\r\n\tHydrogen gas is the key energy source for hydrogen-based society. Ozone dissolved water is expected as the sterilization and cleaning agent that can comply with the new law enacted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The law “FDA Food Safety Modernization Act” requires sterilization and washing of foods to prevent food poisoning and has a strict provision that vegetables, meat, and fish must be washed with non-chlorine cleaning agents to make E. coli adhering to food down to “zero”. If ozone dissolved water could be successively applied in this field, electrochemistry would make a significant contribution to society.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tOxygen-enriched water is said to promote the growth of farmed fish. Hydrogen dissolved water is said to be able to efficiently remove minute dust on the silicon wafer when used in combination with ultrasonic irradiation.
\r\n\tAt present researches on direct water electrolysis have shown significant progress. For example, boron-doped diamonds and complex metal oxides are widely used as an electrode, and the interposing polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) between electrodes has become one of the major processes of water electrolysis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to show the latest water electrolysis technology and the future of society applying it.
Even invented and applied initially during the World War II, RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification) technologies [1] have attracted much attention recently. Precisely speaking, RFID technologies have been applied very widely in some proprietary or closed systems, for example, animal control [2], portal control (access badges), etc. in last decades. The main advantages of RFID application are, storing item data in an electronic way even for further update, data access by electromagnetic wave in a wireless manner, and allowing quick multiple accesses to RFID tags. Based on the diverse applications, different spectrum bands are allocated, for example, LF (125 - 134.2 kHz and 140 - 148.5 kHz) for animal control, HF (13.56MHz) for electronic ticket, and UHF (868 MHz-928 MHz) for logistics, etc. Most of the frequencies are located in the ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) bands [1].
However, RFID was emphasized again mainly because of the need of supply chain [3]. By proposing a standard for the format of electronic data used for goods items, of which EPC (Electronic Product Code) [4] is an example, the products can be registered at once when they are shipped out from the factories in one country, and be released when they are checked out at the counter of a supermarket in the other country in the world. These products might have been transferred through Customs of many countries and carried by different traffic means. When being through these check points, the related data stored in the tags are updated. This is called “product tracking” and is to be carried out in an “Internet of Thing (IOT)” [5].
This Chapter is to have a review on the technology theme – how to provide low-cost RFID Tags, when RFID technology is to be applied into the logistics area where the RFID tags are supposed to be not re-usable and to be as “zero-cost” as possible. Generally speaking, there are three major parts composing a RFID Tag’s total cost, namely, antenna, chip and assembly for them. The cost of antenna, in addition to the design phase, is mainly dependent on the manufacturing process. Therefore, manufacturing process should be focused if antenna’s cost, then the tag, is concerned. This is the theme of this Chapter.
Not like the other antenna applications, for example, wireless LAN or mobile phone, in which antennas need to be compliant to the end products’ appearance by following the market trend. In the tag antenna industry, on the contrary, it does not need to design or modify the tag antenna often. The tag antenna just needs to electrically match the chip used in the beginning of design. It is not necessary for tag providers to prepare a wide product spectrum in the market. Again, not like the mobile phone industry, RFID tag’s players just need few types of antenna to run their business. Therefore, they only need to pay their attention on the manufacture cost of tag antenna, because of the huge amount of worldwide supply.
For RFID tag chip, there is a key factor related to its cost-down, namely, reliability assurance. Since this kind of chip is very low-cost, possibly under sub-cent scale in the future, and is of huge amount in production, any means for total QC (Quality Control – checking any flaws in terms of chip’s functions) in the manufacture procedure will raise their cost extremely. However, if not doing so, the risk of causing the chip silent or dead is very high, and under both of situation, the chip will not echo the reader’s signal at all. Chip is always under high risk of being damaged from foundry to being packaged with antenna mentioned later. For example, electrostatics is one of killers, i.e. ESD (ElectroStatic Discharging) [6], in the whole procedure. Packaging the antenna and chip together is another potential bottleneck of the process of lowering the cost of a RFID tag, because that, both of production speed and reliable package is two important musts yet it seems a dilemma. Usually, this give hints that expensive and sophisticate machines are necessary, and that cost of each tag is raised again.
In this Chapter, focusing on the low-cost subject of RFID tags, the manufacture aspect of tag antennas is discussed. It has been believed that, applying the traditional printing technologies [7][8] to produce the antennas will lower the cost of the antenna part. One of the major efforts of this present work is to produce the tag antennas by traditional printing methods including offset printing, screen printing and a hybrid one based on gravure printing and vacuum deposition technology, to demonstrate the possibilities of making low-cost tags in high-volume. Fig. 1 is a demonstration of high-speed production of RFID tags by offset printing technology. There are several tens of printed tag antennas on each paper sheet.
Demonstration of high-speed production of RFID tags by offset printing technology
Tags working both for UHF band [9][10] and HF band [10] are explained from the design phase to the performance evaluation in this Chapter. The designed passive tags of UHF and HF bands are to be responsible for the EM wave of 915MHz and 13.56MHz, respectively, from the reader.
Conclusively, this Chapter contributes to thoroughly outline the related issues and technologies for producing low-cost RFID tags. From the method details in design to the manufacturing technologies involved are mentioned and discussed. Specially focusing on the various printing technologies, the author explains the associated advantages and disadvantages when applying them from the point of industrial view. Moreover, the characteristics of used material are fully investigated and explained as for the design and production of this kind of low-cost RFID tags. To an engineer, the present content does provide a technical guide for the purpose claimed by the Chapter title.
Referring to Figure 2, RFID tag antenna is a kind of planar antennas [11], in which the antenna metal layer is laminated on a dielectric substrate. Usually, even they look diverse in shape in RFID Tag industry; the type of dipole antenna [12] is used for the tags operating at frequency for UHF band and for higher bands. In designing such a kind of tags, the material parameters, for example, the conductivity
The physical structure of a RFID tag.
The operation in a tag is that, the antenna receives the incoming EM energy and transfers into the chip; and chip sends back the data-modulated EM wave to the RFID reader. For passive tags, the chip specially makes use the incoming wave as the DC bias energy for itself in addition to interpreting the commands inside the wave from reader. As depicted in Figure 2, to ensure the efficiency of energy transfer in between chip and antenna, they should be in a “match” condition. In ordinary antenna industry, the antenna is designed with a standard input impedance, for instance,
Situation of complex conjugated impedance matching on the Smith Chart [12]
As an Electromagnetic design tool, CST [13] is employed to help design antenna prototype in this work. As mentioned above, dipole antenna is a good reference for designing RFID tag antennas, however, varied constraints may be usually applied for the commercial tags, for example, wider bandwidth, limited antenna size or different used materials, etc. Consequently, an antenna engineer actually has not many directions to design out a tag antenna, if he or she is not so experienced, even an expensive EM simulation package, say, CST, is available. Try-and-error approach is practical, but only for well-educated and experienced engineers, because he or she knows the antenna insight well. Under such a situation being lacking in much design experience, a systematic design methodology is probably useful.
a) Sierpinski gasket fractal, (b)Simulation model of a tag antenna in the EM package CST
Antenna design based on fractals [7][14], see Fig. 4(a), has attracted attention recently in antenna industry or academics since it is quite easy to follow. Fig. 4(b) shows a simulation model of a tag antenna based on Sierpinski gasket fractals. In addition to generating fractals through different stages, the rectangular dimension of this tag is also under adjustment to search for the target input impedance of the antenna. A single RFID tag of UHF band designed by fractal methodology and made by offset printing technology is shown in Fig. 5. This tag antenna has also been printed by screen printing approach on PET (Polyethylene terephthalate). Usually, screen printing is able to offer thicker film and better performance, yet suffering with slower production speed.
A single RFID tag of UHF band made by offset printing technology
In the report [8], there have been many kinds of traditional printing technologies mentioned and discussed. For example, offset printing (lithography), flexography, gravure process, screen printing, etc. Each one has its unique advantages and associated drawbacks in terms of the combined factors of engineering and cost. For example, offset printing is fast, yet only provides thin printed layer not mentioning its expensive equipment investment. Fig. 6(a) shows an offset printing machine in a shop. Screen printing is usually considered to be capable of providing thicker layer, yet speed is not so competitive in production. In theory, the tag antenna should be full of metallic material to have highest receiving and radiating efficiency. However, constrained by the printing process, usually the ink used is with low conductivity (discussed below) because that the other non-conducting materials are added into ink. Fig. 6(b) shows its printing process [8].
Another issue is that, the printed layer provided by offset printing usually is of the order 1~2
a) A high-speed offset printing machine; (b) the offset process [8]
A hybrid method with gravure printing and vacuum deposition technology
Traditionally, gravure printing is thought as a factory process for mass production of printing subjects on diverse substrates, for example, papers, plastics and metal films, etc. Furthermore, it is usually adopted to produce the goods bag; consequently, it seems a good idea that one can print the RFID tag on the bag with the same printing process to form a “smart bag”. This is another thought of using traditional printing technology to promote RFID technology into the logistics, not mentioning the advantage of cost-down. A hybrid method with gravure printing and vacuum deposition technology has been proposed [10], in which the former is mainly to produce the printing mask and the latter functions to deposit metal film on the substrate. Such a method is implemented in a factory scale for mass production either producing tags only, see Fig. 7, or producing “smart bag” mentioned above.
Fig. 8 is a HF tag operating at 13.56MHz and is used to be embedded inside an ID card of students in Taiwan. It is made by such a hybrid process. Usually, the planar coil is used as the antenna structure for this band.
A HF tag
a) A confocal laser scanning microscope (b) Antenna film under measurement (c) measured thickness distribution
Unfortunately, this hybrid method is not able to offer thicker metal film as well, actually, what deposited is thinner, usually is about lower than half
On the other hand, confocal laser scanning microscope is a kind of expensive equipment, on the contrary, economic ones for quick testing in manufacture lines are crucially necessary. A method of using the concept of eddy current [12] is also proposed [16]. Referring to the Fig. 10, a coil probe is designed to test the film sample which will affect the coil inductance because of the generation of eddy current on the circular conducting film. Such a deviation of inductance will be converted into a voltage reading by an electronic circuit to show the related thickness of printed film. This equipment and technique are very convenient for engineers to monitor the production line as for the film thickness from time to time.
An economic method to measure the conducting film’s thickness
Material factors are very important in antenna design and should be studied thoroughly. Since there are two kinds of material being involved in the tag, and since this tag antenna is to be printed on a substrate, for example, the paper when using offset printing technology, before beginning the design, the conductivity
a) A resonating metal cavity following the theory in [19], (b) conducting ink on the wall
On the other hand, when applying the hybrid method of gravure printing and vacuum deposition technology, the different considerations are encountered. Firstly, PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) is always used as the antenna substrate for this method. Using the method mentioned in [20][21], Fig. 12 shows a closed metallic cavity, inside which the dielectric material under test is enclosed, for measuring layered PET’s dielectric constant and loss tangent. The results are
Cavity method for measuring the PET’s dielectric constant and loss tangent
A tag using the company brand being antenna’s arm
As for further application, usually text or company logo may be designed into the antenna shape. Following the idea published in [22], a tag antenna using the brand name of TATUNG COMPANY [23] is shown in Fig. 13, which is made by offset printing. Such a kind of design benefits the advantage without applying patent for the tag. However, because of the physical nature of antenna, for instance, its current distribution, normal computer fonts are not necessary to fit to the working shape of antenna.
Another example is shown in Fig. 14, where the logo of Taiwan Lamination Industries, Inc. [24], who is a gravure printing company, is to form one arm of the dipole antenna. This tag is made by the hybrid method of gravure printing and vacuum deposition technology, and produced by Taiwan Lamination Industries, Inc. TI’s RFID chip [25] is used for this UHF tag shown in Fig. 14, which has input impedance
A tag antenna using a company logo
Simulation Model of a UHF tag antenna
As an example, back to the tag shown in Fig. 14 which is made by the hybrid method of gravure printing and vacuum deposition technology and has a size
As mentioned above, gravure printing is usually employed in making plastic bags, see Fig. 16. The concept of “smart bag” may be presented if the production both of bag and RFID tag can be combined together. Fig. 17 shows a new concept of embedding a RFID tag into the layer of a bag to form a “smart bag”. In such a value-added application, however, some limitations should be considered. For example, thin metal foil and lossy paper (say, lossy Kraft paper) are not proper as the cover layers of the bag, because of their influence on the UHF wave transmission.
Process of bag production in a gravure printing factory
“Smart bag” – embedding a RFID tag into a plastic bag
This Chapter has outlined and demonstrated a complete procedure by which the offset printing technology or the hybrid method of gravure printing and vacuum deposition technology is applied to produce high volume and low-cost RFID tags. Based on the concept of complex conjugated matching, the design for tag antenna by the help of the EM simulation package is explained firstly. To precisely design the antenna by computer simulation, the techniques of measuring material parameters are also applied to obtain those parameters of conductive ink, paper and PET substrates. By the up-to-date offset printing and gravure printing and vacuum deposition machines, the tag antennas had been printed out by a high-speed manner to demonstrate its possibility to be a low-cost product.
This series of RFID tag project was initially granted by Tatung Company [23], Taipei, TAIWAN, who plays the main role offering long-term support for the academic-industrial projects being carried on in Tatung University, and then Taiwan Lamination Industries, Inc. [24], who is a gravure printing company and is involved now in the development of PET-based printed tags and “smart bags” mentioned above. The interactive experience between the authors and managers of this company has generated much new knowledge of the hybrid method of gravure printing and vacuum deposition technology. Both of these two companies are appreciated. Sun Sui Print Co., Ltd [26], Taipei, TAIWAN, is appreciated for their kind support to provide the offset machines in printing the RFID tags designed in the present work. Moreover, we want to specially thank Mr. Wen-Ho Wu, the factory manager of this company. Without his professional guide in the offset printing procedure, this present work would not be done completely.
Halocynthia roretzi, which is a solitary ascidian and of the class Ascidiacea (the subphylum Tunicata and the phylum Chordata) in marine habitats, is entirely covered with the tissue called tunic. An example of Halocynthia roretzi is shown in Figure 1A. The tunic, where blood vessels and various cells including hemocytes have been observed [1, 2, 3], shows the system to keep its thickness by continuous removal and secretion [1] and defense system by the secreted substances of the hemocytes [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. While it has been reported that the species in Tunicata has cellulose in its tunic [12], whose elastic modulus is 143 GPa [13], cellulose Iβ in the tunic of Halocynthia roretzi shows pure and highly crystalline form [14]. Also, sulfated chitin, which is biocompatible as well as biodegradable [15], has been observed in the tunic [16, 17]. In addition to the aforementioned components, α-smooth muscle actin and elastic fiber, which are expected to directly influence the mechanical properties of the tunic, and nervous systems, have been observed [18]. In the meantime, the active deformation in the tunic of Halocynthia roretzi, caused by acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) [18], mechanical stimuli [18, 19], electric stimuli [20] and enzyme (α-chymotrypsin) [20], has been reported. The active deformation responding to the mechanical environment has been associated with change in mass of the tunic [21]. Because the change in mass of the tunic agreed with that in water content of the tunic, influx and efflux of water would be involved with the tunic deformation [21]. When the tunic sample was put into the seawater, the absorbance at 220 nm and 250–350 nm [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27], which is influenced by the concentrations of nitrate and dissolved organic matter, was changed so that the substances released from the tunic would be added to the seawater [21, 28].
Sample of Halocynthia roretzi. A, entire image; B, the tunic sample in each category (siphon, M1 (tunic with spines), M2 (tunic without a spine) and bottom (thickest part)).
As Figure 1 shows, the tunic tissue can be categorized by characteristics in shape: siphon, tubular parts where seawater is passing through; M1, tunic with spines; M2, tunic without a spine; and bottom, thickest part. While the mechanical stimuli caused a decrease in mass in every category, the tunic in the seawater at 5°C indicated an increase in the mass of the tunic, which became smaller as the position was closer to bottom [21]. While the outer layer and collapse of blood vessels could cause the difference in change of mass [21], the cells extracted from the tunic by centrifugation, kept in the seawater at 5°C for 10 days, showed motility [28] so that these cells would also influence change in mass. While the absorbance at 220 nm and 250–350 nm in the seawater used for keeping the tunic at 5°C was decreased after the removal of the tunic samples [28], the influence of the tunic category has been barely examined. Also, whether or not the cells in the tunic are obtained from all the tunic categories by centrifugation at the same degree has not been clear. If the effect of centrifugation on separating the cells from the tunic tissue is dependent on the tunic category, the characteristics of the tunic structure would be diverse and influence mass transfer.
In this chapter, why the tunic category, composed of siphon, M1, M2 and bottom, could influence the active deformation was examined. The absorbance of the seawater, which kept the tunic sample in each category separately, was evaluated by spectroscopic analysis in order to examine the change in the components of the seawater. The seawater after removing the tunic sample was also evaluated in the same way. In the meantime, the hemocytes in each category of the tunic, which would secrete halocyamines (antimicrobial substance) [5] and hemagglutinin [10], were obtained by centrifugation to examine the influence of the tissue category on separating the cells from the tunic.
The samples of Halocynthia roretzi were obtained from Yamanaka Inc. and Marutaki Suisan (Miyagi, Japan) (n = 3). The tunic was removed from other organs and cut into samples in each category (siphon, M1, M2 and bottom) by tweezers and trimming blades (feather trimming blade; Feather Safety Razor, Co. Ltd., Osaka, Japan) as Figure 1B shows. The sample in each category was put into the artificial seawater (Reef Crystals, Aquarium Systems, Sarrebourg, France) separately, and kept at 5°C for 10 days (Day 10) or 15 days (Day 15). The mass of the tunic, which was wrapped by paper (Kimwipe; Nippon Paper Crecia, Tokyo, Japan) for 10 s to remove water on the surface, was measured with the balance (UW420S; Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan), in order to check whether or not the change in mass of the tunic sample agreed with that in the previous report [21]. After removing the tunic sample, two types of the seawater samples, filtrated (1001-150 (Whatman); GE Healthcare Japan, Tokyo, Japan) and not filtrated, were prepared. The two types of seawater samples were kept at 5°C for 10 days, 17 days or 30 days. The absorbance of the seawater at 190–1100 nm was measured by the spectrometer (UV-1280; Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan) before and after removing the tunic sample. The absorbance at 220 nm and mean absorbance at 250–350 nm, which are influenced by the concentrations of nitrate and dissolved organic matter [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27], and the peak absorbance around 970 nm, which was clearly observed, were used to evaluate the characteristics of the seawater. For the evaluation in the shape of the absorbance curve at 220–350 nm, the standard deviation of the absorbance at 250–350 nm, divided by the mean absorbance at the same range, and the mean absorbance at 250–350 nm, divided by the absorbance at 220 nm, which is named shape index, were used. Shape index was also used for estimating the change in the component ratio of the seawater.
While there are several types of hemocytes in Halocynthia roretzi [11], the hemocyte secreting halocyamines and hemagglutinin could be obtained by the centrifugation (1000 G, 7 min) of hemolymph [5, 10]. Considering that effect of centrifugal force on separating the hemocyte from the tunic could be a parameter to evaluate the characteristics of the tunic structure, the tunic samples in each category were centrifuged in the previous report [5, 10] (n = 5). During the centrifugation, the tunic sample was put into the artificial seawater (Suprema21; Tomy, Tokyo, Japan). After removing the supernatant and tunic sample, the cells were obtained. Because the cells seemed damaged during counting the number by hemocytemeter, the number of the obtained cells was estimated by observation under the microscope (CX41-31PHP; Olympus, Tokyo, Japan).
An example of a change in mass of the tunic sample is shown in Figure 2. The tunic bottom underwent smaller changes than those in other categories. The tendency, which was observed in all the samples, agreed with that in the previous report [21].
Change in the mass of the tunic sample kept in the seawater at 5°C up to 10 days (day 10). A, normalized by the mass before the immersion; B, deviation from the normalized mass in bottom. All the samples indicated the same tendency.
An example of the absorbance at 190–1100 nm is shown in Figure 3. The shape of the absorbance curve is almost the same in all the samples. The absorbance at the characteristic wavelength and related parameter, shape index, and their changes, caused by the adjacent process, in each seawater sample are shown in Figure 4. Considering the influences of the tunic sample categories (siphon, M1, M2 and bottom) on the absorbance, the absorbance and related parameter are indicated in each sample category. The mean value and change between the adjacent processes and their ranges through all the processes are indicated in Figures 5 and 6, respectively. As Figures 4–6 show, the absorbance values at the characteristic wavelength and related parameters were changed by the tunic category as well as the presence and removal of the tunic samples. While the change in shape index between the adjacent processes was zero or less, other absorbance values and parameters increased before the removal of the tunic samples, and decreased after the removal, in all the tunic categories, as Figure 5B shows. Because the presence and absence of the tunic samples in the seawater directly influenced these parameters, and change in the component ratio of the seawater was kept through the processes, the substances released from the tunic sample would be partially degradable with progress in the change of the component ratio in the seawater. But the influences of the tunic category and process in other results were so complicated that they could be hardly explained in such a simple way. These results indicated that each category might have different systems to control its active deformation.
Absorbance for the seawater containing the tunic sample (siphon) for 10 days at 5°C (190–1100 nm). This absorbance at 190–1100 nm was one of the results. A, entire range; B, around 1000 nm.
Absorbance at the characteristic wavelength and related parameter. The absorbance at each wavelength and related parameter (A1–A5, left), and their change between the adjacent processes (B1–B5, right): before adding, keeping and removing the tunic samples in the seawater. The seawater samples labelled as follows: reference, without usage; day i (i = 10, 15), keeping the tunic sample at 5°C for i days; day i–j (F or N) (i = 10, 15, j = 10, 17, 30), keeping the tunic sample at 5°C for i days and kept at 5°C after removing the tunic samples for j days with filtration (F), or without filtration (N).
Mean absorbance and related parameter. The parameter of absorbance (A) and its change between the adjacent processes (B), before and after the removal of the tunic samples in the seawater, are shown.
Range of the parameter and change through all the processes. The range of the parameter (A) and change through all the processes from reference (B) are shown.
Figure 7 shows the cells from M1 by centrifugation (1000 G, 7 min). The cells were also obtained from the tunic samples of siphon and M2, but barely from bottom. Considering blood vessels in bottom and open circulation in the entire body, few cells in bottom would be hardly expected. Hence, there might be the characteristics of the tissue structure in bottom, which would cause cells to be hardly separated by an external force, but not in other categories of the tunic, siphon, M1 and M2.
Cells from M1. These cells were obtained by centrifugation (1000 G, 7 min). Scale bar, 20 μm.
In this chapter, the difference in the tunic categories, which are siphon, M1, M2 and bottom, was investigated to examine the system for active deformation in the tunic. Considering that influx and efflux from the tunic, which are associated with the active deformation of the tunic, would bring some components to the seawater, change in the components of the seawater was evaluated by the absorbance at the characteristic wavelength and related parameters. In all the tunic categories, these parameters, except shape index, which continuously decreased, were increased by keeping the tunic in the seawater and decreased by removing them. These results indicated that the substances, released from the tunic, would disappear without continuous supply and keep the change in the component ratio of the seawater. The released substances would be degradable partially as well as reactive, associated with the change of the component ratio of the seawater. In the meantime, the influence of each tunic category on these parameters was complicated. Hence, the active deformation would be controlled by two types of substances, which would be in every category of the tunic sample, and specific in each category. The details of the substances will be investigated in the future.
In the meantime, the cells were obtained from siphon, M1 and M2 by centrifugation, but not from bottom. Considering the open circulation system and blood vessels in bottom, bottom would have cells, which would be hardly separated from the surrounding by centrifugation because of the characteristics in the tissue structure of bottom, different from those in other tunic categories. The result that change in mass of the tunic was smallest at bottom would agree with this unique feature of bottom. Why the cells in bottom are hardly obtained by centrifugation and how the cells in bottom can be obtained will be investigated in the future.
In this chapter, the active deformation of the tunic in Halocynthia roretzi, a solitary ascidian, was investigated by the substances released from the tunic, and cells obtained from the tunic by centrifugation. The absorbance at the characteristic wavelength and related parameter, except shape index, in the seawater were enhanced by keeping the tunic samples and decreased by removing them while shape index was continuously decreased. Hence, the substances released from all the tunic categories would be partially degradable, and reactive enough to stable change in the component ratio of the seawater. The difference in the influences of the tunic category on these parameters, which was complicated, would contribute to a difference in the active deformation in each tunic category. The cells in bottom were hardly obtained by centrifugation although those in other categories were successfully obtained. Hence, bottom would have the specific characteristics in the tissue structure that would keep the cells in the tunic firmly. Also, these characteristics in bottom would prevent change in mass of the tunic at bottom.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
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\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
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\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
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\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
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