ABM evolution over time.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8445",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Dam Engineering - Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Dams are critical structures in the sense that damage or breach of even a small dam may cause an unacceptable loss of life and property. Therefore, the safety of dams over the intended lifespan is of utmost importance for unrestricted operation. The basic prerequisites for any safe and successful operation of a dam include state-of-the-art design, experimental investigations of the construction material and properties of the foundation, a refined theoretical analysis of relevant load cases, and high-quality construction. In the past decades, many advancements have been achieved in both construction technologies and design, including those for the prediction of the long-term behavior of dams under various loading conditions. As such, this book examines these advancements with respect to the design, construction, and performance of earth, rockfill, and concrete dams. Over eight chapters, this book provides a comprehensive overview of the latest progress and research in dam engineering.",isbn:"978-1-83962-158-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-157-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-159-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78818",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",numberOfPages:204,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",publishedDate:"March 31st 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3930,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:13,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/249577/images/system/249577.png",biography:"Zhongzhi Fu is a professor and senior engineer in the Department of Geotechnical Engineering, Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute (NHRI), which is a non-profit research center governed by the Ministry of Water Resources, China. Dr. Fu specializes in hydraulic structures, especially for embankment and rockfill dams. He obtained his doctoral degree from Hohai University, Nanjing, China, in 2011 and became a consultant engineer for NHRI in June 2011. He has been working on testing and modeling the static and dynamic behavior of earth and rockfill materials and has published more than seventy technical papers in national and international journals and conference proceedings. Dr. Fu has participated in consulting works for more than thirty dams of different types, including the DaShiXia Concrete Faced Gravel Dam in Xinjiang (247 m in height) and the RuMei Earth Core Rockfill Dam in Tibet (315 m in height). He is now the secretary of the Soil and Rock Mechanics Committee in the Chinese Hydraulic Engineering Society and is a member of the Chinese National Committee on Large Dams.",institutionString:"Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"308516",title:"Prof.",name:"Erich",middleName:null,surname:"Bauer",slug:"erich-bauer",fullName:"Erich Bauer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/308516/images/system/308516.jpg",biography:"Erich Bauer is a professor at the Institute of Applied Mechanics (IAM), Graz University of Technology, Austria. He completed his postgraduate studies at the University of Karlsruhe, Germany, under the supervision of Prof. G. Gudehus and Prof. D. Kolymbas, and holds a habilitation in Mechanics. Before joining IAM, he worked in a consulting company on research projects in Europe and the United States using the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM). Dr. Bauer is a regular reviewer of papers for various international journals, a Ph.D. thesis examiner, a keynote speaker at a large number of international conferences, and a member of different editorial boards. His scientific work focuses on the mechanical properties of granular materials and their constitutive modeling, using classical and higher-order continuum descriptions. His main areas of research are continuum mechanics, experimental investigations, and the constitutive modeling of engineering materials including the long-term behavior of geotechnical structures like rockfill dams. His scientific results have been published in 158 papers and books and presented in 136 oral presentations. Dr. Bauer is the project leader of several national and international scientific-technical initiatives with universities in Europe and Asia. He is also visiting professor at Hohai University, China, and the founder of the international conference series on “Long-term Behaviour of Dams” (LTBD).",institutionString:"Graz University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Graz University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"705",title:"Construction Engineering",slug:"construction-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"73062",title:"Using Clay-Gravel Mixtures as the Impervious Core Materials in Rockfill Dams",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93206",slug:"using-clay-gravel-mixtures-as-the-impervious-core-materials-in-rockfill-dams",totalDownloads:640,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Constructing the impervious system of an Earth Core Rockfill Dam (ECRD) usually needs a large volume of clay that may exhaust a huge area of farmland. One way to reduce the volume of clay to be filled is to use natural clay-gravel mixtures (CGM) or to add an appropriate percent of gravel materials into the clay and use the artificial clay-gravel mixtures as the impervious core materials. Using clay-gravel mixtures can also effectively increase the modulus of the core and reduce the differential settlement between the core and its adjacent rockfill shoulders, and thus alleviate the risk of occurrence of potential cracks within the core wall. The impermeability behavior of the compacted clay-gravel mixtures, however, has to be careful investigated and verified. In this chapter, four cases in using clay-gravel mixtures in constructing high ECRDs in China are reviewed, with attention focused on the engineering properties of clay-gravel mixtures and the construction and field quality control aspects of ECRDs using clay-gravel mixtures.",signatures:"Zhongzhi Fu, Shengshui Chen, Enyue Ji, Guoying Li and Yang Lu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73062",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73062",authors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"},{id:"256310",title:"Prof.",name:"Shengshui",surname:"Chen",slug:"shengshui-chen",fullName:"Shengshui Chen"},{id:"256311",title:"Dr.",name:"Enyue",surname:"Ji",slug:"enyue-ji",fullName:"Enyue Ji"},{id:"320528",title:"Prof.",name:"Guoying",surname:"Li",slug:"guoying-li",fullName:"Guoying Li"},{id:"320529",title:"Dr.",name:"Yang",surname:"Lu",slug:"yang-lu",fullName:"Yang Lu"}],corrections:null},{id:"71980",title:"Heightening of an Existing Embankment Dam: Results from Numerical Simulations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92221",slug:"heightening-of-an-existing-embankment-dam-results-from-numerical-simulations",totalDownloads:645,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The old dam of the Zhushou Reservoir is a clay core rock-debris dam with a maximum height of 63.4 m. After heightening, the new dam is a concrete-faced rockfill dam with a maximum height of 98.1 m. In the initial design stage, a rigid connection is proposed between the cutoff wall and toe slab. After the concrete cutoff wall is built at the axis of the old dam, a complete cutoff system is composed of cutoff wall, toe slab, and face slab. In this paper, based on the static and dynamic tests of dam materials, the Shen Zhujiang double-yield surface elastic-plastic model is used as the static constitutive model, and the contact friction model is used as the contact surface model. The three-dimensional finite element method is used to simulate the construction filling and water storage process during operation. The simulation results show that the maximum horizontal displacement occurs in the dam body of the old dam and the maximum settlement occurs at the interface between the old and new dams. During the storage period, the cutoff wall will not be damaged, and the tensile stress of the local area at the junction of toe slab and bank slope has exceeded the allowable value for C30 plain concrete, so the reinforcement should be strengthened at this location.",signatures:"Zhu Yumeng, Guoying Li, Zhankuan Mi, Zhongzhi Fu and Kuangmin Wei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71980",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71980",authors:[{id:"314455",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yumeng",surname:"Zhu",slug:"yumeng-zhu",fullName:"Yumeng Zhu"}],corrections:null},{id:"71623",title:"Space-Time Finite Element Method for Seismic Analysis of Concrete Dam",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91916",slug:"space-time-finite-element-method-for-seismic-analysis-of-concrete-dam",totalDownloads:523,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Finite element method (FEM) is the most extended approach for analyzing the design of the dams against earthquake motion. In such simulations, time integration schemes are employed to obtain the response of the dam at time tn+1 from the known response at time tn. To this end, it is desirable that such schemes are high-order accurate in time and remain unconditionally stable large time-step size can be employed to decrease the computation cost. Moreover, such schemes should attenuate the high-frequency components from the response of structure being studied. Keeping this in view, this chapter presents the theory of time-discontinuous space-time finite element method (ST/FEM) and its application to obtain the response of dam-reservoir system to seismic loading.",signatures:"Vikas Sharma, Akira Murakami and Kazunori Fujisawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71623",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71623",authors:[{id:"254082",title:"Prof.",name:"Akira",surname:"Murakami",slug:"akira-murakami",fullName:"Akira Murakami"},{id:"313632",title:"Dr.",name:"Vikas",surname:"Sharma",slug:"vikas-sharma",fullName:"Vikas Sharma"},{id:"313644",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",surname:"Fujisawa",slug:"kazunori-fujisawa",fullName:"Kazunori Fujisawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"75269",title:"Long-Term Behavior of Coarse-Grained Rockfill Material and Their Constitutive Modeling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96080",slug:"long-term-behavior-of-coarse-grained-rockfill-material-and-their-constitutive-modeling",totalDownloads:483,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For the long-term behavior and safety assessment of rockfill dams, not only the shape of the dam body, the loading history, the geological condition of the dam foundation and abutments, the assessment of possible seismic hazards and seepage events caused by defects of the sealing are important, but also the time dependent mechanical behavior of the dam materials used can be of significant influence. In this paper a novel hypoplastic constitutive model for moisture sensitive, coarse-grained rockfill materials is presented. In the constitutive equations, the so-called solid hardness is a key parameter to reflect the influence of the state of weathering on the mechanical response. With respect to the evolution equation for the solid hardness, creep and stress relaxation can be modeled for dry and wet states of the material in a unified manner. The performance of the model is demonstrated by comparing the numerical simulation with experimental data.",signatures:"Erich Bauer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75269",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75269",authors:[{id:"308516",title:"Prof.",name:"Erich",surname:"Bauer",slug:"erich-bauer",fullName:"Erich Bauer"}],corrections:null},{id:"73260",title:"A State-Dependent Constitutive Model for Unsaturated Rockfill Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92902",slug:"a-state-dependent-constitutive-model-for-unsaturated-rockfill-materials",totalDownloads:340,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a state-dependent elastoplastic constitutive model for both saturated and unsaturated rockfill materials. The model, which is developed within an extended critical-state framework, uses two independent stress state variables: total stress and total suction. The loading-collapse (LC) curve proposed by Oldecop and Alonso for unsaturated rockfills is used herein. A unified hardening parameter, which could consider the effects of stress level, internal state (density) and relative humidity, is introduced to describe the state-dependent dilatancy of saturated and unsaturated rockfill materials. The details of the model formulation and parameters determination are described and reported. Numerical simulations on the triaxial tests, such as the drained shear tests on the saturated specimens with different initial dry densities, shear tests on the specimens with different relative humidity and wetting deformation tests under constant vertical strain rate, have been carried out using the proposed model. The numerical results show that the stress-strain relationships at both loose and dense, saturated and unsaturated states can be properly modelled with a single set of parameters. Additionally, the proposed model can also capture some other key features such as the strain-softening behaviour at the dense state and low confining stress, the sudden stress relaxing subjected to the flooding under a constant vertical strain.",signatures:"Liujiang Wang and Zhongzhi Fu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73260",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73260",authors:[{id:"312552",title:"Dr.",name:"Liujiang",surname:"Wang",slug:"liujiang-wang",fullName:"Liujiang Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"72924",title:"A Practical Framework for Probabilistic Analysis of Embankment Dams",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92745",slug:"a-practical-framework-for-probabilistic-analysis-of-embankment-dams",totalDownloads:392,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Uncertainties, such as soil parameters variability, are often encountered in embankment dams. Probabilistic analyses can rationally account for these uncertainties and further provide complementary information (e.g., failure probability and mean/variance of a model response) than deterministic analyses. This chapter introduces a practical framework, based on surrogate modeling, for efficiently performing probabilistic analyses. An active learning process is used in the surrogate model construction. Two assessment stages are included in this framework by respectively using random variables (RV) and random fields (RF) for the soil variability modeling. In the first stage, a surrogate model is coupled with three probabilistic methods in the RV context for the purpose of providing a variety of useful results with an acceptable computational effort. Then, the soil spatial variability is considered by introducing RFs in the second stage that enables a further verification on the structure reliability. The introduced framework is applied to an embankment dam stability problem. The obtained results are validated by a comparison with direct Monte Carlo Simulations, which also allows to highlight the efficiency of the employed methods.",signatures:"Xiangfeng Guo and Daniel Dias",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72924",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72924",authors:[{id:"319152",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Dias",slug:"daniel-dias",fullName:"Daniel Dias"},{id:"319153",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiangfeng",surname:"Guo",slug:"xiangfeng-guo",fullName:"Xiangfeng Guo"}],corrections:null},{id:"72889",title:"Probabilistic Slope Stability Analysis for Embankment Dams",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93274",slug:"probabilistic-slope-stability-analysis-for-embankment-dams",totalDownloads:477,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Slope instability is one of the most common forms of dam failure. The commonly used slope stability analysis methods ignore the uncertainty and randomness of dam materials, which may overestimate the stability of dams. In this chapter, a deterministic slope stability analysis based on strength reduction finite-element method is introduced first. After that, the slope is investigated using simple probabilistic concepts and classical slope stability techniques, and the shear strength is treated as a single random variable. Further, the random finite-element method (RFEM) is shown, in which spatial correlation and local averaging are illustrated in detail. Finally, the RFEM is applied to slope stability risk assessment, and the results can lead to higher probabilities of failure.",signatures:"Yijiang Zhang, Enyue Ji and Weiwei Xu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72889",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72889",authors:[{id:"256311",title:"Dr.",name:"Enyue",surname:"Ji",slug:"enyue-ji",fullName:"Enyue Ji"},{id:"314203",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yijiang",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yijiang-zhang",fullName:"Yijiang Zhang"},{id:"327532",title:"Dr.",name:"Weiwei",surname:"Xu",slug:"weiwei-xu",fullName:"Weiwei Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"72848",title:"Earth-Rock Dams’ Breach Modelling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92893",slug:"earth-rock-dams-breach-modelling",totalDownloads:430,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Simulation of dam breach process has significant influence on the evaluation of consequence of dam breach flood. In this study, research progresses on the numerical modeling of earth-rock dams’ breach process are summarized, especially the latest research results of the author’s research team in recent years. However, there still has a considerable gap in the versatility of computer software and visualization technology of dam breaching process. It is suggested that more efforts should be made in the future to study the detailed physically based numerical model for core dam and concrete face rockfill dam; further, more attention should be paid to the application of visualization technology in dam breach process simulation. Finally, the universal and friendly visualization computer software that can accurately simulate the dam failure process and flood routing for earth-rock dams is sorely needed.",signatures:"Qiming Zhong, Yibo Shan and Jiaxin Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72848",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72848",authors:[{id:"313153",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiming",surname:"Zhong",slug:"qiming-zhong",fullName:"Qiming Zhong"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3631",title:"Smart Home Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"smart-home-systems",bookSignature:"Mahmoud A. 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Dr. Kyrchei is an Editorial Board Member of the Journal ‘’Advances in Linear Algebra & Matrix Theory’’ and is a member of the International Linear Algebra Society.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"226980",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Kyrchei",slug:"ivan-kyrchei",fullName:"Ivan Kyrchei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226980/images/system/226980.jpg",biography:'Ivan Kyrchei was born in 1964 in Lviv region, Ukraine. In 1992, he was awarded a Master of Science in Mathematics from Ivan Franko National University (Lviv, Ukraine). After that, he worked a high school teacher, studied in graduate school of Pidstryhach Institute for Applied Problems in Mechanics and Mathematics of NAS of Ukraine in Lviv and started his jobs in this institute in junior research positions. In 2008, he held a Doctor of Philosophy (Candidate of Science) degree from Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv in specialty of Algebra and the Theory of Numbers. His PhD thesis "Theory of the column and row determinants and inverse matrix over a skew field with involution" introduces and develops the theory of new column and row determinants for matrices with noncommutative entries. In 2021, he was awarded a Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences degree from Institute of Mathematics of NAS of Ukraine in Kyiv. His habilitation ScD thesis " Generalized inverse matrices over the quaternion skew field and their applications" is devoted to generalized inverse matrices over the quaternion skew field, first of all to their determinantal representations, and their applications to solving quaternion matrix equations, some differential matrix equations, and problems of quaternion matrix minimizations and approximations. Now, he is working as the Leading Researcher of PIAPMM of NAS of Ukraine. In 2014, he held an academic degree of Senior Research Fellow (Algebra and the Theory of Numbers) from Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine that is equivalent to Associate Professor. He obtained the award for significant achievements in the field of science from the Lviv Regional State Administration and Regional Council (2019, 2021). His research interests are mostly in Algebra, Linear Algebra and their Applications. He has more than 80 scientific publications, from them more than 60 are papers with the high science citation index that have been published in well-known professional scientific journals and editor\'s books. 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These models are found to be consistent and realistic in several fundamental aspects. They possess some significant advantages over the simple aggregated trip-based travel demand models [3]. To achieve this, ABMs consider the linkage among activities and travel for an individual as well as different people within the same household and place more attention to the constraints of time and space. In other words, these models are capable of integrating both the activity, time, and spatial dimensions. The comprehensive advantages of activity-based models in comparison to the trip-based models have been discussed in previous papers [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Activity-based models are suitable for a wider variety of transportation policies involving individual decisions such as congestion pricing and ridesharing. More especially, enabling the relationship between activity and behavioral pattern of trip making is one of the main reasons for the shift from the aggregate-level in trip based models to disaggregate-level provided by ABMs [9].
Activity-based travel demand models (ABMs) can be classified into two main groups: Utility maximization-based econometric models and rule-based computational process models (CPM). Utility maximization-based econometric models apply different econometric structures such as logit, probit, hazard-based, and ordered response models. While the logit models rely on different assumptions about the distribution of the error terms in the utility functions, hazard-based models use the duration of activity based on end-of-duration occurrence to generate activity schedules [10]. Rule-based computational process models apply different sets of condition-action rules and focus on the implementation of daily travel and ordering activities to mimic individuals’ behavior when constructing schedules. In addition to the aforementioned models, other approaches can be employed either in combination with these models or separately to develop activity-based models. Examples include agent-based and time-space prism approaches. While an agent-based approach allows agents to learn, modify, and improve their interactions with other agents as well as their dynamic environment, time-space prisms are utilized to capture spatial and temporal constraints under which individuals construct the patterns of their activities and trips. Figure 1 exhibits critical elements of ABM such as activity generation, activity scheduling, and mobility choices. It also provides a comparison among the notable existing travel demand models regarding their different elements. The development of activity-based travel demand models has been reviewed comprehensively in previous studies [10, 11]. Table 1 provides a summary of the literature on the evolution of these models over time by introducing the notable existing developed models and highlighting their limitations.
Components of activity-based travel demand models.
ABM type + year of proposal | Examples | Model limitations |
---|---|---|
Constraint-based models 1967 | PESASP [12] | Consider only individual accessibility, rather than household-level accessibility Some system features, like open hours and travel times, are considered fixed [11] |
CARLA [13] | ||
BSP [14] | ||
MAGIC [15] | ||
GISICAS [16] | ||
Utility maximization-based models 1978 | Portland METRO [17] | |
San Francisco SFCTA [18] | ||
New York NYMTC [19] | ||
Columbus MORPC [20] | ||
Sacramento SACOG [21, 22] | ||
CEMDAP [23, 24] | ||
FAMOS [25] | ||
CT-RAMP [26] | ||
Computational process models 2000 | ALBATROSS [27, 28] | Focus more on scheduling and sequencing of activities than the underlying rules in decision-making [11] |
TASHA [29, 30] | ||
ADAPTS [31, 32, 33] | ||
Feathers [34] | ||
Agent-based modeling 2004 | ALBATROSS [27, 28] |
|
Feathers [34] | ||
MATSim [35] | ||
TRANSIMS [36] | ||
SimMobilitiy [37] | ||
POLARIS [38] |
ABM evolution over time.
Despite the existence of many models as listed in Table 1, ABM’s abilities in reflecting behavioral realism are still limited [40]. The capability of ABM models in predicting individual travel movements can be evaluated from two perspectives of input (data) and output (applicability). Activity schedules are an essential input into the ABM model. From an input point of view, the necessity of deriving activity schedules from dynamic resources together with their challenges will be reviewed. From the applicability perspective, the application of ABM output in integration with dynamic traffic assignment (DTA) models, transferring to a new geographical context, and why and how it is applied in transport planning management will also be discussed. To this end, the first part of this paper will review the new real-time data resources revealing the pattern and traces of traveler’s mobility at a large scale and over an extended period of time. The big data enables new ABM models to reflect mobility behavior on an unprecedented level of detail while collecting data over a longer period (e.g., more than one typical day) would improve the behavioral realism in trip making [41]. The second part of this paper looks into the applicability of ABM models. This part includes (i) gap investigation in enriching ABMs by integrating time-dependent OD matrices produced by ABMs with dynamic traffic assignment; (ii) investigation of ABMs’ applicability in transferring from one region to another; and (iii) enriching the capability of ABMs by moving beyond the transportation domain to other such as environment and management strategies.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces new data sources such as mobile phone call data records, transit smart cards, and GPS data where the influence of new data sources on the planning of activities, formation, and analysis of the travel behavior of individuals will be investigated. This section also introduces activity-based travel demand models, which generates activity-travel schedules longer than a typical day. Section 3 describes the existing experiences in transferring utility-based and CPM activity-based travel demand models from one geographical area to another. This section also reviews the integration of ABM models with dynamic traffic assignment and other models such as air quality models. The possibility of using activity-based models in travel demand management strategies with a focus on car-sharing and telecommuting are considered as examples. The last section concludes the paper and identifies remaining challenges in the area of activity-based travel demand modeling.
This section provides an overview of the role of big data in replacing the traditional data sources, and the changes in activity-based travel demand models given these newly available data.
It is more than half a century that transportation planners try to understand how individuals schedule their activities and travel to improve urban mobility and accessibility. The evolution of travel demand modeling from trip-based to activity-based highlighted the need for high-resolution databases including sociodemographic and economic attributes of individuals and travel characteristics. Today, with the rapid advancements in computation, technology, and applications, the intelligent transportation systems (ITS) have revolutionized the analysis of travel behavior by having more accurate data, removing human errors, and making use of the vast amount of available data [42]. Tools such as GPS devices, smartphones, smart card data, and social networking sites all have the potential to track the movements and activities of individuals by recording and retaining the relevant data continuously over time. Most of the traditional travel survey data are rich in detail. However, it can result in biased travel demand models because of incomplete self-reports and inaccurate scheduling patterns. Therefore, in this section, the common tools used in collecting big data are introduced and the progress made in the area of extracting big data sources is discussed.
A call detail record (CDR) is a data record produced by a telephone exchange and consists of spatiotemporal information on the recent system usage [40], which can track people’s movements. This CDR data can be processed and applied in activity-based travel demand modelings to better understand human mobility and obtain more accurate origin-destination (OD) tables [43]. The first attempt using CDR data was a study of Caceres et al. [44], who applied mobile phone data to generate OD matrices. Their concept was then formalized by Wang et al. [45] to obtain transient OD matrices by counting trips for each pair of the following calls from two different telephone (cell) towers at the same hour. Afterward, using the shortest path algorithm, OD trips are assigned to the road network. In the area of urban activity recognition, Farrahi et al. [46] applied two probabilistic methods (i.e., Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) and Author Topic Models, ATM) to cluster CDR trajectories according to their temporal aspects to discover the home and work activities. Considering the spatial aspect of CDR data, Phithakkitnukoon et al. [47] applied auxiliary land use data and geographical information database to find possible activities around a certain cell tower. And considering both the temporal-spatial aspect of CDR, Widhalm et al. [48] used an undirected relational Markov network to infer urban activities. They extracted activity patterns for Boston and Vienna by analyzing cell phone data (activity time, duration, and land use). Their results show that trip sequence patterns and activity scheduling observed from datasets were compatible with city surveys as well as the stability of generated activity clusters across time. In a more recent study, [49] an unsupervised generative state-space model is applied to extract user activity patterns from CDR data. Furthermore, it has been shown that the method of CDR sampling is as significant as survey sampling. For example, in one study [50], CDR and survey data is used during a period of six months to investigate the daily mobility for Paris and Chicago. The result shows that 90% of travel patterns observed in both surveys are compatible with phone data. In another similar study [51], a probabilistic induction was proposed using motifs (daily mobility network), time of day activity sequence, and land use classification to produce activity types. CDR data of Singapore was used by Jiang et al. [52] to produce activity-based human mobility patterns.
In the context of activity-based transport modeling, Zilske et al. [53] replaced travel diaries with CDRs as input data for agent-based traffic simulation. They first generated the synthetic CDR data, then the MATSim simulation software was used to identify every observed person as an agent to convert call information into activity. They fused the CDR data set with traffic counts in their next paper [54], to reduce the Spatio-temporal uncertainty.
In summary, the findings reported from different studies indicated the major implications of mobile phone records on the estimation of travel demand variables including travel time, mode and route choice as well as OD demand and traffic flow estimation; however; in practice, the information generated from CDR data are yet to be used widely in simulation models. This is mainly because of the conflict between either level of resolution or format and completeness of model and data [55].
Smart card systems with on- and off-boarding information gained much popularity in large public transport systems all over the world, and have become a new source of data to understand and identify the Spatio-temporal travel patterns of the individual passengers. The smart card data are investigated in various studies such as activity identification, scheduling, agent-based transport models, and simulation [56]. Besides, in other studies [57, 58, 59] smart card data was used as an analysis tool in investigating the passenger movements, city structure, and city area functions. Similarly, in the recent study [60], a visual analysis system called PeopleVis was introduced to examine the smart card data (SCD) and predict the travel behavior of each passenger. They used one-week SCD in the city of Beijing and found a group of “familiar strangers” who did not know each other but had lots of similarities in their trip choices. Zhao et al. [61] also investigated the group behavior of metro passengers in Zhechen by applying the data mining procedure. After extracting patterns from smart card transaction data, statistical-based and clustering-based methods were applied to detect the passengers’ travel patterns. The results show that a temporally regular passenger is very probable to be a spatially regular passenger. The disaggregated nature of smart card data represents suitable input to multi-agent simulation frameworks. For example, the smart card data is used to generate activity plans and implement an agent-based microsimulation of public transport in two cities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam [62]. An agent-based transport simulation is developed for Singapore’s public transport using MATSim environment [63]. Unlike Bouman’s study, they considered the interaction of public transport with private vehicles. The study of Fourie et al. [64] was another research work to present the possibility of integrating big data algorithms with agent-based transport models. Zhu [65] compared one-week transaction data of smart cards in Shanghai and Singapore. They found feasibility in generating continuous transit use profiles for different types of cardholders. However, to have a better understanding of the patterns and activity behaviors, in addition to collecting the data from smart cards, one should integrate them with other data set.
In travel demand modeling, it is important to have accurate and complete travel survey data including trip purpose, length, and companions, travel demand, origin and destination, and time of the day. Since the 1990s, the global positioning system (GPS) became popular for civil engineering applications, especially in the field of transportation as it provides a means of tracking some of the above variables. In the literature, methods of processing the GPS data and identifying activities can be classified according to different approaches such as rule-based and Bayesian model [66]; fuzzy logic [67]; multilayer perceptron [68]; and support vector machine learning [69]. Nevertheless, the disadvantages of using GPS data include the cost, sample size limitation, and the need to retrieve and distribute GPS devices to participate. Since smartphones are becoming one of the human accessories while equipped with a GPS module, they can be considered as a replacement of the GPS device to gather travel data. In this regard, CDR from smartphones is used [70] to estimate origin-destination matrices, or a smartphone-based application is used [71] to map the semiformal minibus services in Kampala (Uganda) and to count passenger boarding and alighting [72]. In the Netherlands, the Mobidot application is developed for analyzing the mobility patterns of individuals. To deduce travel directions and modes, this application uses the real-time data gathered by sensors of smartphones including GPS, accelerometer, and gyroscope sensors to compare them with existing databases [73].
Applying smartphones as a replacement of GPS however, holds several restrictions including the draining of smartphone battery and it is not possible to record travel mode and purpose.
Today transport modelers, planners, and managers have started to benefit from the popularity of social networking data. There are different kinds of social media data such as Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn data, which consist of normal text, hash-tag (#), and check-in data. As hash-tag and check-in data are related to an activity, location or event, they can be used as meaningful resources in analysis of destination/origin of the activity [74]. According to the literature, social media has a great influence on different aspects of travel demand modeling [75]. Using social media instead of traditional data collection methods was investigated in different studies [76]. The way of processing these data to extract useful information is challenging as investigated in different studies [77, 78]. Various studies [79, 80, 81, 82] also examined social media data to understand the mobility behavior of a large group of people. Testing the possibility of evaluating the origin-destination matrix based on location-based social data was researched [83] or in another similar studies [84, 85] where Twitter data was used to estimate OD matrices. The comparison between this new OD with the traditional values produced by the 4-step model proved the great potential of using social media data in modeling aggregate travel behavior. Social media data can be used in other areas such as destination choice modeling [86], recognizing activity [87], understanding the patterns of choosing activity [80, 88, 89], and interpreting life-style behaviors via studying activity-location choice patterns [90].
Most existing travel demand modelers have applied the household survey data during the period of one day to construct activity schedules. However, longer periods such as one week or one month gained substantial importance during recent years. For simulating everyday travel behavior and generating schedules, a one-week period provides more comprehensive coverage because it includes weekdays and weekends and represents the weekly routines of individuals in making trips. Periods longer than one week can further provide detail on personal behavior as well as various usage of modes in different ways. So far only a few travel demand models covered a typical week as a studied period. For example rhythm in activity-travel behavior based on the capacity of one week was presented by applying a Kuhn-Tucker method [41]. Few works have been concentrating on the generation of multiple-day travel dataset. For example, by using large data and surveys, Medina developed two discrete choice models for generating multi-day travel activity types based on the likeliness of the activity [91]. a sampling method based on activity-travel pattern type clustering [92] was proposed to extract multi-day activity-travel data according to single-day household travel data. The results show similarities in distributions of intrapersonal variability in multi-day and single-day. MATSim is a popular agent-based simulation for ABM research [93, 94], however, it is not appropriate for modeling the multi-day scenarios because MATSim uses the co-evolutionary algorithm to reach the user equilibrium which is a time consuming particularly for multi-day plans. To solve these problems, Ordonez [95] proposed a differentiation between fixed and flexible activities. Based on different time scales, Lee examined three levels of travel behavior dynamics, namely micro-dynamics (24 hours), macro-dynamics (lifelong travel behavior), meso-dynamics (weekly/monthly/yearly basis) by applying different statistical models [96]. A learning day-by-day module in another agent-based simulation software SimMobility is proposed [97]. Furthermore, ADAPTS is one of the few activity-based travel demand models which depends on activity planning horizon data for a longer period than one day, for example, one week or one month [33].
As highlighted by the above literature review, applying one-day observation data in travel demand modeling provides an inadequate basis of understanding of complex travel behavior to predict the impact of travel demand management strategies. So multi-day data are needed to refine this process. Previously, it was not easy to collect multi-day data, however, today thanks to advantages to technology it is possible to extract data from GPS, smartphones, smart cards, etc. with no burden for the respondent. Models built based on GPS data have been found to be more accurate and precise due to having fewer measurement errors. Collecting call detail records from mobile phones provide modelers with large trip samples and origin-destination matrices, while smart card data are more useful in terms of validation.
We now turn to the recent advances and ongoing research in ABM focused on testing and enhancing geographical transferability and capacity to predict a broader range of impacts than flows and performance of the transport network.
The spatial transferability of a travel demand model happens when the information or theory of a developed model of one region is applied to a new context [98]. Transferability can be used not only as a beneficial validation test for the models but also to save the cost and time required to develop a new model. Validation of a model by testing spatial transferability beside other various methods such as base-year and future-year data set is a test of validity which represents the capability of activity-based models in predicting travel behavior in a different context [99]. The exact theoretical basis and behavioral realism of activity-based travel demand model make them more appropriate for geographic transferability in comparison to traditional trip-based models [100]. Testing the transferability of ABM was first investigated by Arentze et al. [101]. They examined the possibility of transferring the ALBATROSS model at both individual and aggregate levels for two municipalities (Voorhout and Apeldoorn) in the Netherlands by simulating activity patterns. The results were satisfactory except for the transportation mode choice. In the United States, the CT-RAMP activity-based model which was developed for the MORPC region then transferred to Lake Tahoe [102]. In another study, one component of the ADAPTS model showed the potential for having good transferability properties [31]. The transferability of the DaySim model system developed for Sacramento to four regions in California and two other regions in Florida was investigated in [103]. The results show that the activity generation and scheduling models can be transferred better than mode and location choice models. The CEMDAP model developed for Dallas Fort Worth (DFW) region was transferred to the southern California region [104]. Outside the U.S., the TASHA model system developed for Toronto was transferred to London [105], and also in another study [106] the transferability of TASHA to the context of the Island of Montreal was assessed. Activity generation, activity location choice, and activity scheduling were three components of TASHA that transferred from Toronto to Montreal. In general, TASHA provided acceptable results at (macro and meso-level) for work and school activities even in some cases better results for Montreal in comparison to Toronto area. The possibility of developing a local area activity-based transport demand model for Berlin by transferring an activity generation model from another geographical area (Los Angeles) and applying the traffic counts of Berlin was investigated [107]. In their research, the CEMDAP model was applied to achieve a set of possible activity-travel plans, and the MATSim simulation was then used to generate a representative travel demand for the new region. The results were quite encouraging, however, the study indicated a need for further evaluation. In one recent study [108], an empirical method was used to check the transferability of ABMs between regions. According to their investigations, the most difficult problems with transferability caused by parameters of travel time, travel cost, land use, and logsum accessibilities. They suggested that in the transferability of the ABM from another region, agencies should be aware of finding a region within the same state or with similar urban density, or preferably both in order to improve the results. The possibility of transferring the FEATHERS model to Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam is investigated [109]. FEATHERS initially is developed for Flanders in Belgium. After calibration of FEATHERs sub-models, testing results using different indicators confirmed the success of transferring the FEATHER’s structure to the new context.
At the theoretical level, a perfect transferable model contributes to the transferability of its underlying behavioral theory, model structure, variable specification and coefficient to the new context. However, perfect transferability is not easy to achieve due to different policy and planning needs as well as the size of the regions, and the availability of data and other resources. Although the results of several transferred ABM model systems seem to have worked reasonably, it is equally important to assess how much accuracy is important in transferring models and how best and where to transfer models from.
One of the advantages of the activity-based travel demand models over trip-based models is its capability to generate various performance indicators such as emission, health-related indicators, social exclusion, well-being, and quality of life indicators. Application of disaggregate models for the area of emission and air quality analysis was introduced by Shiftan [110] who investigated the Portland activity-based model in comparison to trip-based models. In another study [111], the same author integrated the Portland activity-based model with MOBILE5 emission model to study the effects of travel demand techniques on air quality. Regarding the integration of ABM with the emission model, the Albatross ABM model was coupled with MIMOSA (macroscopic emission model) [112] considering the usage of fuel and the amount of produced emission as a function of travel speed. A study in [113] added one dispersion model (AUROTA) to the previous integration of Albatross and MIMOSA to predict the hourly ambient pollutant. Albatross linked with a probabilistic air quality system was employed [114] in air quality assessment study. TASHA was another activity-based model, which has been extensively employed in air quality studies. For example, this model was integrated [29, 115] with MOBILE6.2 to quantify vehicle emissions in Toronto. In their study, EMME/2 was used in the traffic assignment part. The previous research was improved [116] by replacing EMME/2 with MATSim as an agent-based DTA model. This TASHA-MATSim chain was used in the research [117] with the integration of MOBILE6.2C (emission model) and CALPUFF (dispersion model). OpenAMOS linked with MOVES emission model [118], and ADAPTS linked with MOVES [119] together with Sacramento ABM model [120] are among recent studies which represented the application of activity-based models in analyzing the impacts of vehicular emissions.
Human well-being and personal satisfaction play an important role in social progression [121]. To understand the theory behind human happiness, transport policies concentrated on the concept of utility as a tool to increase activity, goods, and services [122, 123]. The issue of well-being as a policy objective is addressed in the literature and measured through various indicators, which show personal satisfaction and growth. For example, in the study by Hensher and Metz [124, 125], saving time which leads to engagement in more activities was introduced as one of the benefits of measuring transport performance. Spatial accessibility was another benefit of travel that provides a range of activities that can be reasonably reached by individuals [126]. A dynamic ordinal logit model was developed [127] based on the collected data on happiness for a single activity in Melbourne. The authors found different activity types, which have different influences on the happiness that each individual experienced. Well-being can be integrated into activity-based models based on random utility theory. In terms of modeling, a framework was introduced [122] considering well-being data to improve activity-based travel demand models. According to their hypothesis, well-being is the final aim of activity patterns. They applied a random utility framework and considered well-being measures as indicators of the utility of activity patterns, and planned to test their framework empirically by adding well-being measurement equations to the DRCOG’s activity-based model.
The above literature review showed the importance of applying traffic models to generate input data to other models such as the air quality model. The accuracy of emission models is highly dependent on the level of detail in transport demand model inputs. Activity-based and agent-based models are supposed to describe reality more accurately by providing more detailed traffic data. Beyond measurement of air quality, well-being and health have drawn increasing attention. The health impact of changes in travel behavior, health inequalities, and social justice can be assessed within the activity-based platform [128]. With the help of geospatial data acquisition technologies like GPS, behavioral information with health data can be integrated into the development of an activity-based model to provide policies that affect the balance of transport and well-being.
In parallel with the travel demand modeling, on the supply side, the conventional supply models used to be static, which import constant origin-destination flows as an input and produce static congestion patterns as an output. Consequently, these models were unable to represent the flow dynamics in a clear and detailed manner. Dynamic traffic assignment (DTA) models have emerged to address this issue and are capable of capturing the variability of traffic conditions throughout the day. It is evident that the shift of analysis from trips to activities in the demand modeling, as well as, the substitution of the static traffic assignment with dynamic traffic assignment in the supply side, can provide more realistic results in the planning process. Furthermore, the combination of ABM and DTA can better represent the interactions between human activity, their scheduling decision, and the underlying congested networks. Nevertheless, according to the study of [11], the integration of ABM with DTA received little attention and still requires further theoretical development. There are different approaches to the integration of ABM and DTA, which started with a sequential integration. In this type of integration, exchanging data between two major model components (ABM and DTA) happens at the end of the full iteration, to generate daily activity patterns for all synthetic population in an area of study, the activity-based model is run for the whole period of a complete day. The outputs of the ABM model which are lists of activities and plans are then fed into the DTA model. The DTA model generates a new set of time-dependent skim matrices as inputs to ABM for the next iteration. This process is continued until the convergence will be reached in the OD matrices output. Model systems applying the sequential integration paradigm can be found in most of the studies in the literature. For example, Castiglione [129] integrated DaySim which is an activity-based travel demand model developed for Sacramento with a disaggregate dynamic network traffic assignment tool TRANSIMS router. Bekhor [130] investigated the possibility of coupling the Tel Aviv activity-based model with MATSim as an agent-based dynamic assignment framework. Hao [116] integrated the TASHA model with MATSim. Ziemke [107] integrated CEMDAP, which is an activity-based model with MATSim to check the possibility of transferring an activity-based model from one geographic region to another. Lin [131] introduced the fixed-point formulation of integrated CEMDAP as an activity-based model with an Interactive System for Transport Algorithms (VISTA). Based on the mathematical algorithm of household activity pattern problem (HAPP), ABM and DTA were integrated [132] by presenting the dynamic activity-travel assignment model (DATA) which is an integrated formulation in the multi-state super network framework.
In the sequential integration, the ABM and DTA models run separately until they reach convergence. At the end of an iteration, these models perform data exchange before iterate again. Therefore, this kind of integrated framework cannot react quickly and positively to network dynamics and is unable to adapt to real-time information available to each traveler. In addressing this limitation, integrated models that adopt a much tighter integration framework have been developed recently. This approach is quite similar to the sequential approach, however; the resolution of time for ABM simulation is one minute rather than 24 hours (complete day). Relating to this level of dynamic integration, Pendyala [133] investigated the possibility of integrating OpenAMOS which is an activity-travel demand model with DTA tool name MALTA (Multiresolution Assignment and loading of traffic activities) with appropriate feedback to the land-use model system. For increasing the level of dynamic integration of ABM and DTA models, dynamic integration having pre-trip enroute information with full activity-travel choice adjustments has been introduced. In this level of ABM & DTA integration, it is assumed that pre-trip information is available for travelers about the condition of the network. It means that travelers are capable of adjusting activity-travel choices since they have access to pre-trip and Enroute travel information. Another tightly integrated modeling framework was proposed in [134] to integrate ABM (openAMOS) and DTA (DTALite) to capture activity-travel demand and traffic dynamics in an on-line environment. This model is capable of providing an estimation of traffic management strategies and real-time traveler information provision. Zockaie et al. [135] presented a simulation framework to integrate the relevant elements of an activity-based model with a dynamic traffic assignment to predict the operational impacts related to congestion pricing policies. Auld et al. [38] developed an agent-based modeling framework (POLARIS) which integrates dynamic simulation of travel demand, network supply, and network operations to solve the difficulty of integrating dynamic traffic assignment, and disaggregate demand models. A summary of the current literature on ABM and DTA integration is presented in Table 2.
Paper | ABM structure | DTA Structure | Method of integration | Insights |
---|---|---|---|---|
[136] | Kutter Model developed for the city of Berlin | Multiagent Simulation (MATSim) | Sequential | Discuss the disadvantages of the integration of ABM and DTA using OD matrices and link travel times |
[137] | TASHA model | Multiagent Simulation (MATSim) | Sequential | Show the advantages of the microsimulation approach over conventional methodologies relying heavily on temporal or spatial aggregation |
[138] | CEMDAP | (VISTA) | Sequential | Show the impacts of multiple time interval portioning and varying step size on reaching faster and more stable convergence results |
[130] | Tel Aviv activity-based model | Multi-agent Simulation (MATSim) | Sequential | Show improved run times, the full activity list can be used directly, without creating origin-destination matrices |
[129, 139] | DaySim ABM model developed for the Sacramento and Jacksonville | Disaggregate dynamic network assignment tool (TRANSIMS) | Sequential | Running time limitations prevent the models to realistically represent the impacts of network events or disruptions on activity-travel patterns |
[140] | Agent-based Dynamic Activity Planning and Travel Scheduling (ADAPTS) developed for the Chicago region | Disaggregate dynamic network assignment tool (TRANSIMS) | Sequential | Choosing smaller time steps in the interaction of ABM and DTA makes integration more accurate |
[133] | Simulator of travel, route, activity, vehicles, emission and land use (SimTRAVEL) that integrates land-use, activity-based travel demand with DTA models | Dynamic integration | Show the proposed model is capable of simulating the behavioral pattern of human activity in space, time, and networks | |
[134] | ABM (openAMOS) and DTA (DTALite) | Dynamic integration | Show the model is capable of providing an estimation of traffic management strategies and real-time traveler information provision | |
[132] | Formulation of a dynamic activity-travel assignment (DATA) model in the multi-state supernetwork framework combining ABM and DTA | Dynamic integration | Show the power of the model to capture multi-modal and multi-activity trip chaining at equilibrium states while sensitive to policy interventions | |
[141] | Integrated ABM-DTA framework to consider congestion pricing in a large-scale network | Dynamic integration | A user-based approach to evaluate equilibrium conditions | |
[38] | POLARIS, which executes a continuous exchange of information between the ABM and DTA components | Dynamic integration | The resulting gains in computational efficiency and performance allow planning models to include previously separate aspects of the urban system | |
[92] | Advanced demand models (InSITE ABM) | Time-sensitive traffic network model (DTALite) | Sequential | Show the efficiency of the model over the static assignment-based ABM capturing behavioral changes at a finer time resolution |
[142] | The ABM (CT-RAMP) | DTA (DynusT) | Sequential | Evaluate different convergence measurements: ABM demand, DTA in terms of a gap of costs |
A summary of the empirical literature on ABM and DTA integration.
The above discussion illustrates that most of the model integration platforms between ABM + DTA work based on sequential integration. This loose coupling platform is the most straightforward and popular approach albeit is not responsive to network short-term dynamics and real-time information. Efforts to develop a comprehensive simulation model that can account for all components of dynamic mobility and management strategies continue. Further developments will have to deal with the implementation of an integrated ABM + DTA platform on a large network to support decision-makers, focus on the integration between activity-based demand models and multimodal assignment [143] as well as reducing computational efforts via better data exchange procedure and improving model communication efficiency. Defining practical convergence criteria is another issue which needs further investigations. Fully realistic convergence is normally never happened in sequential integration due to applying a pre-defined number of feedback loops in order to save model runtime.
Travel demand management (TDM) strategies are implemented to increase the efficiency of the transportation system and reduce traffic-related emissions. Some examples include mode shift strategies (encouraging people to use public transport) [144], time shift (to ride in off-peak hours, congestion pricing), and travel demand reduction [145] (using shared mobility service or teleworking). Shared transport services including car sharing, bike sharing, and ridesharing have been implemented in most of the transport planning systems across the world. Applying activity-based travel demand models to study the optimal fleet size can be found in different studies in the literature [146, 147]. Parking price policies and their impacts on car sharing were investigated using MATSim in [148]. Results show shared vehicles use more efficient parking spaces in comparison to private vehicles. In the first attempt to model car sharing on more than one typical day [149] the agent-based simulation (mobitopp) was extended with a car-sharing option to study the travel behavior of the population in the city of Stuttgart in one week. In the recent study of [150], car sharing was integrated into an activity-based dynamic user equilibrium model to show the interaction between the demand and supply of car sharing. Among all the TDM strategies, telecommuting can be implemented in a shorter time [151, 152, 153]. The results of these studies present a reduction in vehicle-kilometers-traveled (VKT) during peak hours mainly because telecommuters change their trip timetable during these times. This plan rescheduling is also investigated and addressed in different studies [154] based on the statistical analysis of worker’s decisions about choice and frequency of telecommuting. While the plan rescheduling leads to reducing commute travel, the overall impacts of telecommuting on the formation of worker’s daily activity-travel behavior is challenging. For example, this policy reduced total distance traveled by 75% on telecommuting days while telecommuting could reduce the total commute distance up to 0.8% and 0.7% respectively [151, 155]. Based on the adoption and frequency of telecommuting, a joint discrete choice model of home-based commuting was developed for New York city using the revealed preference (RP) survey [156]. Their results show a powerful relationship among individuals’ attributes, households’ demographics, and work-related factors, and telecommuting adoption and frequency decisions. A similar study [157] estimated the telecommuting choice and frequency by using a binary choice model and ordered-response model respectively. In terms of using activity-based modeling, [158] POLARIS activity-based framework was applied to research telecommuting adoption behavior and apply MOVES emission simulator model to assess the consequences of implementing this policy on air quality. Their results show that considering 50% of workers in Chicago with flexible working time hours in comparison to the base case with 12% flexible time hour workers, telecommuting can reduce Vehicle Mile Traveled (VMT) and Vehicle Hour Traveled (VHT) by 0.69% and 2.09% respectively. This policy reduces greenhouse gas by up to 0.71% as well. Pirdavani et al. [159] investigated the impact of two TDM scenarios (increasing fuel price and considering teleworking) on traffic safety. In this work, FEATHERS model, which is an activity-based model, was applied to produce exposure matrices to have a more reliable assessment. The results show the positive impacts of two scenarios on safety (Figure 2).
Travel demand management policies within the activity-based platform.
The above section explores the relationship between transport demand management policies and travel behavior in the ABM context. The use of an activity-based travel demand model provides flexibility to employ a range of policy scenarios, and at the same time, the results are as detailed as possible to obtain the impact of policies on a disaggregated level. The finding highlights the importance of implementing different transportation policies management together to reach the most appropriate effect in terms of improving sustainability and the environment. The discussion emphasizes the need for considering more comprehensive transportation and environmental policies concerning sustainability to tackle travel planning in light of the increasingly diverse and complex travel patterns.
The use of activity-based models to capture complex underlying human’s travel behavior is growing. In this paper, we began by introducing the components of activity-based models and the evolution of the existing developed ABM models. In the first part of this paper, the new resources of data for travel demand analysis were introduced. In the new era of travel demand modeling, we need to deal with a dynamic, large sample, time-series data provided from new devices, and as a result manage observation covering days, weeks, and even months. The outcome of the recent works revealed that since activity-based models originated from the concept of individual travel patterns rather than aggregate flows, they highly suited to these new big data sources. These big datasets, which document human movements, include the information about mobility traces and activities carried out. Based on the in-depth and critical review of the literature, it is clear that while these big datasets provide detailed insight into travel behavior, challenges remain in extracting the right information and appropriately integrating them into the travel demand models. In particular, extracting personal characteristics and trip information like trip purpose and mode of transport are still open problems as these big data resources which provide space-time traces of trip-maker behaviors. Research works along these lines have been started as it was reviewed in the first part; however, further researches should be conducted to handle the uncertainty of big data mobility traces in the modeling process. Also, new methods should be investigated to validate the results for each step of the data analysis and mining. The possibility of fusing data from different available datasets needs further investigation. For instance, to understand the mode inference both data from the smart card and CDRs can be analyzed simultaneously. Another challenging issue regarding the application of this rich new data in transport modeling is that the need for methodologies to extract useful information needed regarding the traveler’s in-home and out-of-home activity patterns, which highlights the combination of data science, soft computing-based approaches, and transport research methods. It requires new Different algorithms such as statistical, genetic, evolutionary, and fuzzy as well as different techniques including advanced text and data mining, natural language processing, and machine learning.
The spatial transferability of activity-based travel demand models remains an important issue. Generally, it is found that the transferability of these models is more feasible than trip-based models, especially between two different regions with similar density or even between two areas in the same state. To date, most of the transferability research in activity-based travel demand modeling is motivated by a desire to save time, and very few studies that applied spatial transferability of activity-based models have undertaken rigorous validation of the results. While literature showed successful model transferability in terms of transferring activity/tour generation, time-of-day choice components, more studies are required on the model transferability regarding mode and location choice models as well as the validation test of activity-based models in different levels, i.e., micro, meso, and macro models.
As part of the second section of this study, this paper reviewed the progress made in the integration of activity-based models with dynamic traffic assignment.
Based on the literature, although evolution has occurred in DTA models, the loose coupling (sequential method) between ABM and DATA models still dominate the field. Two main challenges remain, namely poor convergence quality and excessively long run time. Replacing MATSim as a dynamic traffic assignment tool with other route assignment algorithms in recent years was a technical solution to loose coupling, which considered route choice as another facet of a multi-dimensional choice problem. MATSim provides not only an integration between the demand and supply side, but it can also act as a stand-alone agent-based modeling framework. However; MATSim potential drawbacks include being based on unrealistic assumptions of utility maximization and perfect information. To remove these unrealistic rational behavioral assumptions, applying other approaches such as a new innovative method of behavioral user equilibrium (BUE) is needed. This method helps trip-makers to reach certain utility-level rather than maximize the utility of their trip making [160]. Work along this approach has started (e.g., [161]).
The capability of activity-based models in generating other kinds of performance indicators in addition to OD matrices was also reviewed. Literature proved activity-based models generate more detailed results as inputs to air quality models, however; error rises from the accuracy of the information has a relevant impact on the process of integration. So it is necessary to do a comprehensive analysis of the uncertainties in traffic data. Literature proved that despite of the improvements in such disaggregate frameworks and the capability of these models in replicating policy sensitive simulation environment; there is yet to develop the best and perfect traffic-emission-air quality model. While the issue of health has drawn extensive attention from many fields, activity-based travel demand models have proved to have the potential to be used in estimating health-related indicators such as well-being. However, very few studies have been found to investigate the theories required to extend the random utility model based on happiness. While it is proved that mobility and environment have direct impacts on transport-related health [162], investigations on how travel mode preferences and air pollution exposure are related in this context are needed. Another area of research within ABM platform which is yet to be studied is the relationship between individual exposure to air pollution and mobility, especially in space, and time.
In the last part of this paper, the capability of activity-based models in the analysis of traffic demand management was investigated. Generally, the influence of telecommuting on both travel demand and network operation is still incomplete. Very few studies were found in which activity-based framework is used to simulate the potential impacts of telecommuting on traffic congestion and network operation where the real power of activity-based models lie.
In conclusion, while there are still open problems in activity-based travel demand models, there has been a lot of progress being made which is evidenced by the various recent and on-going researches reviewed in this paper. The review showed that by applying different methodologies in the modeling of different aspects of activity-based models, these models are becoming more developed, robust, and practical and become an inevitable tool for transport practitioners, city planners, and policy decision-makers alike.
The research work presented in this paper was supported by the Australian Government-Department of Education under Research Training Program (RTP Stipend) award.
Dental Trauma or Traumatic Dental Injuries (TDI) refer to injury in the oral cavity involving the hard, soft tissues and periodontium such as the gingiva, periodontal ligament, alveolar bone, and cementum. Although there is some classification to the type of traumatic injuries, the traumas can occur in various combinations and be associated with some facial or bodily injury [1]. A severe form of trauma in children is that of orofacial fractures, these types of fractures cause significant morbidity, and mortality in children, and may have a devastating impact on their quality of life [2]. Dental trauma account for 5% of all bodily injuries in all ages and children are most affected; furthermore, 1 in 5 children have experienced an injury to their anterior teeth before leaving school [1].
The global prevalence of dental trauma among children is approximately 17.5%–22.0% and is found to be higher in America as compared to the rest of the world. In South America it is 34,1%, followed by Europe, 26%, then Africa 16.7% and then Asia (8.91%) [1, 3]. Frequent causes of dental trauma is falling at home, followed by school and sports injuries. The greatest incidence of trauma in children occur in the primary teeth at the ages of 2–3 years old when toddlers are developing their motor skills as they learn to walk [4]. The incidence rate of primary teeth traumatic injuries is 2.75 and that of permanent teeth injuries is 2.72, yet often little emphasis is given to the management of primary teeth as it is assumed that the teeth will eventually exfoliate and require no care. However, we need to be mindful of the consequential effects that lead to developmental disturbances of underlying permanent teeth that result from pre-mature loss of primary teeth [1].
In primary teeth the prevalence of TDI has been found to be approximately 24.4% with boys more prone to injuries (30%) than girls (26.8%). Most occurred at home (72%) followed by at school. Children with incompetent lip closures are also found to be most vulnerable (49.4%), followed by those with increased overjet (44.1%) and increased open bite (33.3%) [3]. Globally the prevalence of primary teeth trauma in Southeast Asia is 27%, followed by America 26.5%, Eastern Mediterranean and Africa at 22.7%; then the lowest being Europe at 14.2%. Moreover, prevalence of TDI on permanent teeth of 12-year-olds, globally is 18.1%.
Severe extensive trauma as orofacial fractures not only affect the oral cavity but also the facial and head and neck regions as well. Such fractures commonly affect adults with less than 15% affecting children [5]. These traumas are a substantial public health problem as they cause significant morbidity, mortality in children, and may have a devastating impact emotionally, physically and functionally on children [2]. These trauma’s result from motor vehicle accidents, falls, violence, and sports injuries. When they do affect children, they can also cause possible concussion and brain injury [6]. These consequences can have long lasting impact on the social and cognitive functioning of a child. Type of fractures that were associated with concussion reported by a USA study, included orbital fracture (54.8%); nasal fracture (28.8%); skull fracture (25.6%); maxillary fracture (23.7%).
A systematic review assessing 27 studies consisting of 403,339 patients around the world found that in terms of the pattern of aetiology in maxillofacial fractures globally, Road Traffic accidents (RTA) accounted for the highest cause (34%). This is followed by falls (31%); violence (11%) and sports injuries (4%). RTA are found to be highest (over 40%) in Africa and Asia. Falls are more prevalent in Europe especially among school children and violence is more prevalent in North America [7]. One would expect the traumatic dental impact on oral related quality of life literature to be readily available.
In South Africa, study reviewing 87 children under the age of 13 with facial fractures admitted at the Red Cross trauma unit in Cape Town between2006 and 2014 found that over half of the children (n = 49) had injuries that were caused by motor vehicle accidents particularly when children were unrestrained in the car. Of the motor-vehicle collision (n = 25 were passengers and (n = 24) were pedestrians. Other injuries were caused by falls (n = 20); assaults (n = 8); and (n = 7) reported as others [8]. In Johannesburg a study undertaken at the Chris Hani Baragwanath paediatric trauma unit indicated the prevalence of head injuries to be as high as 45.7%, this was followed by mouth injuries (26.6%) [7]. The dental injury experienced involved largely maxillary and mandibular incisors and canines. In addition, teeth displacement, intrusion, mobility, fracture avulsion and pulp injury were prevalent [9]. In a separate study aimed at describing the nature of injuries sustained by patients attending the trauma unit at Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, over three months in 2017; the injuries sustained by the children less than five years were found to be 12.35% [10]. The prevalence of orofacial and dental trauma is significant in the LMIC. Moreover, the severity of trauma seems to me more than the primary anterior dentition but more severe head injuries where one study it was as high as 45,7% [7] and mouth approximately 27% [7]. The impact of these traumas on health-related quality of life warrants a more attention.
The prevalence of orofacial trauma has increased over the years in many LMIC because of interpersonal violence, motor vehicle accidents and wars. Particularly among the adult population [11]. Having said that, most dental injuries studies in LMIC are focused on the adult population and very little studies have been undertaken on the child population.
The few studies that have been looked at show that there are similarities between LMIC and high income countries in terms of demographic characteristics of male children being more affected and the most common places of injury being the home environment [12].
A study conducted in India in 2015 looking at association between TDI, Obesity and socio-economic status among 6- and 13-year-old, found that the injuries were more prevalent among overweight and obese children. Furthermore, children from low socio-economic status had a higher likelihood of experiencing dental trauma than children from medium and upper socio-economic status [13].
Of concern is the studies of child orofacial trauma in LMIC being linked to physical child abuse and fatalities [14]. Physical Child abuse is defined by the WHO as an experience that results in actual or potential physical harm of a child from a parent or person in a position of responsibility, power and trust [15]. In South Africa two of the most recent studies on physical child abuse among children in a Cape Town children’s hospital found the following; injuries to the face occurred in 59% of child abuse cases and that most of the times, the lips were traumatised (54%) [16]. The second study assessed autopsy reports of 1809 children under the age of 9 years old between (1998–2004). They found that 2.62% of the fatalities were attributed to physical child abuse among children aged 1 month and 11 years old. The main cause of the children’s death being head injuries [17].
The pattern of trauma in children described depict that the condition is a dental public health problem as reflected by the prevalence, the rising incidence and the economic burden that Low-Middle Income (LMIC) countries have to bear in managing and treating such cases. These conditions have a severe impact on individual children, families, and society generally especially due to its long-term consequences. Therefore, acknowledging the public health impacts of dental trauma and, understanding the health-related quality of life impacts is necessary for holistic management of the problem. Oral-health-related quality of life is context reliant, and it is used increasingly as a person-reported outcome measure in oral health research. More so that environment, economic, society, culture and age, may influence health, illness and quality of life [18].
The objectives of this chapter are to:
Outline the epidemiology of traumatic injuries among children affecting orofacial area in LMIC’s.
Describe the concept of oral-health-related quality of life.
Discuss the effects of dental trauma on oral-health-related quality of life in children and families in LMIC’s.
Give a brief report on the management of the traumas
An extensive literature search was conducted on the health research databases, PubMed, CINAHL, EBSCOhost, and Google Scholar and this generated current literature for comprehensive information on the epidemiology of dental trauma, management and the oral-health-related quality of life impacts.
Health related quality of life (HRQoL) evolves from the general concept of quality of life [19], which the latter implies general satisfaction with life. Gururatana and colleagues [20] have labelled HRQoL as a multi-dimensional construct comprising the physical, emotional and social aspects relating to illness and its treatment [20]. Thus HRQoL can be summarised as a functional effect of sickness, illness and the related treatment as perceived by the patient [19]. A goal for overall oral health should include measure of oral health-related-quality-of-life as oral health is a predictor of health and wellbeing [21]. Oral-health-related quality of life (OHRQoL) is thus, explained simply and loosely as the ‘impact of oral conditions on daily functioning’ [22].
The dental profession has for many years used clinical indices to measure oral health and disease outcomes which only provide one facet of child oral health [23, 24]. As much as clinical indices have measured oral conditions well, they do not take into account the children’s and family’s subjective perspective and the impact of oral problems on their day-to-day life [25]. Thus, OHRQoL is a patient reported outcome used to assess the outcome of oral diseases on patients’ overall wellbeing.
The health-related quality of life relationships model by Ferrans et al. [26] in Figure 1; shows the relationships between the individual and environmental characteristics and an oral disease/condition (dental trauma) and how all the elements namely
A conceptual framework of health-related quality of life and its determinants. Source: Ferrans et al., 2005 (Ferrans CE, Zerwic JJ, Wilbur JE, Larson JL. Conceptual model of health-related quality of life. Journal of Nursing Scholarship. 2005;37(4):336–42.) [
Dental trauma invariably has the result of extreme pain and hampers daily activities, and it negatively affects normal growth; a crooked bite causing reduced self-esteem and cognitive development, may impair speech, school performance, and is costly to manage. Objective measures of disease are important, they might give insight into the impact of oral diseases on quality of life. It is for this reason that we summarise the patient-based tools available to measure subjectively, the impacts of oral diseases on children and adolescents using objective measures in Table 1. The environment and the culture are aspects of the society that determines how health is perceived, experienced and conceptualised by communities according to Traebert and colleagues [38]. Thus, the conceptualisation of health-related quality of life is a social construct, additionally health related quality of life is measured objectively using the tools seeking subject inputs from subjects. These measures can be applied daily in facilities or practices to assess and report these impacts of oral diseases to evaluate dental management of oral trauma. These validated tools are often used to assess the effect or impact of any oral condition or oral disease.
Children OHRQoL Tool | Year published | Validated |
---|---|---|
Family Impact Scale (FIS) [27]; PART OF Child Oral Health Quality of Life Questionnaire (COHQOL) | 2002 | Yes |
Parental/Caregiver Perceptions Questionnaire (P-CPQ) [28];PART OF Child Oral Health Quality of Life Questionnaire (COHQOL) | 2003 | Yes |
Child Perceptions Questionnaire (CPQ6–7); (CPQ8–10), and (CPQ11–14)([29, 30]; PART OF Child Oral Health Quality of Life Questionnaire (COHQOL) | 2004–2006 | Yes |
Child-Oral Impacts On Daily Performances (COIDP) [23]; | 2004 | Yes |
Early Childhood Oral Health Impact Scale (ECOHIS) [31]; | 2007 | Yes |
Child Oral Health Impact Profile(COHIP) [32]. | 2007 | Yes |
Infant Toddler Quality of Life Questionnaire (ITQOL,) [33]. | 2008 | Yes |
PedsQL-Oral Health Scale [34]. | 2009 | Yes |
Paediatric Oral-Health-Related Quality Of Life (POQL) [35]. | 2011 | Yes |
Scale of Oral Health Outcomes (SOHO) [36]. | 2012 | Yes |
Child Health Utility 9D Index [37]. | 2014 | Yes |
Synopsis of Children’s Oral health related quality life tools.
Traumatic injuries do not only affect facial aesthetics, but also normal masticatory function, making it difficult for the child to chew. Dental problems that cause chewing to be painful affect the intake of dietary fibre and some nutrient-rich foods; significantly lowering serum levels of beta carotene, folate, and vitamin C [39]. Furthermore, trauma to anterior teeth can result in difficulties experienced in the pronunciation of words or phrases. For example, if upper incisor teeth are missing, the pronunciation of the v and f becomes indistinct [40]. Further literature indicates that if the lower incisors are missing, which may be trauma related, the sounds such as ‘z’, ‘sh’, and ‘ch’, will become defective [40] and ‘s’ sound more complicated. Such situations lead to serious speech problems resulting in the child becoming annoyed or feeling reluctant to verbally interact with his/her classmates. The above highlights the strong correlation between teeth and speech.
The psychological and social sequelae of dental trauma are a common finding causing the impairment of the child’s social functioning, emotional balance, and well-being [41]. The unexpected nature of the traumatic dental injury, accompanied by emotional distress, physical impairment, and accompanying pain often contribute to a lasting memory of the traumatic experience. The memory issue is significant for a paediatric patient, who will have to endure the additional stress of transportation, emergency diagnostic procedures, and treatment [41] and even be triggered by such memories.
Emotionally the child may become an introvert and he/she may be reluctant to smile and find it difficult to adapt to everyday life [40]. This hurts their self-esteem and confidence. The self-esteem associated with oral health decreases as the teeth appear less attractive [42].
Overall, dental injuries are the most serious dental condition experienced by children [40]. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that treatment is sought as soon as possible after the onset of injury, allowing for favourable treatment outcomes [43] and enhanced quality of life, to be as close to normal/pre-trauma as possible.
Families and households in Low Middle-Income Countries (LMIC’s) are subjected to poverty with published literature demonstrating that family income and deprivation level are a potential risk factor to TDI’s [33]. Dental traumas impact the quality of life of not just the child, but the whole family [34]. The assessment of OHRQoL in younger children may be challenging due to children’s limited understanding of what is being evaluated [35]. Thus, more often the parental or family perception is important in providing evidence of the impact of TDI’s on children and family OHRQoL.
In LMIC’s parents of low-income households are often required to work long hours resulting in decreased family time, thus TDI’s on the teeth and mouth can result in considerable psychological stress and social costs on the OHRQoL of parents due to pain experienced by children and high absenteeism from work [36]. Furthermore, illiteracy levels among adults are high in LMIC’s resulting in parents with low education lacking specific TDI’s prevention skills to transfer to their children [37].
Severe dental trauma is associated with a higher impact on the OHRQoL family function, as parents expand greater attention on the injured child due to the severity of the lesion. Family daily activities can be negatively affected in severe trauma cases as the children experience more physical and psychological discomfort, limited functionality and more financial resources are required for rehabilitation of the child [44]. The severity of caries on teeth with TDI’s have a higher impact on family OHRQoL more so that complicated trauma cases may involve fractured dentine or dentine/pulp [45] resulting in parents feeling more distressed immediately after the injury and after the TDI treatment [41]. TDI’s on older children in LIC’s has a significant lower impact on the parents/family OHRQoL because older children are more independent needing less parental intervention and supervision than younger children [42].
Treatment of traumatic dental injuries reduces the OHRQoL of the children and adolescents [46]. Management of dental trauma involve multiple dental specialties including pedodontics, endodontics, orthodontics, oral medicine and periodontology, and oral surgery. This integration is necessary to ensure the correct rehabilitation of the patient [40]. Dental trauma requires special comprehensive examinations and detailed history of the incident to determine the correct diagnosis and to rapidly manage the injuries [40].
As shown in the Fig 1, some factors influence the outcome and a better or worse OHRQoL on the individual and environmental level in LMIC’s. At
On the
In many of the developing countries, majority of households are subjected to poverty. It is thus plausible that a review by Das et al. [50] highlights that the families with a lower socioeconomic status, when the facilities are not sufficient, living conditions with unsafe environments may lead to children to be prone to traumatic injuries. The poor living surroundings, the quality of health care is questionable, therefore the children and families suffer severe impacts on their care and experience a lower OHRQoL.
The success of the dental treatment is not only based on the clinical outcome, but also the psychological impact of treatment [51]. The ability of a treatment to enable a person to improve function (eat, speak,) and socialise without pain, discomfort, or active disease have been indicators of success.
Most literature of the factors on TDIs and OHRQoL are conducted in the developed countries. In LMIC such as Brazil, the impact of restorative treatment only improved the OHRQoL impact of adolescents than the families. This may be due to economic and financial cost passed on to families [50]. Another Brazilian study reported concomitant presence of other conditions such as dental caries, pain, orofacial dysfunction, in addition to dental trauma, impact twofold to the OHRQoL [50]. There is skewness of literature in that majority of studies are conducted in Brazil and few conducted in other LMIC such as Africa when it comes to traumas and OHRQoL. This chapter highlights that more work needs to be conducted in developing countries seeing that countries’ economy, environment, and societal aspects have a potential to influence the impact of traumas on the oral health quality of life in societies.
Although the incidence of facial trauma in the paediatric population is higher than in the adult population, the incidence of facial fracture is lower in children [52]. The frontal bone is commonly involved, and the type of management is mostly conservative treatment [7] (Box 1).
Source: Fouche and Mabongo 2019. *permission to reproduce image was obtained from both the authors and SADJ.
The clinical and radiographic findings show a break in enamel or dentin. In this case one would need to restore normal aesthetics and function by restoring and smoothening the tooth margins [53, 54].
The clinical and radiologic findings reveal a loss of tooth structure and pulp exposure. In primary teeth, management decisions are based on the vitality of the pulp and the life expectancy of the tooth, alternatives could therefore be, pulpotomy, pulpectomy, or extraction. For permanent teeth, the treatment would be, direct pulp capping, pulpotomy, or a complete root canal treatment.
Clinical findings usually reveal a mobile coronal fragment attached to the gingiva with or without pulp exposure. In primary teeth, an extraction would be indicated. In permanent teeth, stabilisation of the coronal fragment would be necessary. If you cannot remove the fragment, complete root canal treatment with post-core and crown. If the root component is irreparable, then an extraction would be indicated.
In this case, clinical findings would reveal a tooth that is tender to pressure and percussion without mobility. There may also be some sulcular bleeding. Management would involve optimising the healing of the periodontal ligament and maintaining the vitality of the pulp.
This involves injury to the tooth structures with loosening, however there is no tooth displacement. There may be sulcular bleeding. In primary teeth, the tooth should be observed over 2 weeks, if no healing occurs and the pulp is affected, then an extraction would be indicated. In permanent teeth, the tooth needs to be splinted for 2 weeks and the vitality of the pulp should be closely monitored.
The periodontal ligament is torn and there may be a fracture of the supporting alveolar bone. The tooth could be displaced palatally or lingually. Often it is locked in that position and not mobile. In primary teeth try to gently reposition the tooth. If it is not possible and the displacement is causing discomfort in the oral cavity, then an extraction would be indicated. In permanent teeth, reposition as soon as you can, and stabilise the tooth for approximately 2–4 weeks. In addition, monitor the vitality of the pulp closely.
In this type of luxation, the tooth is driven into the socket compressing the periodontal ligament and crushing the alveolar socket, therefore it appears shortened. In addition, the tooth is not mobile or tender to touch. In primary teeth, the tooth may re-erupt spontaneously, however, if it is found to cause disruption to eruption of a permanent tooth, extraction is indicated. In permanent teeth, the tooth can be repositioned passively or surgically and then stabilised with a splint for up to 4 weeks. During treatment, monitor the vitality of the pulp closely.
The tooth is partially displaced axially, and the tooth appears elongated and mobile. In addition, the periodontal ligament is usually torn. For primary teeth, time should be given to allow them to reposition spontaneously. Should the extrusion be severe or there is mobility, an extraction should be indicated. In permanent teeth, re-positioning should occur as soon as possible, then it should be stabilised and splinted for 2 weeks.
When the tooth is completely displaced out of the socket, primary teeth should not be replanted. In permanent teeth, replanting should occur as soon as possible, and the tooth be splinted for 2 weeks.
General considerations in the young trauma patient include maintenance of the airway, balance of fluid and electrolyte levels and adequate nutritional intake during treatment. As in adults, the pre-injury skeletal and dentoalveolar anatomy and function are re-established by anatomic reduction of fractures based on the occlusion [55].
Like in adults, paediatric fractures are managed by conservative, closed reduction and open reduction and internal fixation. Children have greater osteogenic potential and faster healing rates than adults Therefore, immobilisation times should be shorter. Surgical interventions usually require two operations under general anaesthesia. For open reduction and internal fixation, care should be taken not to traumatise both root of teeth and dental follicles [46].
Conservative Management
In this mode of treatment, the is no active surgical intervention, close observation of the patient, control of pain, and minimal movement of the fractured bone is maintained, this is by restricting the patient to a soft diet in the case of fractured jaws. Un-displaced and minimally displaced fractures of the jaws are best treated by this option in children. Most facial fractures in children are managed by this modality [47].
Closed reduction
This mode of treatment may be compromised by fewer available teeth, lack of stability of primary teeth due to root resorption, and anatomy of the crowns of the teeth available primary teeth and partially erupted permanent teeth making arch stabilisation with Erich arch bars impossible. All these factors make intermaxillary fixation (IMF) more difficult than in adults. Secondly, IMF is not easily tolerated by children, as it restricts mandibular movements causing discomfort and increased anxiety; furthermore, it is detrimental to the child’s quality of life, as a liquid diet adversely affects nutritional intake. Lastly, IMF may result in ankylosis of the temporomandibular joint in patients with condylar fractures [46].
Open reduction and Internal fixation
In older children with displaced fractures closed or open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) may be indicated. ORIF of mandible fractures in children is generally avoided due to the potential damage to developing tooth germs and disruption of the periosteum. The other challenges in children include the small size of the facial bones and the relatively soft bone showing good elasticity. A reduction of the mandibular immobilisation period also contributes to the recovery of joint function and early return to function [46].
The goals for management are to restore function, form, aesthetics, and most importantly in children, to preserve growth and development. Managing paediatric facial fractures is complex because of the continued growth and development of the facial skeleton, [46]. Therefore, management strategies must provide proper stabilisation of fractures to restore facial anatomy, without hindering future bone and soft tissue growth. Many paediatric facial fractures can be managed conservatively owing to the high osteogenic potential of the paediatric skeleton; however, surgical intervention may be necessary for patients with severe facial injuries [56].
Management of dental trauma in both developed and developing countries requires a life-long commitment on behalf of the patient and dentist, especially in a growing patient with a developing facial musculature, oral structures, and dentition. The traumatic injuries affect all communities regardless of countries economy status; however, literature has shown that the severity of traumas such as those leading to head injuries was reported more in the developing countries. Oral trauma among children, their experiences and the impact of the trauma must be, understood by all the multi-disciplinary team of practitioners. There was minimal literature on the impacts of traumatic injuries on OHRQoL in the LMIC areas such as Africa though plenty of Brazilian and some Indian studies were evident. The socio-dental indicators or the tools measuring the patient-based impact of dental and oral trauma, despite being developed in non-African settings, are vital in providing important feedback on how to evaluate the management of trauma and thus should be part of the general protocols for management. Dental practitioners must be cognizant of the non-clinical impacts of orofacial and dental trauma and be familiar with the socio-dental indices to measure patient-based outcomes. It is recommended that more studies are conducted in the LMIC, specifically African countries to highlight the importance of patient-based inputs and evaluation of care related to traumatic dental injuries.
The authors would love to acknowledge the supportive research environment within the department of community dentistry and the broader School of Oral Health Sciences at the University of Witwatersrand and the department of maxillofacial surgery, University of Pretoria.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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Women are diagnosed with PTSD approximately twice as often as men. In this review, we outline the evidence of gender differences related to PTSD, and the factors of resilience and susceptibility differ between men and women.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Jingchu Hu, Biao Feng, Yonghui Zhu, Wenqing Wang, Jiawei Xie\nand Xifu Zheng",authors:[{id:"190985",title:"Dr.",name:"Xifu",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"xifu-zheng",fullName:"Xifu Zheng"},{id:"194981",title:"BSc.",name:"Yonghui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yonghui-zhu",fullName:"Yonghui Zhu"},{id:"194982",title:"MSc.",name:"Wenqing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"wenqing-wang",fullName:"Wenqing Wang"},{id:"194985",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingchu",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jingchu-hu",fullName:"Jingchu Hu"},{id:"194986",title:"MSc.",name:"Biao",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"biao-feng",fullName:"Biao Feng"},{id:"194987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jiawei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"jiawei-xie",fullName:"Jiawei Xie"}]},{id:"52472",doi:"10.5772/65410",title:"Gender and Health",slug:"gender-and-health",totalDownloads:3432,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Research has found differences between women and men in some health indicators. 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Gender is one such variable that must be examined with regard to optimizing leadership effectiveness. The topic of gender and leadership deserves serious and thoughtful consideration and discussion because of professional, political, cultural, and personal realities of the twenty‐first century. Women and men have been, are, and should be leaders. Gender must be considered to determine how each leader can reach maximum potential and effectiveness. The FourCe‐PITO conceptual framework of leadership is designed to help guide leadership development and education. The present chapter uses this conceptual framework of leadership to discuss how consideration of gender may affect and optimize leadership development and effectiveness. 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I am giving examples from my developmental psychology research where the split-sample analysis by gender showed amazing and often unexpected effects.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Chris Lange-Küttner",authors:[{id:"190245",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Lange-Küttner",slug:"chris-lange-kuttner",fullName:"Chris Lange-Küttner"}]},{id:"53721",doi:"10.5772/66093",title:"Professional Women's Experience of Autonomy and Independence in Sindh-Pakistan",slug:"professional-women-s-experience-of-autonomy-and-independence-in-sindh-pakistan",totalDownloads:1644,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter summarises the part of findings of my doctoral studies at the University of Sussex, Brighton, UK. In this case study, there are elements of both qualitative and quantitative approaches; the former is the principal approach to this research while the latter works as complementary. Participants of the research were divided into two categories: academic and non‐academic. Forty semi‐structured interviews (20 from each category) and 100 survey questionnaire (50 from each category) were collected. This research argues that existing concepts of ‘autonomy’ and ‘independence’ may not be useful indices/indicators for measuring the social status or position of women in Sindhi society, due to variations in understanding or the meanings attributed to these concepts across the globe. Findings argue that these professional women perceived concepts of ‘autonomy’, ‘independence’ and ‘individuality’ categorically different than those of Westernised understandings. This research asserts that Sindhi society, similarly to that of Tamil society, emphasises social groups rather than individuals. Hence, ‘collective identities’ are the essence of Sindhi society; however, individuals find their autonomy, independence and individuality in the context of ‘others’, which means to be more responsible for group's interests.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Mukesh Kumar Khatwani",authors:[{id:"196384",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Khatwani",slug:"mukesh-khatwani",fullName:"Mukesh Khatwani"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52503",title:"Gender and Leadership",slug:"gender-and-leadership",totalDownloads:4125,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The topic of leadership has been addressed and applied for millennia. Yet, it is only within the past 80 years that leadership has been a topic of serious discussion. It is important to understand variables relevant to effective leadership. Gender is one such variable that must be examined with regard to optimizing leadership effectiveness. The topic of gender and leadership deserves serious and thoughtful consideration and discussion because of professional, political, cultural, and personal realities of the twenty‐first century. Women and men have been, are, and should be leaders. Gender must be considered to determine how each leader can reach maximum potential and effectiveness. The FourCe‐PITO conceptual framework of leadership is designed to help guide leadership development and education. The present chapter uses this conceptual framework of leadership to discuss how consideration of gender may affect and optimize leadership development and effectiveness. 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In this review, we outline the evidence of gender differences related to PTSD, and the factors of resilience and susceptibility differ between men and women.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Jingchu Hu, Biao Feng, Yonghui Zhu, Wenqing Wang, Jiawei Xie\nand Xifu Zheng",authors:[{id:"190985",title:"Dr.",name:"Xifu",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"xifu-zheng",fullName:"Xifu Zheng"},{id:"194981",title:"BSc.",name:"Yonghui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yonghui-zhu",fullName:"Yonghui Zhu"},{id:"194982",title:"MSc.",name:"Wenqing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"wenqing-wang",fullName:"Wenqing Wang"},{id:"194985",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingchu",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jingchu-hu",fullName:"Jingchu Hu"},{id:"194986",title:"MSc.",name:"Biao",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"biao-feng",fullName:"Biao Feng"},{id:"194987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jiawei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"jiawei-xie",fullName:"Jiawei Xie"}]},{id:"52472",title:"Gender and Health",slug:"gender-and-health",totalDownloads:3430,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Research has found differences between women and men in some health indicators. Women’s life expectancy is higher than men’s, but research on differences in morbidity has proved less consistent than on the differences in mortality. These differences vary in terms of the type of health indicator used, the life cycle period analyzed, and even the country where research is conducted. Generally, men have more life-threatening chronic diseases at younger ages, including coronary heart disease, as well as more externalizing mental health problems and substance use disorders. Women present higher rates of chronic debilitating conditions such as arthritis, frequent or severe headaches, gallbladder conditions, and also more internalizing mental problems such as affective and anxiety disorders. Results of research on the differences between women and men in self-rated health have also highlighted the complexity of gender differences in health. Although several studies have shown that women have poorer self-rated health than men, this is not the case in all countries. Also, differences in self-rated health vary depending on other psychosocial and demographic variables. The present study reviews the main differences in women’s and men’s health as well as the most relevant factors that may account for them.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"María Pilar Matud",authors:[{id:"189729",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Matud",slug:"m.-pilar-matud",fullName:"M. Pilar Matud"}]},{id:"53212",title:"Broken Dreams—Balancing Self and Family Well-Being: The Experiences of Women Immigrants to Hamilton, ON",slug:"broken-dreams-balancing-self-and-family-well-being-the-experiences-of-women-immigrants-to-hamilton-o",totalDownloads:1512,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the preliminary analysis of a study conducted in Hamilton, ON. It explores the intersection of women’s immigration, integration and mental health. Their perceptions of what is needed from them in relation to the various challenges/changes that moving to a new country entails is a particular focus of this research. To begin with, the term “women immigrant” (WI) is used, rather than immigrant women as commonly used—as the participants were women long before they became immigrants. Indeed immigration is one of their many experiences and it is a significant marker in their lives, but it does not define their identity.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Mirna Carranza",authors:[{id:"189735",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirna",middleName:null,surname:"Carranza",slug:"mirna-carranza",fullName:"Mirna Carranza"}]},{id:"52314",title:"Gender Difference in the Perception of Guilt in Consumer Boycott in Brazil",slug:"gender-difference-in-the-perception-of-guilt-in-consumer-boycott-in-brazil",totalDownloads:1804,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to analyze consumer boycott from the perception of men's and women's guilt on a specific case involving Nike company through partners in its supply chain in China. The study was conducted with 281 consumers in the city of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 2012. In the process of validating a scale of consumer boycott in Brazil, the 13 items of the original scale were kept, but were grouped in different factors. The emerged factors were perception of guilt, influence from others, boycott efficiency, and purchase frequency. Testing relationship among demographic variables and these factors, only gender was significant on perception of guilt. In this sense, we seek in psychology, psychoanalysis (also briefly in anthropology and history), features that could explain the reasons why women feel guiltier than men, and thus are more likely to boycott.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Breno de P.A. Cruz, Ricardo José Marques Pires-Jr. and Steven D. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. 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Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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(2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"