Comparison of ionic liquids (ILs) and conventional lubricants.
\r\n\t(i) Quantum dots of very high-quality optical applications, Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LED) and ‘QD-White LED’, Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs), Quantum dot solar cells (Photovoltaics).
\r\n\r\n\t(ii) Quantum Computing (quantum bits or ‘qubits’), (vii) The Future of Quantum Dots (broad range of real-time applications, magnetic quantum dots & graphene quantum dots), Superconducting Loop, Quantum Entanglement, Quantum Fingerprints.
\r\n\r\n\t(iii) Biomedical and Environmental Applications (to study intracellular processes, tumor targeting, in vivo observation of cell trafficking, diagnostics and cellular imaging at high resolutions), Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes and Bacterial Cells, Resonance Energy-Transfer Processes, Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality, Water and Wastewater Treatment, Pollutant Control.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-594-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-593-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-595-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"0dd5611c62c91569bd2819e68852002a",bookSignature:"Prof. Jagannathan Thirumalai",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11756.jpg",keywords:"LED, Organic LEDs, Dyes & Pigments, Solar Cells, Laser Photonics, Electronic Switching Devices, Qubits, Josephson Junction, Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes, and Bacterial Cells",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 16th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"11 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi, He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), the Republic of Korea. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin-film optoelectronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books, and member of several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. His h-index is 19.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99242/images/system/99242.png",biography:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi in 2010. He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Republic of Korea, in 2013. He worked as Assistant Professor of Physics, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India (2011 to 2016). Currently, he is working as Senior Assistant Professor of Physics, Srinivasa Ramanujan Centre, SASTRA Deemed University, Kumbakonam (T.N.), India. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin film opto-electronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books and member in several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. Currently, he served as a principal investigator for a funded project towards the application of luminescence based thin film opto-electronic devices, funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India. As an expert in opto-electronics and nanotechnology area, he has been invited as external and internal examiners to MSc and PhD theses, invited to give talk in some forum, review papers for international and national journals.",institutionString:"SASTRA University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"17",title:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An 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Many medicines are derived primarily from herbs, based on traditional knowledge and practices. Currently about 25% of the available therapeutic compounds and their derivatives are derived from natural resources [1, 2]. Natural compounds have impressive characteristics, such as exceptional chemical versatility, chemical and biological properties of macromolecular specificities and less toxicity. These thus constitute them as leads in the discovery of novel drugs [3]. In spite of several advantages, pharmaceutical companies are hesitant to commit to more in drug discovery and drug delivery systems based on natural compounds due to concerns associated with biocompatibility, toxicity, large size and targeted delivery, etc., and many natural compounds not even clearing the clinical trial phases [4, 5]. Hence, this presents a greater challenge of using them as medicine. Thus alternatively available libraries of chemical compounds are being explored to discover novel medicines. Various techniques like nanotechnology play substantial role in advancing drug formulations, targeting, efficient release and delivery with immense success. Nanotechnology bridges the barrier between physical and biological sciences by providing nanostructures with potential to fill the lacunae existing in various fields of sciences and in particular in the field of medicine.
The use of nanotechnology in the production of efficient medicines has been recognized as a key enabling technology, capable of delivering fresh and creative therapeutic approaches to address unmet medical demands [6]. The use of nanotechnology for medical purposes is referred to as nanomedicine [7] and nanomaterials are used for prevention, early diagnosis or treatment of a wide range of diseases with high specificity, efficacy, and personalization, to improve quality of life of patients. Owing to their small scale, nanomaterials have novel physicochemical properties, distinct from those of their traditional bulk chemical counterparts. Such properties significantly improve a range of opportunities in drug development. These physicochemical properties of nanoformulations can lead to pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics being changed, namely the delivery, absorption, removal and metabolism, the potential for more easily breaching biological barriers and their persistence in the environment and the human body.
The key component of nanomedicines are nanoparticles (NPs) and currently wide range of nanoparticle types exist depending on their structural features such as spheres [8], rods [9], wires [10], stars [11], sheets [12], multipodes [13], cages [14], etc. These particles can efficiently carry and deliver therapeutic agents as well as imaging and sensing agents to targeted sites. Nanoparticle carriers or nanocarriers have many advantages in medicine. First, they allow stable aqueous dispersions of active but poorly water-soluble therapeutic agents for delivery into the biological environment. Second, their structure, scale, shape and surface properties can be finely designed to protect the encapsulated agent when incorporated into the biological world and prevent it from degradation by various endogenous defense mechanisms including, immunodegradation, enzymatic degradation, reticuloendothelial system sequestration (RES) in the bloodstream, acid hydrolysis, lung mucociliary clearance, etc.
Delivery of nanomedicines can be by intracellular transport, epileptic transport and other types. Intercellular transport is facilitated and regulated through intracellularization, transporter mediated endocytosis, and permeation by interactions through particle size and/or cell surface [15, 16]. In addition, a smaller nanomedicine particle size improves intercellular transport which facilitates cell permeation and affects nanomedicine absorption, dissemination, and excretion. In fact, cell internalization by transporter-mediated endocytosis depends on the size of the nanomedicine molecule. Similarly in large particle sized nanomedicine, opsonization occurs quickly and its removal from the blood is facilitated by endothelial macrophages. The susceptibility of nanomedicinal cell surface transporters to nanomedicinal products has been reported to vary depending on the particle size of nanomedicinal products, and this can also impact the effective removal by macrophages of large particles from the blood. Nanomedicines composed of non-charged polymers, surfactants, or polymer coatings that degrade
Nanotechnology in drug delivery has the potential to overturn the treatment of various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, vascular diseases, etc. [18]. In the market for sale, nanotechnology based formulations are largely parenteral, with some intended for oral administration [19]. It is hoped that a significant number of preclinical and clinical trials would lead to the production of novel nanotherapeutics intended for non-parenteral delivery routes, such as pulmonary, nasal, vaginal, ocular, and dermal delivery routes. Of special concern to drug delivery systems (European Commission/ETP) [20] is the option of delivery and the obstacles to be addressed. Over time, various formulations based on nanoparticles have been developed to enhance the delivery mechanism of drugs, such as discussed below:
The most widely used chemical nanoparticles are constructed from synthetic polymers as natural polymers result in low reproducibility and controlled release actions for the trapped products, leading to variability in purity and batch-to-batch quality. At the other side, synthetic polymers with good to batch reproducibility and purity are available which facilitates the modification of the pattern of drug release from polymeric nanoparticles [21]. Nanoparticles formulated with synthetic polymers have been widely studied for drug distribution/delivery. In double emulsion methods hydrophilic moieties will encapsulate onto synthetic polymer-based nanoparticles, as it is not easy to maintain activity in unfavorable environment. Various synthetic polymers reported for drug delivery with biodegradable aliphatic polymers such as polylactide (PLA), poly lactide-co-glycolide, copolymers (PLGA) and poly (ε-carpolactone), as well as non-biodegradable polymers like polyacrylates and poly (methyl methacrylate) are used widely [22]. Polymer nanoparticles can efficiently shield unstable drugs from deterioration/degradation, thus avoiding the side effects of toxic medications. Natural polymeric nanoparticles consist of polymers of natural products like alginate, chitosan, albumin and gelatin [22]. Application of polymeric nanoparticles with therapeutic drugs such as dexamethasone or alpha-tocopheryl succinate can be used to avoid the cisplatin ototoxicity due to treatment with chemotherapy. Nanoparticles, trapping, transporting and ultimately spreading dexamethasone or alpha-tocopheryl succinate are capable of partially preventing large-dose ototoxicity of CDDP [23]. However, when administered systemically for long periods of time, these least soluble drugs have serious side effects. In the hydrophobic cavity of nanoparticles, the integration of such pharmaceutical products provides the requisite results
Lipid nanoparticles that are prepared with a solid matrix are called solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). These are constructed from nanoemulsions of oil in water with the utilization of a solid lipid. The first generations of SLNs were formed in the early 1990’s [26]. The benefits associated with SLNs include cheap raw materials, usage of physiological lipids, avoidance of organic solvents, ease of scale-up, strong biocompatibility, enhancement of bioavailability, safety of vulnerable molds from environmental hazards and regulated drug release [27]. Using ultrasonic melt emulsification [28], ciprofloxacin (CIP)-loaded SLNs have recently been formulated with powerful antibacterial action. These were produced with a scale ranging from 165 to 320 nm and a polydispersity index with high trapping efficiency falling between 0.18 and 0.33. A controlled-release pattern of different lipids was shown by CIP release showing the full burst reaction, which contributes to the drug’s rapid release. For 120 days this composition of CIPSTE was found to be stable at room temperature. SLNs for different routes of delivery, such as oral [29], dermal [30], pulmonary [31], ocular [32] and rectal [33], have been extensively tested
Dendrimers are special three-dimensional, hyper-branched, globular nano-polymeric structures. Attractive features such as water solubility, nano scaled size, narrow polydispersity index, modifiable molecular structure, internal cavity and several peripheral functional groups separate these from other nano systems. Terminal functionality serves as a platform for the conjugation and targeting of drugs. Such peripheral functional groups also provide them with tailor-made properties which improve their versatility [35]. The most commonly studied dendrimer for drug delivery is polyamidoamine. It’s synthesis starts with the amine group, which interacts with methyl acrylate and contributes to the formation of two new branches of dendrimer terminated by ester. The amine-terminated dendrimer ‘Full-generation’ may be formed by subsequent amidation of the methyl ester with ethylene diamine. PAMAM dendrimers are non-immunogenic, biocompatible and water-soluble, and have functional terminal amine groups that can be altered to targeting drugs [35]. Dendrimers have been widely investigated for biodelivery via transdermal, nasal, ocular, and pulmonary pathways, in addition to improving solubility. Many of the synthetic cationic polymers such as amidised acid-labile allow different cargo delivery [36]. Changing their structure could solve toxicity-related problems [35]. A recent study showed that arginine terminated peptide dendrimers, along with sonophoresis, can significantly increase ketoprofen’s transdermal penetration [37]. The findings revealed that the use of peptide dendrimer and application of ultrasound has worked synergistically.
Nanoemulsions are a fascinating colloidal drug delivery mechanism, thermodynamically stable and filtration-sterilizable [40, 41]. There are heterogeneous mixtures of oil droplets in aqueous media resulting in nano droplets with a small scale distribution. The resultant nanoemulsions are analyzed as translucent or clear, isotropic and supported by the suitable surfactant [42]. Three types of nanoemulsions can be developed:
water in oil nanoemulsion
oil in water nanoemulsion
bi-continuous nanoemulsion
The most detailed function of nanoemulsions is to mask the unpleasant taste of oily liquids. These also provide long-term drug action and prevention from hydrolysis and oxidation. These nanoformulations can therefore be identified as an efficient and impregnable delivery option with high bioavailability. Nanoemulsions are currently being explored extensively to target different photosensitizers, anticancer drugs, or therapeutic agents. Such nanoformulations propose a number of applications such as drug delivery, biologic diagnostics and chemical agents [43]. In 2016, Simion et al. developed targeted dexamethasone-loaded P-selectin lipid nanoemulsions to minimize vascular inflammation [44]. Prepared formulations have been described for physicochemical assays. In their study, nanoformulation was found to be efficient in both
Nonstructured lipid carriers comprise the nanosystems of the second generation, consisting of solid lipid embedded into liquid lipids [46]. These nano carriers allow for a strong immobilization of therapeutic agents and avoid particle coalition of particles relative to emulsions [47, 48]. Therefore, because of the liquid oil droplets in a solid matrix, their drug loading potential is increased relative to SLNs. Biodegradability, lower toxicity, controlled release, drug tolerance and avoidance of organic solvents during manufacturing are among the beneficial effects of NLC on polymeric nanoparticles. NLCs have been extensively studied for hydrophobic and hydrophilic drug transport in recent years. The NLCs are developed to satisfy industrial specifications related to certification and registration, basic infrastructure, scale-up and low cost criteria [49]. The presence of multiple consumer goods reflects the carrier’s success story. Numerous other NLC products, including NLC repair cream and NLC restoration cream, are commercially available. For the treatment of different diseases, NLCs were explored through various routes of administration viz. oral, nasal, and parenteral [50]. Fluconazole-loaded NLCs were constructed using probe ultrasonication method and studied for antifungal activity on various
Nanogels, comprised of flexible hydrophilic polymers, can be prepared as plain gels [52]. Upon swelling, the drug can be randomly inserted into the nanogel. As a result, the gel collapses, resulting in the creation of solid, compact nanoparticles with reduced solvent amount. Nanogels provide novel applications for polymer-based drug carrier systems due to their biocompatibility, high moisture content and suitable mechanical properties. These gels have expanded polyvalent bioconjugation surface area and an internal network for biomolecule trapping. Physical encapsulation of bioactive compounds in the polymeric interlock along with their releasing pattern has been widely explored as a targeted mode of drug delivery [53]. Several approaches for the preparation of nanogels include micro-molding and photolithographic methods, continuous micro fluidics, modification of biopolymers, and heterogeneous living/controlled radical and free radical polymerizations [54]. Several criteria are required for designing and manufacturing of an efficient nanogel drug carrier system for therapeutic application. The consistency of nanogels for long-lasting blood circulation is one significant criterion. Another extraordinary novel feature that can detect receptors on infected cells is the bioconjugation of nanogel surfaces with particular ligands. Eventually, the biodegradability of nanogels should not only control the release of the drug for the required amount of time, but also make it possible to eliminate the empty system after the release of the drug [54]. In a recent study, topical delivery of chitin nanogel loaded with clobetasol is reported. This nanogel demonstrated exceptional toxicity against THP-1 and HaCaT cell lines by MTT assay. Nanoformulation demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory ability with an average inhibition of LOX and COX activities in THP-1 cells of 70 percent and 65 percent. Increased transdermal flux has been obtained from permeation studies of
Nanocapsule consists of either liquid or solid core in which drug is loaded and encapsulated by membrane of synthetic or natural polymers [56, 57, 58]. Lipid core nanocapsules are prepared by the precipitation method. Prepared nanoparticles have been tested for physical, chemical and biological characteristics. The most important characteristics to note during their synthesis are particle size and distribution. This can be calculated through multi-angle laser light scattering in a superconducting quantum interference instrument through X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) [57]. Chemically stable, biocompatible and readily reproducible are industrial bioactive nanocapsules. Because of their coating, which protects the encapsulated material from unenviable effects, such as dissolving the liquid and avoiding the release of active components, they have captured the attention of research groups. In biomedical research, agrochemicals, sanitizing materials, cosmetics and water treatment, nanocapsules have a wide range of biomedical applications. In addition, the effectiveness of such medications has also been studied for cancer treatment [59], radiotherapy [60], self-healing, contagion [78] and for use in food and agriculture. New developed nanocapsules will open new avenues of research and development for the delivery of bioactive compounds to target tissues in the future [57, 58]. Due to their ability to destroy colon cancer cells, resveratrol-charged lipid-core-nanocapsules (RSV-LNC) were developed and characterized. Constant and controlled drug release has been confirmed by the RSV-LNC. Increased anticancer activity in HT29 cancer cells compared to free RSV resulted in RSV incorporated in the nanocapsule. RSV-loaded nanocapsules have a promising potential for enhancing therapeutic effectiveness in colon cancer cells based on
Nanosponges have drawn the interest of drug delivery scientists in pharmaceutical science as they have the capacity to load both hydrophilic and lipophilic moieties [61, 62]. These are thin, non-toxic, porous colloidal structures of scaffolds that have multiple cavities where drug molecules can be stuck. In the processing of these nanocarriers, α-cyclodextrins are the most commonly used. It is possible to investigate different crosslinkers in their development, such as hexamethylene di-isocyanate, carbonyl di-imidazole, pyromellitic dianhydride, diphenyl carbonate, etc. In water as well as in organic solvents, these structures are insoluble [63], self-sterile [64, 65] and stable up to 300° C and pH range of 2–11. Using ultrasound-assisted synthesis techniques, Trotta and colleagues produced cyclodextrin nanosponges [86] and examined them for anti-tumor drugs [66]. Efavirenz is a class II drug, a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor widely used for HIV [67]. This medicine, however, exhibits less solubility and reduced bioavailability. Beta-cyclodextrin cross linking with carbonates in variable ratios was performed to increase the solubility and dissolution of this compound. Some of the advertised formulations of nanosponge are Glymasason, Prostavastin, Brexin and Mena-gargle [68, 69].
Silver, gold, iron oxide and silica are included in inorganic nanoparticles. Nevertheless, only a few nanoparticles have been approved for clinical use, while most of them are still in the clinical trial stage. Metal nanoparticles, silver and gold, have different properties such as SPR (surface plasmon resonance) that liposomes, dendrimers, micelles do not exhibit. They show a variety of benefits when it comes to surface durability, such as decent biocompatibility and flexibility. Studies of their delivery-based actions have not been able to establish whether their toxicity is based to the particulate or ionized form; and while two mechanisms, such as paracellular transport and transcytosis, have been suggested, there is inadequate evidence on their
Quantum dots (QDs) are regarded as semiconductor nanocrystals with a diameter ranging from 2 to 10 nm with their optical characteristics, such as absorbance and photoluminescence being size-dependent [74]. QDs have received significant interest in the field of nanomedicine, because, unlike traditional organic dyes, QDs pose emissions in the near-infrared region (< 650 nm), a very advantageous phenomenon in the field of biomedical imaging, due to low tissue absorption and decreased light dispersion [75]. Furthermore, the same light source can excite QDs with different sizes and/or compositions resulting in separate emission colors over a wide spectral range [76, 77]. In this way, QDs are quite attractive to multiplex imagery. QDs have been extensively studied in the field of medicine as targeted delivery of drugs, sensoring and imaging agents. A large number of studies on the use of QDs as contrast agents for
Natural product-based materials are currently considered to be the key ingredients in the preparation and processing of new nanoformulations as they have interesting features such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, availability, renewability and low toxicity [85, 86, 87]. In addition to the aforementioned properties, biomaterials are largely capable of undergoing chemical modifications, ensuring unique and desirable properties for potential nanomedicine uses [88, 89]. For example, nanoparticles of metals, metal oxide and sulfides have been recorded to be synthesized using different microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, algae, yeast, etc., [90] or plant extracts. Microorganism that assists the synthesis process is prepared in the adequate growth medium and then mixed with a metal precursor and left for incubation to form the nanoparticles either intracellularly or extracellularly [91, 92, 93]. Similarly, plant extracts are used for synthesis in which the extract is mixed with the metal precursor and incubated further at room temperature or boiling temperature for a definite time or exposed to light as an external stimulus [94]. Currently, natural product-based materials are considered essential ingredients in the preparation and production of nanoformulations as they have fascinating characteristics such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, sustainability, renewable energy and low toxicity [85, 86, 95]. In addition to the above mentioned properties, biomaterials are, for the most part, capable of undergoing chemical modifications, guaranteeing them special and attractive properties for future applications in the field of nanomedicine [89, 96, 97]. Nanoparticles, especially the silver nanoparticles have been prolifically studied
In addition, it can be seen that the sustained release mechanisms of naturally occurring therapeutic agents are a crucial method for increasing the biological efficacy of these agents and addressing their drawbacks by introducing new options for chronic and terminal disease management [107, 108, 109, 110].
The global demand for plant-derived pharmaceuticals will rise from $29.4 billion (as in 2017) to around $39.6 billion in 2022 with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.15% in this timeframe (BCC-Data), according to BBC Report. Any of the nanostructure-based materials included in this section have already obtained FDA clearance.
While there have been a large number of nanomedicine-related studies and tests, only a handful have advanced to market-related review and once again a smaller handful have earned final clearance. The conversion of fundamental science into clinical practice was less than 10 percent, based on some reports [111, 112]. Thus, drugs that travel through what is known as the ‘valley of death’ do not seem convenient. This will lead to a time-consuming, lengthy, futile series of reviews, escalating the expense of health care as a whole [113]. Perhaps the reasons for such an undesirable state of affairs lie in multiple fields and procedure facets. One of the key problems involves nanoparticles’
In spite of all the above-mentioned obstacles, the demand for nanopharmaceuticals and nanomedicines will continue to expand over the next few years, primarily thanks to developments in bionanotechnology and nanoengineering, the implementation of explicit guidelines on new nanotechnology-based products, more support from government organizations, more consensus on environmental issues and the creation of collaborations between nanomedicines startups and leading pharmaceutical companies [119]. In other words, in order to convince investors about the value of nanopharmaceuticals and to improve the overall health and well-being of society, intellectual property and regulatory agencies need to change their approach to meeting the specific needs of nanomedicine and shorten their time to regulatory approval. However, in the case of nanodrugs, it is particularly important to consider the risks to health and the environment
Initially, the use of nanotechnology was mostly based on improving the solubility, absorption, bioavailability and controlled release of drugs, but now a wide range of nanodimensional tools are included that can be used to diagnose, precisely deliver at target, sense or activate material in the living system. By using nanocarriers formulated with gold, silver, cadmium sulphide, and titanium dioxide polymeric nanoparticles along with solid lipid nanoparticles, nanogels, liposomes, micelles, iron oxide nanoparticles, and dendrimers, the efficacy of the natural products has greatly improved. One of the major interests in the advancement of nanomedicine in recent years is the convergence of therapy and diagnosis (theranostic) as an example of cancer as a disease model. Since the 1990s, there has been a remarkable growth in the number of FDA-approved nanotechnology-based products and clinical trials, including synthetic polymer particles; liposome formulations; micellar nanoparticles; nanocrystals and many others frequently associated with drugs or biologics. Although regulatory frameworks for nanomedicines along with safety/toxicity tests will be the focus of further research in the future, the way we discover and deliver drugs in biological systems has already revolutionized nanomedicine. Thanks to advances in nanomedicine, the ability to deliver, and even targeted delivery, has also become a reality.
Lubricants are very important materials for human and society due to their applications from “mobility” in ancient era to durability in modern times and then most recently in enhancement of “energy efficiency process”. Petroleum-based lubricants are popular and used as the standard materials in transportation, manufacturing, and power generation industries etc. [1]. From economic point of view, 1.0–1.4% of a country’s GDP may be achieved through lubrication R&D, which has provoked the relentless quest of advances in lubricants in order to increase both energy efficiency and durability [2]. Generally, commercial lubricant contains a combination of base oils and additives including antioxidants, detergents, dispersants, friction modifiers, antiwear and/or extreme-pressure additives, and viscosity modifiers.
\nAs energy and environment play an important role in our life, there need for energy efficient systems, and utilization/conversion of energy in environmentally benign practices have been increasing immensely because of high volatility in fuel prices, stringent environmental regulations and global awareness on the sustainability of fuels. High fuel consumption is arisen due to high friction and wear in the transportation system during energy conversion process [3, 4]. Due to high friction and wear, failure of engine parts is often happened with large amount of discharge of partially oxidized fuels and greenhouse gas emission etc. For reducing the production of these hazardous materials, low friction and wear are required for energy conversion process. Lowering the friction and wear are important to reduce the production of hazardous materials during energy conversion process to the mating surfaces of the engine. Only an efficient lubricant can solve the problem related to energy conversion process and global awareness on the sustainability of fuels. Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) is well-known as efficient antiwear and friction-reducing additive for iron-based components. Presently, it is observed that ZDDP is an efficient antiwear and friction-reducing additive but has shown toxic nature to aquatic wildlife, human-health issues and poisonous automotive exhaust gas as catalyst components.
\nIonic liquids (ILs) have been known as new ionic materials and great important of applications in organic chemistry to as electrolytes in alternative energy generation/storage devices etc. (Figure 1). ILs have been known for their stability, well-established structural characterization and low viscosity etc. The choice of cation and anion is an important parameter for IL to determine the desirable physical properties. The tunable physical properties of the ILs make also an important material for the application in lubricant industries [5]. The length of side chain of the cation is responsible for making ILs as tailor-made lubricants and lubricant additives. Due to presence of unique physical and chemical properties of ILs, strong surface adsorption, high thermal stability, and low sensitivity in rheological behavior are observed compared to conventional oil lubricants. In early 2012, exploring the feasibility of ILs as lubricant additives was limited due to very low solubility in common nonpolar hydrocarbon lubricating oils [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. The efficient oil-miscible ILs were discovered and reported as promising antiscuffing/antiwear functionalities [11, 12]. Since then, ILs is used as efficient lubricant additives in oil-based lubricant to increase both energy efficiency and durability due to improved solubility property [13, 14]. Hydrophobic cation or anions of ILs is responsible for showing good lubricant properties and making significantly stable thermo-oxidative materials.
\nVarious application of ILs in different fields.
Recently, ILs have been studied as versatile lubricants and lubricant additives for various engineering surfaces. The solid surfaces mediated thin films of ILs have shown more efficient lubricating properties compared to conventional non-polar hydrocarbon liquids due to presence of hydrophobic character, change of geometry of cation and charge characteristics of ILs. The dynamic conformation changes of cation and anion play important role to show the lower shear stress and friction than conventional non-polar molecular lubricant. ILs have also been studied as lubricating additives in water and lubricating oils due to their unique polar and non-polar domain solutions and miscibility with polar and non-polar solvents. Now, ILs as lubricant and lubricant oil additives have become the new central research topic in lubrication processing.
\nThis book chapter starts with the tribological performance of ILs as lubricant additives. The physicochemical properties of ILs have been correlated with their nature of cation and anion. Future research directions are also suggested at the end of this book chapter.
\nGenerally, lubricants are used for extend the device life cycle and reduced parasitic energy loss by reducing friction. For these purposes, the lubricant must be high non-flammable and thermal stable with safer transportation and storage. ILs have shown interesting application in tribological studies due to their unique characteristic physical features [15]. It is also observed that addition of ILs to grease has shown substantially improved tribological performance. Similarly, IL-additive has shown to reduce more friction and wear compared to synthetic oil additives in base oil. Interestingly, imidazolium cation based ILs with long side-chain substituted cation and different anions have reduced more the friction and wear of steel-steel sliding pairs compared to base oil without additives. The excellent tribological properties of ILs as additives are due to their formation of physically adsorbed films and antiwear boundary film to reduce the friction and antiwear performance [16, 17].
\nThe purity of IL is also key factor for improving wear and friction properties of ILs with additives. The highly purified IL has shown excellent friction reduction, antiwear performance and high load carrying capacity [18]. Further, lubricating performance of ILs depends on thermal stability, polarity, ability to form ordered adsorbed films and antiwear boundary film at the interface. Specially, polar nature of ILs can able to facilitate interactions in engineering surfaces forming the boundary thin film. The formation of unique protective thin film of ILs can able to avoid the direct contact between mating surfaces and is believed to be responsible for showing the antiwear property. ILs can provide an effective surface separative film at wide temperature ranges compared to conventional oils due to higher thermal stability. The area of functional fluids for lubricants and hydraulic oils is still under research and development.
\nLiterature survey reveals that tribological study has been examined in ILs consisted of ammonium, phosphonium, pyrolidium, pyridinium, imidazolium cations as the cation and tetrafluoroborate (BF4), hexafluorophosphate (PF6), bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl)imide (NTf2), for the anion (Figure 2). On the other hand, ILs containing halogen exhibit have shown low friction and wear with good boundary lubrication properties.
\nStructures and abbreviations of cations and anions of the halogenated ILs used as lubricant additives.
Last one decade, several types of ILs like ammonium, phosphonium, pyridinium, imidazolium, etc. as cations and X−, PF6\n−, CF3SO3\n−, (CF3SO2)2N− etc. as anions have been extensively studied as lubricant and lubricant additives for wide range of application in surface engineering. ILs have also exhibited structure dependent lubrication properties depending upon cations and anions [19, 20, 21].
\nThe halogenated ILs are used over the steel surface for avoiding direct contact between tribo interfaces, consequently reduction in both friction and wear. During tribological test of BF4\n− anion based ILs, it is observed that the developing a tribo-thin film is composed of FeF2 and B2O3 [22]. Phillips et al. have reported that BF4\n− anion based ILs can under go into several reaction with product of FeF2, and lead to deduction of lubricant properties and corrosion of the substrate surface [22]. Metal fluorides (Like FeF2) are formed on a boundary lubricating layer of friction surfaces by a tribochemical reaction. It is also known that ILs containing a halogen such as fluorine has been known to cause corrosion in steel aluminum alloy, bronze, and titanium alloy sliding materials [23, 24]. The corrosion of alloy sliding materials has been reported to be the formation of hydrogen fluoride (HF) due to the decomposition of halogenated ILs [25, 26, 27, 28]. The formation of hydrogen fluoride is accelerated due to presence of water impurity in halogenated ILs. The change in color of the friction surface for steel bearings is observed using the hydrophobic IL as the lubricant in air at higher humidity [29]. The corrosion products are containing mainly metal fluorine and metal oxide on the surface which are experimentally verified [30].
\nAfter detailed investigation, halogenated ILs have hazardous and toxic effects to the environment and corrosive nature towards the engineering surfaces. The halogenated ILs can produce toxic and corrosive products after decomposition under different tribo-chemical reaction conditions for environment and the surface-engineering. High cost of halogens, particularly, fluorine-based precursors and disposal/discharge of halogenated ILs are big challenges for their penetration to the industrial applications.
\nThus, halogen-free IL have been attracted more interest for developing the new type of lubricant for the energy efficient and environmentally-friendly processess.
\nAccordingly, developing environmentally friendly ILs from renewable and biodegradable resources to diminish or avoid corrosion and toxicity has been becoming an inevitable strategy. A great effort has been devoted to searching for new halogen-free ILs. From literature surveys, halogen-free bioactive ILs such as saccharin [31, 32, 33], amino acid [34, 35] and ibuprofen [36, 37] ILs have been reported to replace traditional corrosive or hazardous halogenated ILs. Unfortunately, these halogen-free bioactive ILs are very poor thermal stability. However, low thermal stability and high cost of precursors cause less usable from application perspective. Interestingly, physicochemical properties and nontoxicity of these ILs can be regulated and customized by building precursor units from active pharmaceutical ingredients and biomass [38, 39, 40]. Literature survey reveals that tribological study of halogen-free ILs has been on the boundary lubricating capacity. Examined ILs are mainly consisted of ammonium, phosphonium, pyrolidium, pyridinium and imidazolium as the cation and phosphonate, dicyanamide, tricyanomethanide for anion (Figures 3-5). The halogen-free ILs have showed good tribological performance compared to synthetic lube oils.
\nStructures and abbreviations of cations and anions of the nonhalogenated ILs used as lubricant additives.
Structures and abbreviations of cations and anions of the carbon-nitrogen atom based ILs used as lubricant additives.
Structures and abbreviations of cations and anions of amino acid ILs used as lubricant additives.
Phosphonate-based halogen-free ILs has shown good thermal stability [41, 42, 43]. Phosphorus-containing ILs have been used for tribological study and shown effective lowering friction and wear reductions ability [12, 13, 44, 45]. The effectiveness of lowering friction and wear reductions ability, from high to low, was observed in phosphonium-phosphate, phosphonium-carboxylate, and phosphonium-sulfonate [46]. Experimental studies suggest that [P8,8,8,8][DEHP], [N8,8,8,H][DEHP], and [P6,6,6,14][BTMPP] provide similar surface protection for both steel−steel and steel−iron contacts to ZDDP compound [47, 48, 49]. In choline based ILs, [choline][DEHP], [choline][DBDP], [P6,6,6,14][BTMPP], [P6,6,6,14][Tf2N], [P6,6,6,14][DMP], and [P6,6,6,14][DEP]) have showed higher wear reduction to compared with the base oil, but only [choline][DEHP] and [P6,6,6,14][Tf2N] have only shown similar wear reduction property to ZDDP [50].
\nPhosphonium based ILs are used as additives in ester base oils and a VO, but only [P2,4,4,4][DEP] and [P6,6,6,14][FAP] have showed a stable >1% oil-solubility. At the same concentration, [P2,4,4,4][DEP] and [P6,6,6,14][FAP] ILs have showed comparable wear protection to ZDDP under low loads for a steel−steel ball-on-flat contact, [51, 52, 53].
\nFurther, halogen-free ILs have been used for extended tribological properties of the steel-steel and DLC–DLC tribo-pairs. Lubricating and additive properties of bmimDCA and bmimTCM have been tested on the steel and DLC surfaces after the friction tests (Figure 4).
\nA chemical reaction film is observed on the sliding surface of the steel-steel tribo-pair. It is considered that a corrosive attack of ILs to the metal surface is also occurred because the chemical reaction film was mainly composed of the elements of the halogen-free ILs [54, 55]. The appearance of the chemical reaction film is similar to reported literature for tribo-films originating from zinc dialkyldithiophosphates (ZDDP) [56, 57, 58, 59]. Additional analysis of chemical reaction film is also needed to identify the species generated on the steel surface. On the other hand, the chemical reaction film formation is not observed on the DLC surfaces. As DLC films have high chemical stability, the inhibition of the chemical interaction between the DLC surfaces and the halogen-free ILs is observed. The bmimDCA has showed better reducing frictional properties than bmimTCM for the steel-steel tribo-pair, whereas bmimTCM has showed better reducing frictional properties than bmimDCA for the DLC-DLC tribo-pairs. For explain the above phenomena, different lubrication mechanism is employed for DLC-DLC and steel–steel tribo-pairs [60].
\nA new family of green fluid lubricants (AAILs) have been designed for the lubrication of steel/steel, steel/copper and steel/aluminum contacts at room temperature (Figure 5). These AAILs can be obtained by simply neutralizing amino acids, which can be easily obtained in large quantities at low cost with the corresponding onium hydroxide. Use of natural amino acids as component ions makes the AAILs environmentally friendly with good biodegradability and reduced toxicity, making the AAILs as good potential green lubricants. The degree of hydrolysis of these AAILs are much higher than that of bmimBF4 and the anti-corrosion properties of the AAILs are also far better than bmimBF4 and hmimNTf2, due to their halogen-free characters. The tribological properties of the AAILs (Figure 5) have been tested on steel-steel contacts as steel is the most widely used material in various machines in our everyday life. Generally, AAILs produce a lower friction coefficient value than hmimNTf2 and prove the better friction-reducing performances where commercial oil PAO and a conventional IL hmimNTf2 are chosen for comparison purposes.
\nFrom experimental results, the wear volume losses of the steel discs lubricated by all AAILs are lower than that of the hmimNTf2 but higher than that of the PAO. The anti-wear properties of the AAILs should be improved compared with PAO. For improving anti-wear properties of the AAILs, [TBA][Ser] and [TBA][Thr] have been synthesized and exhibit the higher anti-wear properties due to attribution of their anionic moiety. Due to presence of hydroxyl groups in the anion structures of [Ser] and [Thr] effective protection films is formed on the metal surfaces. The effect of hydrogen bonding in [TBA][Ser] and [TBA][Thr] ILs provides effective separation of the steel surfaces, further reducing friction and wear. Besides, from an application point of view, [TBA][Ser] and [TBA][Thr] are more useful as lubricants than hmimNTf2, because of the lower cost associated with their preparation, and their intrinsic environmentally friendly characters.
\nThe AAILs are used to lubricate Cu alloys to change in friction coefficients and the wear volume losses of the copper discs under lubrication process [61, 62]. The evolution of friction coefficients shows that hmimNTf2 and [TBA][Leu] start at a moderately high value and then tend to become lower and more stable. From experimental results, AAILs have good lubricating effects for steel/copper contact [62].
\nThe lubrication of aluminum alloys has shown relatively poor wear-resistance, makes them especially difficult to be lubricated at a modest load [63]. It is also observed that the halogen-containing IL (like hmimNTf2) is not an efficient lubricant for aluminum, and that severe wear may be caused by its tribo-corrosion during the sliding process [64]. On the contrary, the AAILs are effective lubricants for aluminum alloy, and their tribological properties are comparable to PAO.
\nThe friction-reducing and anti-wear mechanism of the AAILs are explored by XPS analysis. However, characteristic peaks of N1s, which provide important information regarding the occurrence of a tribochemical reaction on a metal surface, are not detected. Besides, the lubricated metal surfaces by the AAILs and nonlubricated surface have shown similar binding energies of C1s, O1s, Fe2p, Cu2p and Al2p [65]. An AAIL adsorbed layer is formed via adsorption of cations and amino acid anions through an electrostatic attraction. The physical adsorption films by several AAIL adsorbed layer prevent close contact of metal–metal and further reduce the friction and wear on metal–metal surface [65]. The AAILs can substitute PAO and especially halogen containing ILs for use as neat lubricants for metal–metal contact. Additionally, the environmentally friendly and outstanding anti-corrosion properties of the AAILs also confirm that they are suitable for the lubrication of metal–metal surface contact.
\nBoron containing ILs are also class of non-halogenated ILs (Figure 6). Recently, boron containing ILs are reported as an efficient lubricant and additive [66, 67]. Development of halogen-free orthoborate anions based phosphonium ILs has been attracted research for tribological studies [68]. It is also reported that the boron constituted materials are well-known for exhibiting excellent friction-reducing and antiwear properties [69, 70, 71, 72]. Boron-containing ILs have been attracted great interest in recent time. Chelated orthoborate anion [BScB]− with different cations provides large number of ILs [73]. With Cation bmim+, [BScB]− has shown lower friction than [FAP]− or [DBP]−, but [DBP]− has shown the most wear reduction [74]. Further, wear and friction are significantly reduced when [BScB]− anion paired with dicationic [bis(imidazolium)]2+ and [bis-(ammonium)]2+ [75]. For cation [TBA]+, anions [BScB]−, [BMIB]−, and [BOxB]− show 50% or more in wear reduction under similar testing conditions [73, 74, 75, 76].
\nStructures and abbreviations of cations and anions of boron based ILs used as lubricant additives.
The scope of chelated orthoborate anions based ILs are further extended with imidazolium, bis-imidazolium and pyrrolidinium cations for their application in tribological studies. The ILs with aromatic and aliphatic structures (Figure 6) which are reported recently with an aim to probe their structural effects on corrosion and tribo-physical properties compared with the halogenated analogue TBA-BF4 [73]. It is also observed that TBA-BMdB, TBA-BOxB and TBA-BScB ILs exhibited higher thermal stability due to the presence of aromatic rings in their chelated structure and presence of various intermolecular interactions and rigidity to their anionic moieties.
\nPresence of halogen, phosphorus, and sulfur constituent components in the lubricant system facilitates the corrosion events and damages the engineering surfaces. Khatri and co-worker have investigated the corrosion property of boron based ILs (Figure 6) probed by copper strip test meth by optical and electron microscopic techniques [73]. It is also reported that the copper strip, exposed to TBA-BOxB, exhibited corrosion pits distributed throughout the substrate. The surface features of copper strips remain intact without any damage, exposed to TBA-BMdB, TBA-BScB and TBA-ILs. These experimental results suggested that TBA-BMdB, TBA-BScB and TBA-BMlB ILs (halogen-free), do not corrode the copper strips surface, whereas, presence of fluorine in TBA-BF4, corrosive events on copper strips surface are facilitated. Furthermore, TBA-BOxB IL has poor thermal stability and its decomposed acidic (oxalic acid) product leads to corrosive events. As a result, TBA-BOxB showed higher friction and WSD compared to other chelated orthoborate ILs. Most of chelated orthoborate ILs has shown noncorrosive properties and can be tested for their lubrication properties.
\nAmong all boron based ILs (Figure 6), maximum antiwear property is achieved by TBA-BMdB IL due to compact, rigid and stable structure of BMdB anion. To understand the effect of halogen, the friction and wear properties of fluorine constituted TBA-BF4 ILs are examined under identical condition. It is observed that TBA-BF4 has showed poorer tribo performance compared to the chelated orthoborate ILs. Poor tribo-performance and corrosion results suggest that corrosive products generation by BF4 anion constituted ILs could be further facilitated by trapped water molecules in the lubricant [28].
\nThe exact mechanism and role of boron based ILs in tribo-chemical thin film formation is believed to be complex because of their inherent polarity. Recently, Oganov et al. have revealed that boron containing ILs can generate partial negative charge and facilitate the interaction of chelated orthoborate anions with steel surfaces and forms the tribo-thin film under the high pressure [77]. Usually, under the tribo-stress, the positive charge is induced on metal surfaces. Chelated orthoborate anions are adsorbed on induced positive charge surface with counter cations. The layering structure on metal surface is formed through electrostatic attractions and generates the physico-chemically adsorbed tribo-thin film [78]. Furthermore, the very hard nature of boron is understood to provide durable tribo-thin film, which protects the steel interfaces and reduces wear significantly.
\nIt has been suggested that the dangling bonds of carbon atoms on the metal surface are terminated by lubricant additives or the decomposition of lubricant additives and the formation of a monomolecular layer, which results in ultralow friction. These results suggest that an adsorbed film derived from the halogen-free ILs formed on the surfaces, which led to the ultralow friction. Moreover, a soft, thin layer on hard substrate materials is important for achieving an ultralow friction regime under boundary lubrication in accordance with the adhesion theory of friction [60]. The tribo-chemical thin film developed by chemical interaction of ILs and their decomposed products with steel interfaces could be an alternate to justify the tribo-mechanism [6, 10, 13]. Comparison of halogenated and non-halogenated ILs with conventional lubricants is listed in Table 1 for better understanding the utility of ILs as lubricant.
\nLubricants | \nCOF | \nWear | \nContact | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
emimBF4\n | \n0.56 | \n3.11x10−3 mm3/m | \nTitanium-Steel | \n[79] | \n
bmimBF4\n | \n0.17 | \n0.02x10−3 mm3/m | \n||
bmimCl | \n0.17 | \n0.02x10−3 mm3/m | \n||
hmimPF6\n | \n0.19 | \n0.08x10−3 mm3/m | \n||
omimBF4\n | \n0.18 | \n0.1x10−3 mm3/m | \n||
Mineral Oil | \n0.45 | \n1.9x10−3 mm3/m | \n||
hmimPF6\n | \n0.065 | \n9.3x10−3 mm3/m | \nSteel-Steel | \n[80] | \n
PAO | \n0.105 | \n9x10−3 mm3/m | \n||
bmimBF4\n | \n0.045 | \n230x10−9 mm3/Nm | \nCopper-Si3N4\n | \n[81] | \n
Diesel oil | \n0.07 | \n210x10−9 mm3/Nm | \n||
bmimBF4\n | \n0.041 | \n73.1x10−9 mm3/Nm | \nSteel-Si3N4\n | \n|
Diesel oil | \n0.105 | \n80.2x10−9 mm3/Nm | \n||
bmimBF4\n | \n0.035 | \n75x10−9 mm3/Nm | \nCrystalline Cr- Si3N4\n | \n|
Diesel oil | \n0.075 | \n34x10−9 mm3/Nm | \n||
(C8H17)3NHNTf2\n | \n0.05 | \n29.1x10−9 mm3/Nm | \nEngine inner ring | \n[5] | \n
dmimNTf2\n | \n0.07 | \n24.5x10−9 mm3/Nm | \n||
Mineral Oil | \n0.11 | \n44.8x10−9 mm3/Nm | \n||
15w40 Engine oil | \n0.11 | \n36.9x10−9 mm3/Nm | \n||
hmimPF6\n | \n0.085 | \n3x10−9 mm3/Nm | \nNickel-Steel | \n[82] | \n
omimPF6\n | \n0.1 | \n9x10−9 mm3/Nm | \n||
PFPE | \n0.145 | \n37x10−9 mm3/Nm | \n||
DSa | \n0.3 | \n0.26x10−9 mm3/Nm | \nCopper-Copper | \n[83] | \n
PAO | \n0.1 | \n4.54x10−9 mm3/Nm | \n
Comparison of ionic liquids (ILs) and conventional lubricants.
Oil-soluble ILs, when used as lubricant additives, have repeatedly exhibited effective wear and friction reductions in tribological bench tests and demonstrated improved engine mechanical efficiency in engine dynamometer tests. The lubricating performance has shown a strong correlation with the ILs chemistry, concentration, compatibility with other oil additives, material compositions of the contact surfaces, and rubbing conditions. While some results simply showed improvement over the base oils, others have direct comparisons with commercial antiwear additives. Phosphonium based ILs with halogenated and non-halogenated anions are also used as additive for different contact surfaces [14]. Further, tribological study of oil-miscible quaternary ammonium phosphites ILs as Lubricant additives in PAO is also investigated in different surface environment and shows efficient reduction of wear [53]. Biodegradable fatty-acid-constituted halogen-free ILs are efficient for renewable, environmentally friendly, and high-performance lubricant additives [76]. Halogen-free imidazolium/Ammonium-bis(salicylato)borate ILs act as high-performance lubricant additives and lower wear values on metal surfaces [74]. For better understanding the utility of ILs as lubricant additive in oils, COF and wear properties are for few ILs and listed in Table 2.
\nLubricants | \nCOF | \nWear | \nContact | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
PAO | \n0.14 | \n38.5x10−7 mm3/Nm | \nCast iron–steel | \n[46] | \n
PAO@1.67% amine-phosphate | \n0.1 | \n9x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
PAO@ 0.75% [P4444][DEHP] | \n0.11 | \n2.5x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
PAO@1.03% [P66614][DEHP] | \n0.08 | \n13x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
PAO@1.65% [P66614][i-C7H15COO] | \n0.11 | \n4x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
PAO@1.98% [P66614][n-C17H35COO] | \n0.08 | \n3x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
PAO@ 2.44% [P66614][RSO3] | \n0.11 | \n7x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
PEG-200 | \n0.12 | \n730 mm (wear scar) | \nSteel–steel | \n[75] | \n
PEG-200@ 1% MIm5-(BScB)2\n | \n0.07 | \n360 mm (wear scar) | \n||
PEG-200@ 2% MIm5-(BScB)2\n | \n0.07 | \n330 mm (wear scar) | \n||
PEG-200@ 3% MIm5-(BScB)2\n | \n0.07 | \n335 mm (wear scar) | \n||
PAO | \n0.22 | \n4.9x10−4 mm3/Nm | \nCast iron–steel | \n[11] | \n
PAO@ 5% P66614 DEHP | \n0.1 | \n5.6x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
5 W-30 engine oil | \n0.1 | \n4.7x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
5 W-30 engine oil @ 5% P66614 DEHP | \n0.1 | \n1.3x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
10 W base oil | \n>0.3 | \n490x10−7 mm3/Nm | \nCast iron–steel | \n[12] | \n
10 W C 5% PP-IL | \n0.09 | \n4.7x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
10 W-30 engine oil | \n0.1 | \n9x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n||
10 W-30 engine oil C 5% PP-IL | \n0.11 | \n2.5x10−7 mm3/Nm | \n
Tribological properties of ILs as lubricant additives.
For ILs as lubrication, the major concerns included corrosion, thermal oxidation, oil-miscibility, toxicity, and cost. The recent successful development of noncorrosive, thermally stable, and oil-soluble ILs has largely been addressed and discussed in technical barriers and application point of views. The mainstream research of IL involved lubrication has been shifted from using ILs as neat or base lubricants to using them as lubricant additives. The development of ILs as new lubricating systems are encouraging and still challenging issues in present day. There must be considered the disintegration and corrosion problems of ILs related to their applications as lubricant. However, these fundamental issues can help us to the understanding of fundamental mechanisms of tribology. Now, the focus is to develop halogen and phosphorus-free ILs as energy efficient and environment-friendly lubricant additives for the steel-based engineering surfaces, and to establish the correlation between structure of anion and tribo-physical properties of ILs. Halogen free ILs (mainly borate based ILs) are more important for application as lubricant in near future.
\nSKP acknowledges Department of Chemistry, Uka Tarsadia University, Maliba Campus, Gopal Vidyanagar, Bardoli, Mahuva Road, Surat-394350, Gujrat, India. Conflict of Interest.
\nThe author confirms that he has no conflict of interest to declare for this publication.
\n amino acid ionic liquids anti-wear tetrafluoroborate 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(salicylato)borate methoxy tris-ethoxy methylene benzotriazole bis(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphinate coefficient of friction bis(2-ethylhexyl)phosphate diamond Like Carbon dioctyl sulfosuccinate dioctyl phosphite bis(2-ethylhexyl)phosphate 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tris(pentafluoroethyl)trifluorophosphate 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium ionic liquids leucine lysine mineral oil 1,1′-(pentane-1,5-diyl)bis(3-methylimidazolium) 1,1′-(pentane-1,5-diyl)bis(2,3-dimethylimidazolium) poly-α-olefin polyester poly(ethylene glycol) hexafluorophosphate polyolester poly-α-olefin serine threonine valine bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide tetrabutylammonium serine tetrabutylammonium threonine tetrabutylammonium valine tetrabutylammonium leucine tetrabutylammonium lysine tetrabutylammonium hydroxide tributyloctylphosphonium cation tributyltetradecylphosphonium cation trihexyltetradecylphosphonium cation trimethylolpropane vegetable oil x-ray photoelectron spectrometry zinc dialkyldithiophosphate
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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). 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He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"351159",title:"BSc.",name:"Kalum J.",middleName:null,surname:"Ost",slug:"kalum-j.-ost",fullName:"Kalum J. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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