",fullTitle:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research"},signatures:"Alexandre Carneiro da Silva, Dyego da Costa Santos, Davair Lopes\nTeixeira Junior, Pedro Bento da Silva, Rosana Cavalcante dos Santos\nand Amauri Siviero",authors:null},{id:"56820",title:"Seed Dormancy",slug:"seed-dormancy",totalDownloads:3537,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Dormancy is when there is a lack of germination in seeds or tubers even though the required conditions (temperature, humidity, oxygen, and light) are provided. Dormancy is based on hard seed coat impermeability or the lack of supply and activity of enzymes (internal dormancy) necessary for germination. Dormancy is an important factor limiting production in many field crops. Several physical and chemical pretreatments are applied to the organic material (seeds/tubers) to overcome dormancy. Physical and physiological dormancy can be found together in some plants, and this makes it difficult to provide high-frequency, healthy seedling growth, since the formation of healthy seedlings from the organic material (seeds/tubers) sown is a prerequisite for plant production. This chapter will focus on the description of four different methods we have not seen reported elsewhere for overcoming dormancy.",book:{id:"6096",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",title:"Seed Biology",fullTitle:"Advances in Seed Biology"},signatures:"Mustafa Yildiz, Ramazan Beyaz, Mehtap Gursoy, Murat Aycan,\nYusuf Koc and Mustafa Kayan",authors:[{id:"141637",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz"},{id:"188656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Aycan",slug:"murat-aycan",fullName:"Murat Aycan"},{id:"203524",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramazan",middleName:null,surname:"Beyaz",slug:"ramazan-beyaz",fullName:"Ramazan Beyaz"},{id:"206401",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Koç",slug:"yusuf-koc",fullName:"Yusuf Koç"},{id:"210589",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehtap",middleName:null,surname:"Gursoy",slug:"mehtap-gursoy",fullName:"Mehtap Gursoy"},{id:"214514",title:"MSc.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Kayan",slug:"mustafa-kayan",fullName:"Mustafa Kayan"}]},{id:"62638",title:"Nutraceutical Properties of Legume Seeds and Their Impact on Human Health",slug:"nutraceutical-properties-of-legume-seeds-and-their-impact-on-human-health",totalDownloads:1619,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Legume seeds known to produce richer quality of proteins than cereals provide nutritious food for people around the world. Legume seeds contain around 20–40% protein. Apart from protein, it is also composed of carbohydrates, fiber, amino acids, micronutrients including several vitamins and minerals. Legume seeds can be considered a potent nutraceutical as it provides beneficial effects on human health as well as it helps in the prevention or treatment of certain diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, digestive tract diseases, overweight, obesity, cancer, etc. Legume seeds also contain anti-nutritional compounds which may be toxic when consumed raw, but when processed and treated may play a positive role on human health. There are many more underutilized food legume seeds that may be a potential source of nutraceutical food. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. 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