Overall level of human development in different groups 2014.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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China’s new normal is original from the slowdown of the GDP growth rate in recent years. \nGraph 1\n shows three obvious slowdowns since 1979. The three slowdowns are all accompanying with economic upheavals and big inflations, only the last and current one induces a new concept, “New Normal.”
\nPer capita GDP growth China 1979–2014 (1978 constant). Data source: Chinese statistics yearbook 2015: 3–1, 3–5.
In May 2014, President Xi Jinping put forward the “new normal of China’s economy,” and described a series of new performances of China’s economy. On December 5, 2014, the Politburo meeting of the Communist Party of China formally advocated to “take the initiative to adapt to the economic development of the new normal.” Since then, the Chinese economy has entered a “new normal” stage.
\nGenerally, the “new normal” has two characteristics: the first is about the slowdown from high-speed growth to high-middle-speed growth; the second is about the transformation of growth pattern from scale extensive growth to quality and intensive growth [1]. For the future strategy of Chinese government, there seem also two main streams: one is focusing on the growth speed, while thinking the transformation of growth pattern is given, for they think China need to sustain a growth speed to cross the middle-income trap that is the first priority of China [2–5]; another is to focus on the transformation of growth pattern and growth quality, while keeping the high-middle-speed growth even middle-speed growth [1, 6, 7]. We stand for the second view.
\nThe speed slowdown of China’s economic growth is not a bad thing. First, the growth rate from the high-speed down to high-middle-speed is suitable for China. China’s GDP growth rate of 6.9% and per capita GDP growth rate of 6.3% in 2015, are still high enough in the context of the world (the world average of GDP growth rate is 2.5%, 2015). Second, the slowdown is beneficial from the consideration of the limit of natural resources and serious environmental problems of China, as the environment could no longer sustain the long lasting high-speed growth, even if it is further lower; after all, the ecological environment is the precondition of a country’s sustainable development. Third, as a common sense, high-speed growth is apt to bring economic upheaval, and destroy the stability of development. Hence, in long run, keeping a high-middle-speed is better than high-speed for the sake of stable sustainable development.
\nMoreover, the speed slowdown is a good signal that indicates China has been entering a new stage of development, when an alternative is to improve the quality of economic development instead of accelerating growth rate by expansion policies. And the quality of development is the quality of living of most people; i.e., we can pay more attentions to most people’s quality of life, as like a developed country’s performances.
\nIn brief, China’s new normal means a new higher stage of development with the pursuit of a developed country. This study is to examine the current situations of China’s quality of development by comparing China’s human development index, inequality indices (Gini, quintile, and Palma), and development potential (human capital index) with the developed countries in Europe, North America, and Oceania, as well as countries with typical traits, such as the Latin American countries, Japan and Czech Republic; further to put forward China’s policy focuses in the new normal stage, so to catch up with the developed countries in quality of development.
\nFor comparing the quality of development, we arrange here with representative countries, comparable indicators and methodologies.
\nChina is a large developing country with the largest population and large land mass in the world, and with socialist nature as its Constitution expressed. The countries as comparing counterparts, we choose mainly concerning: (1) well developed (at least its HDI higher than China’s); (2) relative competent size of territory and population; and (3) representative in different regions and social models. By data testing, 14 countries have been selected as reference countries as follows.
\nThe four countries, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland, are all Nordic countries, well developed with long-term stable sustainable qualified development, as generally accepted model of ideal society on the globe currently, the “Nordic model,” which have more socialist component, such as generous social welfare and equal opportunity for public services to each family and individual all over the country.
\nThese two countries, Germany and Switzerland, are high developed market economies with more socialist-natures in the “Rhine model,” as major roles in mainland Europe with long-term stable qualified development and good performance in equality aspect.
\nThe two countries, USA and UK, are well-developed market economies, natured as typical capitalist market in the “Anglo-Saxon model,” and once the super powers in different ages.
\nThe country of Australia is on the Oceania, tightly related with China in commercial intercourse; well-developed capitalist economy with sound social welfare as well.
\nThe country of Japan is the next neighbor of China, the first and most developed economy in Asia, and has good performance generally but in depression for a long time in recent years.
\nThe country of Czech Republic is a former socialist country located in central-eastern Europe, with the history of a member of former Soviet Union alliance, and keeps the most equal society record; not well developed but with very high value of human development index (Rank 28 in 2014 in nearly 200 countries).
\nThe three countries, Argentina, Mexico, and Brazil, are also developing countries but capitalist natured in Latin America, ranking forefront of the world in inequality.
\nThe chapter is to examine China’s “new normal” state by comparing related indicators with 14 other countries typically scattered in the world (except Africa). Considering the paper’s international angle, we make comparability and internationalism as the prime principles when selecting indicators utilized. Therefore, all indicators and data as follows are from UNDP, (http://hdr.undp.org) [8], the exception sources will be marked in addition at the right point.
\nThe HDI represents a broader definition of well-being and provides a composite measure of three basic dimensions of human development: health (a long and healthy life), education (knowledge), and income (a decent standard of living) [9]. HDI is the most comparable and available indicator for measuring quality of life among countries.
\nThe World bank emphasizes, “To begin to understand what life is like in a country–to know, for example, how many of its inhabitants are poor–it is not enough to know that country’s per capita income. The number of poor people in a country and the average quality of life also depend on how equally–or unequally–income is distributed” [10]. The Gini Coefficient is the most frequently used inequality index as “the mean difference from all observed quantities” [11]. However, the Gini does not capture where in the distribution the inequality occurs. For this reason, other two indicators, quintile ratio, and Palma ratio, are also chosen in the paper, which are more clearly reflect the high income and low income gap, successfully excluding the influence of middle income people.
\nThe quintile ratio (20:20 or 20/20 ratio) compares how much richer the top 20% of populations are to the bottom 20% of a given population, which is actually a part of the Gini Coefficient that prevents the middle 60% statistically obscuring inequality, meanwhile highlighting the difference between two poles.
\nThe Palma Ratio, meaning the ratio of the top 10% of population’s share of gross national income (GNI), divided by the poorest 40% of the population’s share of GNI–could provide a more policy-relevant indicator of the extent of inequality in each country, and may be particularly relevant to poverty reduction policy. It is based on the work of Chilean economist Jose Gabriel Palma who found that the “middle classes” tend to capture around 50% of national income, while the other half is split between the richest 10% and poorest 40% [12].
\n“A nation’s human capital endowment–the skills and capacities that reside in people and that are put to productive use–can be a more important determinant of its long-term economic success than virtually any other resource. This resource must be invested in and leveraged efficiently in order for it to generate returns–for the individuals involved as well as an economy as a whole” [13].
\nGraph 2 is drawn to show the relations among human development index and its three components, human, capital, and equality. Here, we emphasize that the HDI includes HCI, which account for two-thirds of HDI, even though education and health are not the whole HCI, but at least the major aspects; education and health are both capabilities residing in people, which is directly related to a person’s income and in social level to both quantity and quality of economic development; Equalization and justice are important complement of HDI, which also have promoting effects on people’s education and health by its benefiting mostly to the general public. That is, HDI, HCI, and equality are interrelated and tend to promote along the arrow directions, which constitute and cooperate the quality of development/quality of life.
\nThe promoting relations of equality, human capital, and human development.
All data used are registered in official sources. The international data for comparing among countries are from international organizations, UNDP. The method used in the chapter is mostly comparative analysis approaches with statistical graphs and tables.
\nHere, we examine for comparing China’s quality of development with the representative countries by using the three serials indicators; and conduct comprehensive comparative analysis and evaluation.
\n\nGraph 3 shows the level of human development index of the 15 countries selected with various colors, which implies the overall quality of development and quality of life of different country groups. China is at the bottom of the row, ranked 90th in the world, and approximately accounts for 77% of the highest valued country, Norway; 79% of the United States, the typical capitalist country; and 82% of Japan, Asia’s most developed country. That means we have a long distance to go in quality of life.
\nHDI in world context 2014.
\nTable 1 shows the overall level of HDI of four level groups, and the world and the developing countries. China, the second biggest economy in the world, is nearly 20% less than the level of the first 50 countries, and just at the average level of the world in quality of life.
\nGroups | \nHDI | \nChina % | \n
---|---|---|
Very high human development | \n0.896 | \n81.1 | \n
High human development | \n0.744 | \n97.7 | \n
Medium human development | \n0.630 | \n115.4 | \n
Low human development | \n0.505 | \n144.0 | \n
World | \n0.711 | \n102.3 | \n
Developing countries | \n0.660 | \n110.2 | \n
Overall level of human development in different groups 2014.
In Annex Table 1, we make HDI and its component indicators in order respectively and make a sum rank in order to see the influence of each component. From Annex Table 1 and Graph 4, we notice first that the general pattern does not change: (1) the upper ranked 8 countries are still upper but with changed ranks; (2) the lower seven countries are lower by the same rank with HDI order; (3) China retains at its bottom position by reordering, including total rank and almost all component cases (life expectancy of China is the only factor that does not row at the extreme bottom, which might somehow show off the medical condition or Chinese traditional medicine).
\nComponents of HDI by GNI order 2014.
Moreover, we find some prominent features in Annex Table 1 and Graph 4: (1) Both Germany and UK’s re-ranks are upper by the same factor, “mean years of schooling” showing social sustainability, which imply the labor force and the civilized residents endowed by education; UK in Anglo-Saxon model with capitalist nature, has the similar pattern (8:1:8) with Germany (6:1:6) in “Rhine model,” but far from the pattern of USA (10:4:3); Czech Republic (with similar pattern 11:8:11) rows upper also by its “mean years of schooling,” which means education gains much attention in Czech as well. (2)\nAustralia (3:3:7) has almost the opposite pattern with USA, but with better momentum of development in practical economy than USA. (3) The life expectancy order of Japan is at the first, which might reflect Japanese life style is very healthy.
\nEqualization and justice are important complement of HDI, so we here analyze income inequality standing for measuring social equality and justice, although which is far from comprehensive but essential and quantitative. According to the data of the National Bureau of Statistics, China’s Gini coefficient has ever peaked to 49.1 in 2008, began to decline since 2010, to 46.9 in 2014, along with policy’s functioning.
\n\nGraph 5 shows that, in the Gini coefficient case, China (2014) performs better than the three Latin countries and the two typical capitalist countries, USA and UK. However, the quintile ratio that shows the polarization in income distribution by the top 20% to the bottom 20%, has different performance: China’ s value of quintile ratio is only better than that of the three Latin countries but worse than USA and UK, and far worse than other countries included; The Palma ratio, the richest 10% of population’s share of gross national income divided by the poorest 40%’s share, provides support to the quintile’s case.
\nFrom the computing results in \nTable 2\n, we can see more clearly that China’s polarization in income distribution, i.e., the highest income group to the lowest, excluding the influence of middle income people is conspicuous worse than the Gini performance with the influence of middle income populations included, by observing the deviations from the average of the 15 countries considered.
\nIncome inequalities by Gini order 2014.
HDI rank total | \nCountry | \nIndicators of income inequality | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | Quintile ratio | \nPalma ratio | \nGini coefficient | \n
14 | \nSweden | \n3.75 | \n0.90 | \n26.08 | \n
28 | \nCzech | \n3.88 | \n0.93 | \n26.39 | \n
1 | \nNorway | \n4.00 | \n0.93 | \n26.83 | \n
4 | \nDenmark | \n3.96 | \n0.94 | \n26.88 | \n
24 | \nFinland | \n4.04 | \n0.98 | \n27.79 | \n
6 | \nGermany | \n4.72 | \n1.14 | \n30.63 | \n
20 | \nJapan | \n5.39 | \n1.22 | \n32.11 | \n
3 | \nSwitzerland | \n5.23 | \n1.21 | \n32.35 | \n
2 | \nAustralia | \n5.85 | \n1.32 | \n34.01 | \n
90 | \nChina | \n10.08 | \n2.08 | \n37.01 | \n
14 | \nUK | \n7.64 | \n1.67 | \n38.04 | \n
8 | \nUSA | \n9.79 | \n1.96 | \n41.12 | \n
40 | \nArgentina | \n10.62 | \n2.25 | \n43.57 | \n
74 | \nMexico | \n11.13 | \n2.84 | \n48.07 | \n
75 | \nBrazil | \n16.87 | \n3.77 | \n52.67 | \n
15 countries | \nAverage | \n7.13 | \n1.61 | \n34.90 | \n
% deviation to average | \nChina | \n41.41 | \n29.29 | \n6.04 | \n
Argentina | \n49.00 | \n40.03 | \n24.83 | \n|
Mexico | \n56.11 | \n76.27 | \n37.72 | \n|
Brazil | \n136.59 | \n134.55 | \n50.90 | \n
Fifteen countries’ comparison of income inequality by Gini Order 2014.
Of course, the income inequality in three Latin countries show much worse cases than in China; and their polarization is even much worse than their Gini case as well. That is probably the reason why the Latin countries could not performance better with so much endowment of natural resources. Therefore, equality and social justice in China as institutional environment given by the government should improve continuously for the sake of promoting the living quality of the people.
\nIn addition, China is a socialist country as its Constitution expressed, and in case any adverse effect happens, it is very necessary for China to have higher pursuit in equality and social justice, e.g., reach to 35/7/1.5 (Gini/quintile/Palma), equivalently the average level of listed 15 countries, close to the level of UK (38/7.6/1.7) or Australia (34/5.9/1.3), as the minimum pursuits in 5–10 year, from 37/10/2, the currently level of China by the inequality index.
\nGenerally observing the history and experiences of all developed countries, it is common nature that every country pays enough attention to two factors: labor force and ecological environment, which are two bases of a human society. We here focus on labor force only for which is the most active factor for social economic development, though ecological environment is a big problem in China.
\nA group of American economists, such as Gary S. Becker, T. W. Schultz, George J. Stigler, Milton Friedman, etc., advocate the concept “human capital” to describe the quality of labor force [14]. Now, that the concept of human capital has been widely spread and accepted, and for the sake of comparing the quality of labor force internationally, we take the advantage of data availability to use it, even though we are a bit shy to treat labors as capital.
\nFrom Graph 6, we can see that China’s human capital level rows at the lowest position in the other 14 countries, and upper than Brazil. In aging structure, it seems a common problem currently for all other 14 countries but China. In fact, the aging issue in China is becoming a problem because of China’s one-child policy which lasted 35 years. So, it becomes urgent to promote the quality of labors, if given the labor force participation and employment rate.
\nHuman capital index and its structure by overall order 2015.
China has no doubt the best performance both in labor force participation and employment (\nGraph 7\n). Then, we see the quality of labor, for “education and training are the most important investments in human capital” [14].
\nEmployment and labour force paticipationparticipation by unemployment order
From 15-year-old students’ performance in 2012, we find that the quality of labor force in China is worth optimistic for the future. But on second thought, Chinese is so diligent and smart that China should have the highest quality of development, but China’s HDI is at the 90th position, just at the middle level of the world. Why? There might be many reasons involved, may we have another paper to discuss the issue for the limit of article length.
\nFrom what has been discussed above, we conclude the following results:
\nEqualization and justice are important complement of HDI; The HDI includes HCI; The two major parts of HCI, education and health, are both capabilities residing in people, which directly related to a person’s income and in social level to both quantity and quality of economic development, and directly benefited from equalization and justice; Hence, HDI, HCI, and equality are inter relatedly constitute and cooperate the quality of development/quality of life. (Graph 2) The economy (income) is the business of market, while the education and health of labors and the income distribution should be supervised and guaranteed by the government; that is to say that the quality of life should be achieved by the combination of government and market.
The overall level of HDI in China is nearly 20% less than the level of the first 50 countries, and just at the average level of the world in quality of life. Among the selected 15 countries, China is at bottom of the row, ranked 90th in the world, and approximately accounts for 77% of the highest valued country, Norway; 79% of the United States, the typical capitalist country; and 82% of Japan, the Asian most developed country. That means we have a long way to go in quality of life (Table 1, \nGraph 3).
Both Germany and UK have best performance in “Mean years of schooling,” which implying the labor force and the civilized residents endowed by education; UK in Anglo-Saxon model with capitalist nature, has the similar pattern (8:1:8, means rank of health/education/economy) with Germany (6:1:6) in “Rhine model,” but far from the pattern of USA (10:4:3); Czech Republic (with similar pattern 11:8:11) rows upper also by its “Mean years of schooling,” which means education gains much attention in Czech as well. Australia (3:3:7) has almost the opposite pattern with USA, but with better momentum of development in practical economy than USA. China should not take the model of USA, but learn more from Germany, UK and Australia, and Czech, that is, pay more attention to education for a civilized society in the future (Annex Table 1).
In the Gini coefficient case, China (2014) performs better than the three Latin countries and the two typical capitalist countries, USA and UK; China’ s quintile ratio is only better than that of the three Latin countries but worse than USA and UK; The Palma ratio provides support to the quintile’s case. That is, China’s polarization in income distribution is conspicuous worse than the Gini performance with the influence of middle income populations included. Hence, we should concern more of the low income groups (Graph 5, Table 1).
The income inequality of three Latin countries shows much worse cases than in China, and their polarization is even much worse than their Gini case as well. Serious inequality cannot bring a developed economy from the lesson of Latin countries. Therefore, equality and social justice in China as institutional environment given by the government should improve continuously for the sake of promoting the living quality of the people (Table 1).
China is a socialist country as its constitution expressed, and in case any adverse effect happens, it is very necessary for China to have higher pursuit in equality and social justice, e.g., reach to 35/7/1.5 (Gini/quintile/Palma), equivalently the average level of listed 15 countries, close to the level of UK (38/7.6/1.7) or Australia (34/5.9/1.3), as the minimum pursuits in 5–10 years, from 37/10/2, the currently level of China by the inequality index (Table 1).
China’s human capital Index row at the lowest position among the countries, only better than Brazil’s (Graph 6). But as the positive factor of HCI, China has the best performance in all 15 countries both in labor force participation and employment (Graph 7). From 15-year-old students’ performance in education efficiency in 2012, the quality of labor force in China is worth optimistic for the future (Graph 8). Therefore, China has its advantages in human capital, and furtherly in the potential of development.
It is possible to achieve better growth speed while we are focusing on the quality of development.
Education quality by order of science 2012 (Pperformance of 15-year-old student).
The authors would like to thank Dr. Tomáš Wroblowský, VSB, Czech Republic, for his feedback and suggestions regarding data and the quantitative methodologies used in the chapter.
\nWe would also like to thank anonymous referees for their valuable comments and corrections to our English writing.
\nWe would like to express our gratitude to both Social Science Foundation (Serial No: HB15LJ002), funded by Hebei Programming Office for Philosophy and Social Science, China, and Soft Science Foundation (Serial No: 16457699D), funded by Hebei Bureau of Science and Technology, China, for providing us with research funds.
\nThe research is supported by the SGS project of VŠB-TU Ostrava Czech Republic under No. SP2016/11.
\nJEL classification: E6, F5, F6, O15, O5
\nOver decades, consumption of pesticides has slightly increased year by year; over 4 million tons of pesticides were used worldwide in 2017. Asia (52.8%) followed by USA (30.2%) and Europe (13.8%) were the highest amount of pesticide used obtain the most excessive amount of pesticide used continents. Insecticides, a subgroup of pesticides, constitute nearly 100ooo tons per year [1]; and, carbamates, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates and pyrethroids are most commonly used insecticides. Although these chemicals increase crop yields and provide economic benefits by reducing pest-borne diseases, their harmful effects on human health and environment still have the attention; and, considering these effects less toxic alternatives continue to be developed. Pesticide exposure alone or in mixture via environmental contamination could have important acute and chronic adverse effects on living organisms. Pesticide usage in agriculture is increasing every passing day and becoming a confusing issue due to the use of new chemical compounds that come into the market.
\nChronic or delayed insecticide exposure exerts its toxicity on several systems such as nervous, immune, respiratory and reproductive. Reproductive toxicity of insecticides may affect either men or women; reduced fertility, spontaneous abortion, birth defects and developmental retardation have been linked to insecticide toxicity [2, 3]. For livestock industry, decreasing reproductive functions is rising problem; and, common problems can be listed as infertility, sub-fecundity, ovarian cycle failures, decreased pregnancy rates, altered germ cell quality, reduced sperm motility as well as structural damage of testes or ovaries [4]. Furthermore, insecticides have important impacts on HPG axis and that qualifies them as endocrine disrupters. Endocrine-disrupting insecticides alter hormone synthesis or impair hormonal metabolic pathway by acting as hormonal receptor agonist or antagonists [5].
\nThis chapter describes the reproductive system toxicity of commonly used insecticides based on each male and female; furthermore, it focuses on endocrine disruption.
\nInsecticides are described as “chemicals used to control insects by killing them or preventing them from engaging in undesirable or destructive behaviors” by United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [6]. Insecticides provide substantial benefits during agriculture by controlling or preventing pests that could harm to crops and food causing nutritional and economic losses. Additionally, pests could damage wooden constructions and reduce the beauty and attractiveness of landscapes. Furthermore, insects could carry various diseases such as malaria [7, 8]. Insecticides play a crucial role in producing safe and quality food at affordable prices, home and gardening as well as controlling pest-borne diseases for public health.
\nInsecticides can be classified in varying ways such as their chemical structure, natural or synthetic origin, application requirement or mode of action. The chemical structure is particularly important for toxicology, since insecticides could exert similar toxicological effects due to their common chemical properties. Considering the chemical structure, insecticides could be divided into five groups: (i) organochlorines, (ii) organophosphates, (iii) carbamates, (iv) pyrethrins/pyrethroids and (v) nicotine/neonicotinoids.
\nOrganochlorines have chlorinated hydrocarbon structures with high lipophilicity and persistence in the environment. Most exert their effects by disrupting sodium/potassium imbalance and others affect γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors; eventually, they cause hyperexcitation in the nervous system. Organophosphates, as another major class of insecticides, are phosphoric acid esters that cause acetylcholine accumulation at neuromuscular junctions by irreversible acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition [6, 9, 10]. The other AChE inhibitor insecticide group carbamates are carbamic acid derivatives and show their effects reversibly, unlike organophosphates [11]. Pyrethrins are isolated from the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium; and, pyrethroids are synthetic analogs of pyrethrins. Both keep open the sodium channels, cause hyperexcitation in peripheral and central nervous systems and ultimately lead to paralysis. Pyrethrins and pyrethroids have lower environmental bioaccumulation and mammalian toxicity [12, 13]. Nicotine and neonicotinoids, as a newer class of insecticides widely used all over the world, have selectively neurotoxic effects on nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChRs) [14].
\nHigh levels of exposure to several insecticides due to lack of legislations, regulations and education with ignorant behaviors may cause serious consequences on the human health and environment. Many studies showed that the misuse or overuse of insecticides lead to harmful effects in various systems such as nervous, respiratory and reproductive. The rest of this chapter gives details of the effects of selected insecticides on the female and male reproductive systems.
\nToxic effects of insecticides on male and female reproductive system and HPG axis are shown in Figure 1.
\nSchematic representation of insecticides on male and female reproductive system via HPG axis (32).
Insecticides could be characterized as “endocrine disrupters” due to their adverse effects on reproductive hormone pathway [15]. The half-life of endocrine-disrupting insecticides changes from hours to months in the environment. Insecticides may have toxic effects on synthesis, secretion, transport, binding to target receptors, intracellular transmission and elimination processes of reproductive hormones. In addition, insecticides alter hormone-receptor binding via chancing receptor affinity or agonist/antagonist effects, since, they mimic hormones. Thus, many of insecticides have estrogenic, androgenic or anti-estrogenic and anti-androgenic effects. Furthermore, insecticides could bind several types of receptors such as membrane, nuclear, orphan and neurotransmitter receptors. Endocrine-disrupting insecticides also exert toxic effects via inducing cell death in reproductive system cells playing a role from hormone synthesis to germ cell axis. Different studies confirmed that insecticides irreversibly affect hypothalamic-pituitary axis due to their mimicking properties of hormones or undesired inhibition or activation of metabolic pathways [15, 16, 17].
\nPyrethroids, synthetic esters of pyrethrins, widely used worldwide are important endocrine-disrupting chemicals. In animal studies, contradictory results were obtained about the effects of pyrethroids on HPG axis. It has been shown that permethrin, fenvalerate and cypermethrin exposure decreased serum testosterone levels and increased follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels. Lower levels of testosterone constitute negative feedback in HPG axis resulting in increased levels of FSH and LH. However, in another study, delthamethrin exposure caused increased levels of testosterone, FSH and LH [18].
\nElbetieha et al. [19] demonstrated that cypermethrin exposure decreased the serum testosterone, FSH and LH levels in male rats. On the other hand, different studies reported that pyrethroids have no effects on hypothalamus functions and gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) levels. There are few studies demonstrating that gonadotropic cells’ function and expression of LH and FSH coding genes have changed with pyrethroids exposure [20]. Dohlman et al. [21] reported that permethrin caused reduction in progesterone levels in beef heifers. Overall, it has been concluded that changes of hormone production due to exposure of pyrethroids depend on dose and duration of the exposure.
\nSoljjou et al. [22] demonstrated that thiacloprid, a neonicotinoid, and delthamethrin, a pyrethroid, exposure decreased GnRH, LH, FSH and testosterone serum levels in the hypothalamus in a dose-dependent manner; and, interfered with steroidogenesis in testicular tissues. Annabi and Dhouib [23] showed that imidacloprid, a neonicotinoid, affected the biochemical pathways of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis via induction of oxidative stress.
\nHeptachlor, an organochlorine, may induce testosterone synthesis via 16-α and 16-β hydroxylases. Thiram, sodium N-methyldithiocarbamate and other dithiocarbamate insecticides inhibit the dopamine-β-hydroxylase activity and result in higher LH production, which prolonged proestrus stage. It has been reported that chlordimeform and amitraz interfere with the norepinephrine by binding to α2-andrenoreceptors and disrupt the GnRH release. Some other insecticides such as methoxychlor, DDT endosulfan, toxaphene, dieldrin, triadimefon, aldrin, methiocarb, chlordecone, malathion and sumithrin affect the HPA axis via binding receptors, mimicking the hormones and have shown estrogenic effects [24, 25]. In Table 1 [3], selected insecticides and their endocrine-disrupting effects are listed.
\nPesticide | \nHormone disruption effects | \n
---|---|
Aldicarb | \n17 beta-estradiol and progesterone inhibition | \n
Aldrin | \nAndrogen receptor binding | \n
Bioallethrin | \nEstrogen-sensitive cells proliferation inhibition | \n
Carbofuran | \nEstradiol and progesterone increase; testosterone decrease | \n
Chlordane | \nAndrogen receptor binding, estrogenic pathway inhibition | \n
Chlorpyrifos-methyl | \nAndrogen activity antagonism | \n
Cypermethrin | \nEstrogenic effect increase | \n
Deltamethrin | \nEstrogenic activity | \n
Dieldrin | \nAndrogen receptor binding, inducing estrogen receptor production in the cell | \n
Endosulfan | \nAndrogen receptor binding, inducing estrogen receptor production in the cell | \n
Fenoxycarb | \nTestosterone metabolism disruption | \n
Lindane | \nLuteal progesterone decrease, androgen, estrogen and progesterone receptor binding | \n
Methoxychlor | \nEstrogenic effect, pregnane X cellular receptor binding | \n
Parathion | \nGonadotrophic hormone synthesis inhibition | \n
Tetramethrin | \nEstrogen antagonism in females | \n
Selected insecticides and their effects on endocrine system.
Dysfunction of male reproductive system represents a fundamental issue for livestock industry. Impairment of spermatogenesis, anti-androgenic effects, alterations in reproductive enzyme pathways, decreased sperm quality and motility are key elements in insecticide-induced male infertility [5]. Insecticides exert their toxic outcomes on male reproductive system by directly affecting reproductive organs (testes, sertoli cells, leydig cells) and germ cells or impairing hormonal balance in secondary endocrine system [26].
\nIt has been demonstrated in laboratory animals that carbamates have toxic effects on male reproductive system. Alterations of testicular weight and male accessory gland morphology, degeneration of seminiferous tubules and epididymis, spermatogenesis arrest, abnormalities of sperm motility and number, impairment of serum hormone and total proteins levels and estrogen receptor expressions were observed in several studies. However, detailed underlying molecular mechanisms of carbamate toxicity on male reproductive organs are still unclear [26, 27, 28, 29].
\nOrganophosphates could alter the spermatozoon chromatin structure, DNA, acrosome, motility and, have toxic effects on HPG axis. Reduced levels of testosterone were measured with organophosphate exposure due to inhibition of testosterone synthesis, which possibly occurs via reduction of steroidogenic enzymes’ expression levels [5]. Organophosphates have dose-dependent detrimental effects on the morphology of testis and seminiferous tubules by causing atrophy and inducing germ cell death [26]. Additionally, organophosphate exposure is associated with decreased levels of sialic acid, glycogen alkaline phosphatase activity and increased levels of total protein, cholesterol and acid phosphatase. These imbalances could lead to induction of oxidative stress in male reproductive system by triggering inflammation, mitochondrial deficiency, DNA fragmentation and apoptosis [30, 31]. In wild birds such as parakeets and munias, organophosphate administration resulted in testicular dysfunctions [32]. Organophosphate insecticides induce DNA damage in sperm chromatin and that alters spermatogenesis pathway and causes infertility in male animals. Germ cell genetic material is protected by structure of male reproductive organs; however, it has been demonstrated that organophosphate insecticide disrupted the germ cell DNA integrity [32].
\nDDT, methoxychlor, chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, toxaphene, mirex and lindane are commonly used organochlorines. Organochlorines have shown their toxic effects via inducing oxidative stress in the epididymis and decreasing antioxidant defense. It has been demonstrated that endosulfan caused abnormal sperm maturation in the epididymis. In addition, organochlorines disrupt male reproductive maturation in adolescence. TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin), the most dangerous compound in world history, causes reduced fertility, delayed puberty and reproductive organ weights alterations, and also induces oxidative stress resulting in abnormal sperm morphology, motility and sperm number decrease [26].
\nPyrethroids are generally accepted as safe; however, their weak toxic effects on reproductive system were demonstrated in limited studies. Pyrethroids have adverse effects such as reducing sperm count and motility, aneuploidy in germ cells, reducing sex hormone levels and reducing semen quality and sperm morphological abnormalities in human [33].
\nToxic effects of insecticides on female reproductive system were shown in different studies; and, it is concluded that insecticides disrupt female endocrine system and cause alterations in reproductive organs and germ cells [24]. Insecticides disrupt ovarian physiology. This is a two-way street as altering organ functions causes hormone secretion changes and this endocrine changes mostly affect the female reproductive system and result with dysfunctions via HPG axis. Disrupted hormone synthesis, altered follicular maturation, disrupted ovarian cycle, pregnancy time prolong, stillbirth and infertility are linked to oxidative imbalance in the cells, and eventually lead to DNA damage, inflammation and apoptosis induction [34].
\nIt has been speculated that pesticides have important role in slaughtering buffaloes reproductive defects. This could be associated with follicle membrane permeability features that permit xenobiotics entrance to the system. Higher concentrations of insecticides including DDT, eldrine, endosulphan and butachlor were detected in ovary than serum. This could make a way for follicular wall alterations and more insecticide entrance to the cellular system. In addition, insecticides could affect germ cells at primordial phases resulting in infertility in adult stage [5].
\nIn wild birds such as female bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), parathion exposure caused reduction of egg production, impairment of follicular cycle, and reduction of LH and progesterone levels. Organophosphate (methyl parathion/phosphamidon/quinalphos) administration of white-throated munia (Lonchura malabarica) caused inhibition of two important enzymes: Δ5-3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3βHSD) and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17βHSD), playing key role in estrogen and progesterone production inhibition [32].
\nEndosulfan, an organochlorine, triggered apoptosis via oxidative stress induction in the follicle cells. Moreover, it induced the expressions of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), CYP19A1a and aromatase, causing improper ovarian maturation. DDT exposure caused ovulation time alterations via inhibiting CYP450-side chain cleavage enzyme, progesterone receptor, estrogen sulfotransferase, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and epidermal growth factor (epiregulin) [34].
\nIn female reproductive system, chlorpyrofos cause alterations in uterine weight and morphology via inducing surface epithelium and myometrium thickness [35]. In addition, chlorpyrofos could qualify as an ovotoxic and embryotoxic agent while mimicking estrogen and altering embryonic hatching, cell proliferation and apoptosis in zebrafish. Furthermore, chlorpyrifos reduces the levels of serum sex hormones such as LH, estrogen and progesterone [36, 37].
\nToxic effects mechanisms of insecticides in female reproductive system are schematized in Figure 2.
\nToxic effects mechanisms of insecticides in female reproductive system (FSH; follicle-stimulating hormone, LH; luteinizing hormone, ER; estrogen, ROS; reactive oxygen species, Cox2; Cyclooxygenase-2, StAr; Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein) [34].
Due to fact that insecticides may affect directly either male or female reproductive system as well as alter endocrine balance, eliminating or reducing the usage of insecticides is still a major concern. Considering literature data, many of insecticides caused infertility or developmental abnormalities by several pathways, and it is urgent to create awareness. Since, a huge amount of the data was obtained based on the rodent studies, further studies are needed to enlighten the toxic effects of insecticides on livestock. Furthermore, it would be possible to develop more effective and reduced-cost of stockbreeding by the clarification of possible molecular mechanisms of the insecticides.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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