Responsibilities of a psychological counselor for infertility.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1940",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Bio-Inspired Computational Algorithms and Their Applications",title:"Bio-Inspired Computational Algorithms and Their Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Bio-inspired computational algorithms are always hot research topics in artificial intelligence communities. Biology is a bewildering source of inspiration for the design of intelligent artifacts that are capable of efficient and autonomous operation in unknown and changing environments. It is difficult to resist the fascination of creating artifacts that display elements of lifelike intelligence, thus needing techniques for control, optimization, prediction, security, design, and so on. Bio-Inspired Computational Algorithms and Their Applications is a compendium that addresses this need. It integrates contrasting techniques of genetic algorithms, artificial immune systems, particle swarm optimization, and hybrid models to solve many real-world problems. The works presented in this book give insights into the creation of innovative improvements over algorithm performance, potential applications on various practical tasks, and combination of different techniques. 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D. degrees in intellectual information systems and Innovative life science from University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan in 2008 and 2011, respectively. From 2005 to 2006, he was a technical support engineer in Wicrosoft Co. Ltd., Shanghai, China. He has received the Outstanding Academic Performance Award of IEICE Hokuriku Branch in 2008, the Outstanding Self-financed Students Abroad Award of Chinese Government from China Scholarship Council in 2009, the Outstanding Academic Achievement Award of IPSJ Hokuriku Branch in 2011, and the Outstanding Doctoral Award of University of Toyama in 2011. He is currently an associate research fellow at the Key Laboratory of Embedded System and Service Computing, Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China. 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It is time to abandon unethical or impossible to introduce into clinical pathways and look again at rudiments and face limitations. This book takes the reader from stem cell biology through clinical applications, ethics, law, and future possibilities. It is a solid base for every scientist interested in the topic of stem cells. Growing recognition of the limitations of stem cell therapies on the one hand and the rapidly increasing number of unethical therapies available in many countries force the quick establishment of the status quo of knowledge in a form accessible to all interested. This book is the answer to the multi-level and complex aspect of using stem cells in humans. It reveals real possibilities of introducing the latest research in the field of stem cell research. Material summarizes the ups and downs of this complex topic and shows the current trends in global markets and universities.
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Since infertility causes personal, familial, and social problems, it is a devastating therefore serious health problem [1, 2]. An abundance of studies have evidenced the physical, psychological, ethical, sociocultural, emotional, and financial effects of infertility. Infertile couples or individuals frequently demonstrate signs of stress, anxiety, depression, financial hardships, guilt feeling, fear, loss of social status, despondence, and social labeling [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Yet a good number of infertile couples or individuals choose to hide the problem and avoid sharing fertility problem with their families and relatives, which then leave them unsupported. In the course of time, avoidance may result in social isolation [2, 8]. As regards this matter, healthcare personnel could also fail in correctly evaluating psychological state of infertile individual or couples, or correctly diagnose psychiatric indicators and disorders. That failure could adversely affect couples’ life quality and infertility treatment. In this part of study, we have systemically reviewed our latest knowledge on the psychological manifestation of infertility.
Reproduction and continuing the lineage are among the most innate and important instincts of all living beings. For both partners, infertility is a complex and situational crisis that is usually psychologically threatening, emotionally stressful, financially challenging, and physically painful most of the times due to diagnostic-curative operations undergone. The condition impacts 10–15% of couples at their reproductive age [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The incidence of infertility and etiology differ in different societies. Approximately 8–10% of couples in developed countries and 15–20% of developing countries have infertility [4]. Fertility is a vital function of adult development. If this need is unmet, as seen among infertile couples, there is a negative impact on their future plans, self-image, self-respect, marriage life, and sexual life. It is also feasible to see loss of physical and sexual privacy among such couples [9, 10].
It was detected that causes of infertility are widely ranged for men and women. The causal factors of infertility are not limited with medical factors but extend to psychological factors too [11]. Emotional drivers of infertility for women can be listed as tubal spasm, anovulation, rapidly throwing seminal sperms, and vaginismus. Added to that, another infertility factor related to women is unintentionally avoiding sexual intercourse while ovulating. There are a number of psychological commonalities among infertile women. Although most women seem to dearly want to get pregnant and express their desire verbally, deep down they may hide negative views and fear toward pregnancy. These fears may originate from pregnancy, delivery, or motherhood. Among some of the potential underlying causes with psychogenic roots are also fear of having a bad body shape due to pregnancy, fear of losing her life or the baby during delivery, or fear of failing as a good mother. Studies revealed that if women were encouraged to express such emotions, a more affectionate and unrestricted bond could be developed among partners, which then could lead to pregnancy [12, 13, 14]. Among men, impotence in erection and ejaculation are root causes of psychological infertility. Besides, as is the case for women, men can also avoid coitus unintentionally. Male impotence may exist from birth or develop in life later. In a vast majority of men, it is also possible to experience temporary impotence in any stage of life. A great part of impotence breakout could be related to psychological causes. Most of the times, past psychological traumas, nutritional disorders, childhood diseases, and overaffectionate and protectionist mothers are among the initiative factors of psychological impotence [12, 15, 16].
Infertility is mainly categorized as an unsolvable life crisis that threatens being a parent, which is one of the salient life objectives, putting pressure on personal resources and having a potential to resuscitate unsolved conflicts of the past years. For infertile couples, stress sources may originate from personal, societal, and marital life. It was reported that single or collective presence of these factors increased the stress level during treatment process more [17, 18, 19]. For the couples defining their infertility experience as “the most distressing life event,” overcoming their current condition can only be possible by coping the stress and adapt into the current situation. Individuals diagnosed with infertility are forced to counteract a condition not solvable with the available coping strategies. In stress management, personal capacity, past experiences, and support from immediate social circle are very critical [20]. Failure to reproduce fuels both familial and environmental pressures among couples while also igniting stress and tension at home. If failure to reproduce were perceived as if it were a crime and if it forced the individual to feel like a loser in community, infertile couples would then choose to be isolated from their close circle. As spouses become more discreet toward one another, their marriage life may also be adversely altered. Another explanation for infertility-related stress among couples is the financial cost of treatment process. Since it is a long, exhausting, and also costly stage of which treatment process is uncertain, partners are likely to undergo an emotionally difficult and tense experience. Extended length of infertility and treatment is another factor related to psychiatric problems. Sociofinancially advanced couples prove to be more apt in accepting infertility and develop favorable coping methods against infertility-induced psychological problems, but the opposite holds true among sociofinancially backward couples [16, 21, 22, 23]. On the other hand, it was acknowledged that rather than financial hardships, the influencers of quitting the treatment protocol are physical and emotional burden, huge stress, and disappointment. The same study also highlighted that feeling stressful prior to IVF operation is an acceptable case. Yet stress during the actual treatment process led to adverse consequences [24]. In one study conducted across 151 female cases to investigate the effect of stress on IVF treatment, three vital findings were obtained [25]. These findings were, respectively, listed as follows. (1) Stress level in the beginning of treatment is significantly correlated with biological parameters such as collected number of oocysts, total number of fertilized oocysts, pregnancy ratios, live birth ratios, and birth weight. (2) Stress level during IVF procedure is significantly correlated with collected number of oocysts and total number of fertilized oocysts. (3) When infertile couples having least amount of stress in the beginning are compared with the ones having most amount of stress, it is detected that frequency of dead birth is 93% lower. Stress-lowering interventions during infertility treatment are correlated with increased ratios of pregnancy. Among women with adequate level of active-effective defense mechanism and emotional self-expression, there is higher success of infertility treatment compared to women not having these traits [25]. It is reported that unpredictability, negativity, uncontrollability, and ambiguity dimensions of infertility may be perceived as stressors for individuals. The application of stress and coping theories to infertility; in which situations infertility is perceived as more stressful, what is the factors that facilitate and complicate adaptation of individual and couples diagnosed with infertility would assist in better understanding which therapeutic interventions are more beneficial for reducing stress.
When a married couple fails to reproduce despite desiring to have a baby, they feel like not fulfilling the role of “being family.” Failure to accomplish reproduction function leads the couples to feel like a loser and idler. By negatively affecting social life, mood, marriage life, sexual life, future plans, self-respect, body image, and life quality of couples, infertility then turns into a complex life crisis [2, 7, 27]. For the couples, the common emotions for not having a baby are frustration and missing mother-father roles valued in society. For a woman, childlessness is associated with infertility (functional disorder), loss of control (my body rebelling against my will), psychological void (unfulfilled maternal instinct), feeling outcast from female community, feeling worthless, loneliness (lack of emotional support of the child), absence of social security (nobody to look after them in old age), unmet social role (mother, pregnant woman, postpartum period, mother-in-law), and lower self-esteem [2, 27]. For a man, childlessness is associated with failure to impregnate a woman (weak functioning of manhood), psychological void (unfulfilled paternal instinct), loneliness (in old age), failure to continue the lineage, unmet social role (father, father-in-law), and diminished social security [2, 27].
Despite the existence of personal differences regarding the reactions of individuals against infertility, studies also indicated a number of commonalities [2]. The ubiquitous emotion experienced by infertility-diagnosed individuals is misery. Personal reactions against infertility are confusion, denial, anger, negotiation (if I get pregnant then…), despondence, withdrawal, social isolation, lamenting, guilt feeling, unworthiness, frustration, and acceptance. The first stage is to feel shock, confusion, and disbelief. When the couple is diagnosed with infertility, first they feel shocked due to this sad fact and choose not to believe. Shock stage is followed by denial stage. Most of the times, couples are busy with not having an unplanned pregnancy so they are totally unprepared against the infertility scenario. Hence, outbreak of infertility problem is particularly devastating for those with high expectations and extreme confidence in overcoming any challenges in life. In order to avoid facing this bitter reality, denial is a popular tactic. Frustration experienced with the menstruation period every month is ignored by the couple, and infertility is attributed to fewness of sexual intercourses and believing that it is quite normal to get pregnant in the early months. Another stage awaiting the couples is fury and anxiety. An infertile partner is anxious with the fear of being left by the spouse; women feel themselves worthless and useless while men feel like having lost their manhood and might-power attributes of fatherhood. Reasons explaining the extremity of such emotions for women are fear of receiving many tests and protocols in her own body, anxiousness to lose the love of spouse, feeling worthless and useless, and a loss of self-confidence due to feeling depreciated manhood or womanhood. The longer waiting period and the more complexities in diagnosis and treatment can result in a heightened level of disappointment and anxiety trap. The next stage awaiting the couples is anger stage. Individuals feel resentful toward themselves, their partners, families, and social circle. Infertile couples feel to be treated unfairly and ask the question “Why us?” This question leads the couple to put the blame on past abortions or secret sexual intercourses that call for punishment. This accusation brings with itself self-directed anger or anger and hostility toward the partner. After all, infertility can be perceived as a problem threatening the continuity of one’s lineage. The problem could even end up in solutions such as divorce, remarriage, or even suicide. Another stage awaiting infertile couples is the stage of loss of control. The complex and interventional nature of administered treatments and detailed questioning of couple’s sexual life is perceived as a violation of their private life. Unpredictability of treatment success fuels a feeling of ambiguity toward the future. Couples think their private life is violated since administered treatments and directed questions expose their most-intimate life to outsiders. At this stage, women intentionally avoid seeing their pregnant friends and push themselves into loneliness. Another stage to be experienced by a couple diagnosed with infertility is the stage of guilt feeling. Infertile partner blames himself/herself due to the conviction that cultural motherhood-fatherhood role is denied from their partner because of their failure. Such feelings of blame and anger trap the infertile partner into despair. Partners feel themselves guilty since they blame themselves for denying their partner from the right of motherhood-fatherhood. As family and culture pressure are jointed with these emotions, they feel like being punished. They lose their interest to everyday life, they have lower motivation and enthusiasm and everything loses their former value, and they are likely to develop depression at this stage. For an infertile couple, each month with no pregnancy is perceived as if losing the child in the womb because of menstruation. Feeling of child loss brings mourning and depression. Although there is no tangible loss like in death or divorce, paradoxically, couples mourn for a baby who never existed in the first place. It is because the issue is not the loss of baby only; it means saying goodbye to dreams of ideal family and happy future. As time goes by, they develop apathy to life and feel beaten. In a different saying, mourning process results in depression [26, 27]. Healthy couples gradually enter into the stage of acceptance. Denials recede and facts supersede. By seeking alternative treatment options, they reconnect with each other and their friends and follow a more amiable approach in their reactions. Then these couples accept the infeasibility of having a child through biological ways. At this junction, couples need to make difficult choices like continuing a childless marriage, getting a divorce and remarrying someone else, or adopting a child [2, 7, 8, 28]. Stages of infertility are very much like the mourning process for someone nearing death. Yet, in infertility, there is not a fatal life-threatening issue; life quality and an agreeable marriage are at stake. Besides, although in a fatal disease, individuals come closer, the opposite holds true for infertility and couples distance themselves from one another as partners and from their social circle [28, 29, 30, 31]. The reactions given to infertility may be different from among societies. Similarly, men and women exhibit different reactions against infertility. Women express their emotions more frequently and need wider social support, whereas men share their problems less frequently. As a defense mechanism, women negatively react to infertility, while men would choose to forget and deny. This disparity prevents partners to understand each other. Then, they start not to talk about their problems and women feel like shouldering this problem on their own. When the partners fail to provide emotional support to each one, family bond is destined to weaken [8, 32, 33]. In a relevant study, it was identified that among 31% of women and 16% of men, dominant emotions were despondence, pessimism, despair; 23% of women and 16% of men felt lonesome [34]. A different study focusing on the loneliness levels of infertile women revealed that 85.4% were primer infertile, 54% were woman-borne infertile, 78.7% received no psychological support [35]. In the same study, women’s loneliness scores were found to be significantly related with the variables such as being employed, education level, length of infertility, number of marriage, need for psychological support, social security status, and social support [35]. Certain studies indicated that infertility affected couples’ emotional state, social, sexual life, and marriage bond, and compared to men, these effects were more intensively experienced among women [36, 37].
A number of studies have investigated the correlation between infertility and mental indicators and disorders. A vast majority of studies show that a significant correlation existed between infertility and mental indicators. It was identified that among infertile patients, the hardest psychological challenge was anxiety, and for those couples having had a failed treatment, depression was the greatest psychological burden. In an interview conducted with 112 infertile women, it was reported that psychiatric disorder was vivid across 40% of cases. The most pervasive diagnoses were reportedly anxiety disorder (23%), major depressive disorder (17%), and dysthymic disorder (9.8%) in the infertile group in Japan [36]. These findings point out that in comparison to society at large, frequency of psychiatric disorder was higher among cases with a diagnosed infertility issue. In studies encompassing different communities, it was detected that correlation existed particularly between generalized anxiety disorder and infertility [29, 38, 39, 40]. For example, generalized anxiety disorder was associated with infertility in the 11,000-person study conducted in the American community [37]. In Japanese society, which has various cultural characteristics, the results also supported the generalized anxiety disorder [14]. Similarly, in many studies from different society, the highest prevalence of anxiety and depression as a psychiatric illness were detected in patients with infertile [35, 38, 39, 40]. Infertility is also compared with chronic physical diseases. In one study that contrasted infertility-diagnosed cases with patients diagnosed with HIV-positive, cancer, cardiac disease, or similar life-threatening chronic diseases, anxiety effect was reported to be higher among the infertile group [41]. By the same token, it was identified that compared to healthy, pregnant women, infertile women maintained higher depression rates [40, 42]. Undoubtedly, the reason for more frequent depressive indicators among women is that interventional diagnosis and infertility treatment procedures are administered on women’s body. In a relevant study, it was seen that compared to control group, mood disorder was reported to be 3.4 times and generalized anxiety disorder 2.7 times more widespread in infertile patient group [40]. Among infertile patients, other common psychiatric problems are sexual function disorder, somatization disorder, dysthymia, panic disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and obesity were reported to be linked with infertility. In addition, alcohol and drug addiction were also reportedly widespread among infertile cases. Some studies revealed that among infertile women, there was elevated level of anger and stronger aggression, while other studies showed that anger could be turned to the self or to outside. It was highlighted that among patients undergoing infertility treatment, hormonal imbalance in hypothalamus hypophyseal ovarian axle or administered hormonal medications could also lead to mood disorders [2, 8, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. In a study that examined mental state and personality profile of infertile patients, one mental disorder at some intensity could be detected among 83.8% of women; 52% of the cases were reported to have mild or severe personality disorder [43]. In the same study, it was also revealed that in infertile patient group, depression and anxiety level were higher and mental composure was less stabile which was related with personality traits. With respect to gender, there are certain variations in mental indicators and disorders. Among infertile women, depression is reported to be more widespread; among men, on the other hand, there are a higher number of psychosomatic indicators due to suppressed anxiety [44, 45]. It was reported that among infertile men with an elevated alexithymia trait, there was higher level of experienced stress and worsened life quality [46]. Infertile women were reported to score significantly higher in the categories of psychiatric traces, hostility, cognitive dysfunction, diminished self-respect, anxiety, and depression. Among infertile men, a significant rise was observed in lower self-confidence but heightened anxiety level and somatization symptoms. Compared to women, men got higher scores in satisfaction from marriage and sexual life [47, 48, 49, 50]. The reasons for observing more psychopathology among women can be related to assuming more responsibility and feeling of guilt, exposure to higher social pressure, and stigma [51, 52]. In one study, it was reported that 49% of infertile individuals were exposed to stigma [53]. Motherhood being a social role attributed to all women makes woman to fear infertility as a threat for marriage, which then leads to anxiety [8]. During the infertility experience, a woman having a mature personality, total self-confidence, a fulfilling bond with her spouse, and positive attitude to adoption choice can go through fewer psychological problems; on the other hand, inadequate psychological support, unsuccessful treatment interventions, low socioeconomic status, being of a foreign nationality, absence of partner support were reported to be related with heightened depression risk [46, 47]. In a noticeably significant number of studies, a critical finding showed that negative reaction of one’s spouse and parents-in-law were related with higher anxiety-depression scores and lower self-esteem [20].
Mental indicators were extensively analyzed as other causes of infertility. Unexplained infertility was reported to be correlated with high anxiety level and suppressed anger; on the other hand, innate infertility was more linked with depression [54, 55, 56]. In male-related infertility cases, compared to other causes, stress level is higher in effect. In one study, it was reported that in male-caused infertility, couples avoided expressing negative emotions and it was positively linked with increased pregnancy ratios [57]. There is a correlation between mental indicators and findings and infertility itself. Findings revealed that anxiety level is a determinant for the result of infertility treatment and decision to continue the protocol [58, 59, 60, 61, 62]. Anxiety is also effective on patient’s reaction against the possibility of losing baby after a successful treatment and pregnancy-borne complications. Also, anxiety, depression, and deteriorated marriage life are linked with unsuccessful infertility treatment. Infertility-rooted psychological problems could lead to discontinuing the treatment. It was reported that among couples not taking a second chance after a failed IVF treatment, the most decisive cause was psychological burden and incorrect prognosis [63]. Extended infertility term and unsuccessful but expensive treatment attempts were reportedly correlated with heightened depression-anxiety level. A different study indicated that rather than the length of treatment, the length of infertility was more closely associated with depression. In other studies, it was detected that compared to an average-length infertility protocol, depression levels were lower in short- and long-term infertility. Some of the reasons behind this difference are at the onset of treatment procedure, couples believe to have a baby in just a few months but as infertility period extends longer, couples may develop specific coping mechanisms and accept the situation [48, 49, 50].
Psychological counseling for infertility relates to raising the awareness of individual and/or couple by spreading information and skills during diagnosis, treatment, and post-treatment stages of infertility procedure; counseling is offered by a professional specialized in the field of psychology. Patients are assisted in their decisions on treatment and can thus develop coping strategies against the devastative emotions surfaced emerging because of infertility [64]. Studies in relevant literature underlined that until the 1980s, infertility was categorized as a psychosomatic case that reflected a woman’s ambivalence emotions to motherhood or unsolved conflicts with their own mothers. Hence, treatment was generically administered by psychoanalytic-oriented psychiatrists [65]. Menning [66] argued that mood changes were not the cause but rather the result of infertility. Therefore, he founded Resolve the National Infertility Association (RESOLVE) to provide emotional support for infertile individuals residing in the United States of America (USA) and climb public awareness by offering courses on infertility [66]. An increasing number of literature studies started to acknowledge psychological effects of infertility and highlighted the importance of supportive counseling interventions for those undergoing infertility treatment [66].
Psychological counselors for infertility can offer services by consulting to theoretical approaches such as psychodynamic, individual-centered, cognitive-behaviorist, or solution-focused interventions. Although the methods being employed are different from one another, all of the psychological counselors on infertility adopt a common objective in taking care of emotional well-being of the couple and when need be they strive to boost their psychological integrity and resources [67]. Responsibilities of a psychological counselor for infertility are given in Table 1 [68, 69, 70].
1 | Helping the couple uncover their ambivalent emotions toward being infertile |
2 | Helping the couple unravel their ambivalent emotions toward the projected assistive treatment methods to have a baby |
3 | Helping the couple cope with the complicated emotions surfacing after failed interventions |
4 | After nullifying the emotional limitations of the couple, helping them make a decision from a variety of options including the choice of ending the treatment |
5 | Helping the couple establish a more effective communication as partners on anything related to infertility |
6 | Helping the couple cope with ambiguity and uncontrollability phenomenon |
7 | Helping the couple have a clear idea on any related aspects of assisted reproductive techniques |
8 | Helping the couple cope with the new experience caused by pregnancy or trauma after losing the baby despite the treatment (recurrent abortus, dead birth, etc.) |
9 | If need be, referring mentally disordered cases to psychiatric treatment |
Responsibilities of a psychological counselor for infertility.
As a reflection of the latest multidisciplinary medical approaches, there has been a consensus among medical community that psychological counseling should be a complementary step for the biological treatment protocol of infertile couples [71]. In psychological counseling protocol for infertility, there is a wide range of intervention types catered for the different levels of help needed among different couples. In psychological counseling for infertility, there is a myriad of counseling options such as informative and decision-making, supportive counseling, and therapeutic counseling. Informative and decision-making is the first stage of infertility counseling. This stage involves comprehensive explanations on the causes of infertility, suggested treatment options, potential expectations from the treatment, and the way treatment process could affect their everyday life [72]. At the onset of psychological counseling protocol for infertility, it is suggested to openly communicate about ideas, expectations, doubts, and worries of the clients on psychological counseling so that objectives of each session could be specified. Indeed, for many couples, this session is generally the very first meeting that they have ever had with a psychiatrist for a lifetime [70]. That is why the couple may be resistant to share their private matter with a third person and feel like being labeled. It is thus suggested that in the first session, mutual duties and responsibilities, notice on privacy, and providing a safe and supportive setting to help the patients discover and manifest their emotions toward infertility are some of the items to focus on [65]. To maintain a satisfactory session, some of the essentials are active listening, empathetic approach, adopting a respectful language toward the viewpoint of each client, identifying the meaning or importance of the problem for the client, and to make the targets achievable within the control of client. In these sessions, it is aimed to help the patients understand that most of their infertility reactions are normal and predictable, to discuss about the process toward obtaining desired solutions, to conceptualize or reinterpret the problems with solution offering methods [2].
Among the main objectives of infertility psychological counseling are providing some coping strategies to the individual and couples diagnosed with infertility, emotional readiness to the treatment process, discovering the options, assisting in making a choice, and determining the effects of infertility on the individual and his/her immediate surroundings. Having recently renowned as a domain calling for professional expertise and skills, psychological counseling for infertility gives a chance to infertile individuals to seek the ways for enhancing, exploring, and clarifying their life quality and satisfaction. It also gives them a means to express infertility-related emotions such as deep misery, guilt feeling, anxiety, and explore the problem’s traces on their self-perception and body image. Making sense of the emotional and physical changes undergone during treatment process is critically important in the future plans of individuals coping with infertility and to overcome the hardships they are exposed. It is thus suggested that psychological counseling for infertility that can offer the individuals a safe reserve for self-expression is quite a salient service catered for infertile individual and couples [73, 74, 75, 76, 77]. Psychological interventions play an important role in the treatment of infertility, in particular, for infertile patients who are not receiving medical treatment [78].
To conclude, it can be stated that infertility is a life crisis that brings with itself a number of psychological problems. Taking preventive measures upon calculating psychological problems that could affect treatment success is a critical issue to observe in providing healthcare services. During the infertility treatment process, to have some awareness on the psychological problems experienced by individuals not only helps in the adaptation of infertile individuals to infertility diagnosis and treatment procedure, but it could also lower the intensity of reactions against infertility. It is thus strongly suggested that analysis of infertile couples or individuals within the context of psychological indicators and findings should be integral to an entire infertility treatment protocol.
I offer thanks to my students.
Mycotoxins are secondary toxic metabolites with a wide variety of chemical structures synthesized by fungi (mold) [1]. Mycotoxins are thought to be a kind of “chemical defense system” to protect mold from insects, microorganisms, nematodes, grazing animals, and humans [2]. Molds reproduce by means of spores, and their small molecular weight spores are easily disseminated to environment by wind. They cannot be affected by the adverse environmental conditions and can be present in the latent state for long periods. Moreover, when the environmental conditions are appropriate, spores return to vegetative form and can form into new mold colonies. Agricultural products can be contaminated with mold in pre-harvest via insect and bird damage and harsh weather condition damage such as hail damage. In addition, selected harvesting method is one of the most important reasons in contamination of the mold to the products. Improper storage, transport, and marketing can also cause the mold growth and synthesis of mycotoxins [3].
Mycotoxin can occur in food and agricultural products via many contamination pathways, at any stage of production, processing, transport, and storage (Figure 1) [4]. Factors that affect mold growth and mycotoxin production are temperature, relative humidity, fungicides and/or fertilizers, interaction between the colonizing toxigenic fungal species, type of subtract and nutritional factors, geographical location, genetic requirements, and insect infestation [5, 6].
Factors affecting mycotoxin occurrence in the food and feed chain [
Approximately 400 fungal secondary metabolites are known to be toxic, and one quarter of agricultural products have been reported to be contaminated with mycotoxins in the world [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. While a type of mold may form more than one mycotoxin, a mycotoxin can be synthesized by many molds. The most common types of mold which are known to produce mycotoxins are
According to the result of many studies in poultry and mammals, mycotoxins can be carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, immunosuppressive, and embryotoxic [11]. The phenomenon of toxicity is called mycotoxicosis occurring after consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated product by human and animal [12].
Especially cereals, grains, nuts, oilseeds, fruits, dried fruits, vegetables, cocoa and coffee beans, wine, beer, herbs, and spices are major mycotoxin vectors since they are consumed by a large mass of people and animals [4]. Mycotoxins cause different degrees of toxicity according to exposure time, mycotoxin amount, physiological state, and sensitivity of the organism in humans and animals.
In addition to risk of public health, mycotoxins generate high level of economical loses for food industry due to reduced crop yields, lost trade revenues (local and international), and livestock illnesses [13, 14]. Elimination of mycotoxin is quite though due to resistant to physical, chemical, and biological methods; however, some of the measures described in the following sections may help to prevent mycotoxin. The methods used for mycotoxin determination are chromatography such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and also enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique and biosensor-based screening methods [15]. Detection is complicated due to limitations in analytical methodology [16]. Therefore, prevention of mold contamination and mycotoxin synthesis is essential for food safety in food industry.
According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 77 countries have established guidance and regulations on mycotoxin in food and feed to control the level of mycotoxin. On the other hand, 13 countries including African countries still do not have specific regulation for food safety [4].
Ergotism is one of the oldest determined mycotoxicoses (disease) in human and results from consumption of the ergot body in rye or other grains infected by a parasitic fungus of the genus
Mycotoxins can occur in the food in several ways (Figure 1), but technically divided into two groups; first is mold growth as a pathogen plant in field, another one is grow on stored. After plant materials are contaminated with mold spores from soil and air, they easily contaminate other food source, production area, laboratory, and even kitchen of our homes. Certain species of mold are capable of mycotoxin synthesis; therefore, each food contaminated with mold always may not contain mycotoxins. Nevertheless, moldy products are considered to be risky products in terms of mycotoxin.
Mycotoxins appear in almost all kinds of animal feed and products such as wheat bran, noug cake, pea hulls, maize grain, milk and meat, and also human food such as cereal, fruit and vegetables, spice, etc. [5]. Consuming these foods creates serious health risks in human and all animal species. Mycotoxin intake by feed or food causes chronic intoxication rather than acute symptoms. Acute toxicity is observed in high-dose mycotoxin exposure, and symptoms show a rapid effect such as borborygmy, abdominal pain, diarrhea, etc. On the other hand, low-level mycotoxin exposure in long period causes serious impairments in the liver, kidney, and immune system organs and tissues. Therefore, mycotoxin plays a significant role in cancer in these organs [2]. Some important mycotoxin health effects are shown in Figure 2. Toxic effects on humans and animals of important mycotoxins are shown in Table 1 [19].
Aflatoxin (AFL), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), fumonisin (FUM), trichothecenes (TCT), and zearalenone (ZEA) mycotoxin health effects [
Mycotoxins | Genus/species | Major food | Toxic effects and diseases |
---|---|---|---|
Aflatoxin | Cereals, feeds, oilseeds and pulp, coconut | Carcinogenic, hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, decreasing immune systems, affecting the structure of DNA, hepatitis, bleeding, kidney lesions | |
Fumonisin | Cereals, corn | Encephalomalacia, pulmonary edema, carcinogenic, neurotoxicity, liver damage, heart failure, esophageal cancer in humans | |
Ochratoxin OTA | Cereals, herbs, oil seeds, figs, beef jerky, fruits, and wine | Kidney and liver damage, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, suppression of immune system, carcinogenic | |
Patulin | Silage, wheat, feeds, apples, grapes, peaches, pears, apricots, olives, cereals | Neural syndromes, brain hemorrhage, skin lesions, skin cancer, lung, mutagenicity, antibacterial effect | |
Trichothecenes (T2, DON, DAS, HT2) | Cereals, feeds, silage, legumes, fruits, and vegetables | Immune suppression, cytotoxic, skin necrosis, hemorrhage, anemia, granulocytopenia, oral epithelial lesions, GIS lesions, hematopoietic, alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA), hypotension, coagulopathy | |
Zearalenone | Cereals, corn, silage, timothy grass, fodder | Carcinogenic, hormonal imbalance estrogenic effect, reproductive problems, teratogenic |
Name of some important mycotoxin-producing fungi, susceptible foods, and mycotoxin effects on humans and animals [19].
Mycotoxins have caused many serious outbreaks worldwide. There was an outbreak that occurred in 1967, and 26 people were poisoned because of the consumption of moldy rice for up to 3 weeks in Taiwan [21]. An outbreak of aflatoxicosis affecting humans, reported in India, led to the death of 100 people in 1974 [22]. Another outbreak was reported in India in 1995, affecting 1424 people due to sorghum and maize contaminated with fumonisin [23]. During January–June 2004, an aflatoxicosis outbreak in eastern Kenya resulted in 317 cases and 125 deaths [24].
Mycotoxin contamination in foods and fodder has been becoming a global concern day by day. According to Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) reports, it is estimated that mycotoxin affects nearly 25% of the world’s crop each year and is causing huge agricultural product and industrial losses in billions of dollars [25]. For example, estimated annual loss in the United States is approximately $ 0.5–1.5 billion [19]. The main effects of mycotoxins on national economies can be thought in five ways:
Product yield losses due to toxigenic mold diseases
Decrease in commercial value because of contaminated food and feed
Human and animal health losses due to harmful impacts associated with mycotoxin-contaminated food and fodder consumption
Cost of analysis of mycotoxin
Strategies to control mycotoxin contamination
Economic impacts are felt by agricultural chain such as manufacturer of plant and animal, especially cereal industry, consumers, and briefly all farm-to-fork steps.
Aflatoxins are a group of toxic secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi,
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a natural mycotoxin produced mainly by fungal type of
Fumonisins are generated by various fungal species such as
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) identified FB1 as possibly carcinogenic to humans (group 2B). Recent studies reported that FB1 causes an increased prevalence of esophageal and liver cancer in humans [59]. Furthermore, this mycotoxin has been found to have toxic effects against several organs (nervous and cardiovascular systems, liver, lung, kidney) in animals [60]. Fumonisins are largely found in corn and corn-based foods and also FB1 in rice, beer, sorghum, cowpea seeds, triticale, beans, asparagus, and soybeans [61].
Zearalenone (ZEA), known as an estrogenic mycotoxin, is a secondary metabolite produced by
Several in vivo studies found that ZEA disrupts hormonal balance due to its similarity to naturally occurring estrogens [64]. The mycotoxin has high affinity for estrogen receptors, causing reproduction and fertility disorders in mammals [65]. In addition, it is known that progressive exposure to endocrine-modulatory compound has been linked with carcinogenesis in human [64]. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) report in 2014, the bioavailability of toxin is up to 80% in human and animals such as rats, rabbits, and pigs [66]. Moreover, recent works report ZEA is metabolized in the liver and has shown hepatotoxic, immunotoxic, carcinogenic, and nephrotoxic effect in animal tests [67, 68, 69]. As this mycotoxin possesses such consumer health risks, the European Union (EU) has prescribed the limits of ZEA (20–350 μg/kg) for various processed and unprocessed cereals [66].
Trichothecenes are a large group of mycotoxins produced predominantly by
The mechanism of action of trichothecenes is based on the inhibition of protein synthesis in eukaryotes. This mycotoxin affects peptidyl transferase enzyme binding the 60S ribosomal subunit, thus causing the inhibition of protein translation and ribotoxic stress [75]. Also, Pestka reported these groups of mycotoxins cause immunosuppression or immune stimulation by affecting the leucocytes [76].
The family of trichothecenes has a significant impact on cereal and grain production due to health risk for human consumption, livestock feed, or malting purposes [77, 78]. According to report from the FDA, economic losses associated with mycotoxin ranges from USD 0.5 million to over USD 1.5 billion from aflatoxin (corn and peanuts), fumonisin (corn), and deoxynivalenol (wheat) in the United States. [72]. Hence, control of these mycotoxins is essential for human and animal health and economic reasons.
Deoxynivalenol (DON), known as vomitoxin, is the most commonly detected trichothecenes in grains such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, and corn and less often in rice, sorghum, and triticale [79]. Even though NIV presence of cereals appears generally to be lower than DON [80], it has been reported that the occurrence of NIV in of wheat and barley is as prevalent as that of deoxynivalenol (DON) in Japan [81]. According to animal toxicity studies, NIV shows higher toxicity than DON. The LD50 values for DON and NIV in tests in mice were 78 and 39 mg/kg, respectively, and DON and NIV, similarly to other trichothecenes, show inhibitor effect on cell metabolism such as protein, DNA, and RNA synthesis [82]. In addition, these mycotoxins affect cell division and mitochondrial functions [83, 84, 70]. Both mycotoxins exhibit major symptoms such as abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, vomiting, and inflammation of the throat, weight loss, and anorexia [85].
The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that trichothecenes shows fatal and chronic intoxications on human and livestock and also DON shows teratogenic, neurotoxigenic, and immunosuppressant effects [86].
According to the conducted BIOMIN World Mycotoxin Survey, DON appeared in 81% of livestock feed from 81 countries worldwide followed by fumonisins that were detected in 71% of samples. Therefore, DON is reported as the most common mycotoxin worldwide (https://www.biomin.net/en/biomin-mycotoxin-survey/).
Food safety is a key component in public health issue, and a mycotoxin is a huge food safety risk in developing countries. Prevention is the most important and effective way in reducing fungal growth and mycotoxin production to ensure food safety. The following steps that explain prevention and control of mycotoxin occurrence include good agricultural practices (GAP) in field, control practices of harvesting and storage, physical methods (cleaning, milling, etc.), implementation of biotechnological application, biological control through the use of controlled atmosphere during storage, detoxification/degradation, and fermentation techniques.
Pre-harvesting is considered first and one of the most important stages to prevent mold growth and mycotoxin synthesis. Several strategies are available for the produce of healthy products and reduce the mold formation at pre-harvesting, including selection of plants according to the soil structure and production capacity, use of plant which is resistant to fungi and insects, irrigation time, make fertilization, use of insecticides to prevent insect damage [87].
Harvesting at the appropriate time periods (low moisture and full maturity) is essential for reducing the risk of a mycotoxin contamination since overmaturity creates sensitivity to mold growth. Additionally, suitable harvesting equipment and procedures should be used, and crops should be dried after maturity to both reduce grain moisture to safe levels [88].
The latest technological advances provided new paths in mycotoxin control strategies that include the use of a controlled atmosphere with inhibitory or a protective effect and use of naturally occurring compounds under different conditions and essential oils with antioxidant properties to decrease fungal growth and mycotoxin production in grains during storage [89]. Moreover, these strategies also include using regularly cleaned transport vehicles to prevent cross contamination of products; monitoring of temperature, humidity, aeration and pest infestation periodic during storage [90]; using mold inhibitors (propionic acid) to contaminated food and feed; and application of disinfectant such as sodium hypochlorite to storage area [91].
Some studies have shown that using physical methods (dehulling, washing, sorting, and cleaning of visible moldy seed) reduces different mycotoxin species in foods regardless of grain genre [70]. Scudamore and Pascale et al. [92] and Patel [93] observed a reduction of T-2 (62%) and HT-2 (53%) and DON (50%) in wheat seeds after cleaning. Scudamore and Patel also reported a 32% reduction in fumonisin levels in corn in an industrial enterprise [94]. Moreover, milling is an important effect in the reduction of
One of the best applicable strategies for the prevention of mycotoxin formation is the cultivation of fungal infestation-resistant plants and improvement of the genetic composition to suppress mycotoxin production [96]. The benefits of biotechnological applications were observed with Aflasafe. Aflasafe is a biocontrol product that includes a blend of four fungal species covered over grains which reduce aflatoxigenic fungi that produce AFs in maize and groundnuts (https://aflasafe.com/).
Mycotoxins are resistant to heat and cannot be completely destroyed under normal cooking process. On the other hand, mycotoxin reduction has been determined after heating, and this may be the result of reactions changing the chemical structure [70]. Ryu et al. reported heat treatment (at temperature 120–160°C) causes a reduction between 66 and 83% of ZEN [97]. Scott and Lawrence also reported a reduction of 60–100% of fumonisins with a heat treatment at 190°C (60 min) and 220°C (25 min).
Biological control of mycotoxins via detoxification/degradation offers a promising alternative method [98]. Recently the effectiveness of fermentation for the reduction and elimination of mycotoxins has also been proven. Studies documented in the literature generally show that mycotoxins are reduced by conversion, detoxification, binding, degradation, and decontamination after food fermentation [99]. Modification of the chemical structure of the mycotoxin molecule, removal or detoxification/inactivation, and adhesion to bacterial cell walls provide a reduced toxicity during fermentation [99]. Implementation of these preventive methods cannot solve the problem alone; also it must be an integral part of an integrated food safety management system based on the hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP).
HACCP is a food management system where food safety is addressed through the analysis, control, and monitoring of physical, chemical, and biological hazards from raw material manufacturing, supply, and handling to production, distribution, and consumption of the finished product [100]. The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) published a guideline about HACCP containing seven basic principles, decision tree, and all plans in 1992 [101]. Implementation of HACCP is an effective strategy for prevention, control, and periodic monitoring of mycotoxin in all stages from field to the consumer. There are 12 successive steps recommended to implementation of HACCP system. Previous HACCP studies can be researched to set up tasks from 1 to 5 that specify each food process, and tasks required for mycotoxin control begin at 6 (Principle 1).
Establish the HACCP team.
Describe the product.
Identify the product’s intended use.
Draw up the commodity flow diagram.
Confirm the flow diagram on-site.
Identify and analyze hazard(s) (Principle 1).
Determine the critical control points (CCPs) (Principle 2).
Establish critical limits for each (CCP) (Principle 3).
Establish a monitoring procedure (Principle 4).
Establish corrective action (Principle 5).
Verify the HACCP plan (Principle 6).
Keep record (Principle 7).
Crops and tolerated levels of mycotoxins (μgkg−1) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | Mycotoxins | Rice | Maize | Spices | Fruit juices |
Brazil | AFB1/AFG1 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 |
China | AFB1 | 10 | 20 | — | — |
France | FB1 | 1000 | 1000 | — | — |
Hungary | Total AF OTA | 50 5 | 50 5 | - - | - - |
Japan | AFB1 Patulin | 10 | 10 | 10 | — |
The United States | Total AF Patulin | 20 - | 20 - | 20 - | - 50 |
Turkey | AFB1 Patulin | 2 - | 2 - | 5 - | - - |
Global regulation of mycotoxin contamination in agricultural products [103].
Microbiological and/or chemical tests can be used to confirm which product is meeting CCP.
Asking questions especially to CCP employees.
Internal or external audit by independent person to check whether HACCP system is being implemented.
Step/CCP | Hazard analysis | Monitoring | Corrective action | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hazard | Control | Critical limit | Monitoring | Frequency | ||
Pre-harvest/ growing | Low soil moisture leading to plant stress during kernel development | Irrigate | Lower limit of critical water activity (aw) (check with your agronomist/extension staff for an exact value) | Measure soil moisture and record | Weekly on Monday morning | Additional irrigation; record amounts |
Insufficient soil nutrients leading to plant stress during kernel development | Fertilize | N, P, and K applications as recommended for hybrid by local agronomists (insert the values) | Fertilizer applied (appropriate for soil type and hybrid); amounts and type recorded | As recommended for hybrid | Additional fertilizer; record amounts added | |
Insect attack leading to damaged kernels | Integrated pest management (IPM) plan | Insect population within acceptable limits as determined by control program | Visual inspection and sample, with results recorded | Weekly | Apply pesticide in accordance with IPM plan | |
Harvest | Damage to kernels from harvester | Harvest when kernels are dry | Moisture content ≤14% | Measure and record grain moisture | Prior to harvest | Delay harvest till kernels are dried enough |
Storage | Excessive moisture content of kernels | Do not store until kernels are dry | Moisture content ≤14% | Measure and record grain moisture | Immediately prior to storage | Dry mechanically |
Insect attack, allowing fungi to penetrate kernels | IPM plan | No evidence of insect or rodent infestation using inspection protocols specified in IPM plan | Visual inspection with results recorded | Weekly | Apply pest control methods in accordance with IPM plan | |
High ambient humidity and temperature | Aerate grain to control temperature and humidity | Temperature and humidity within limits recommended in industry literature | Measure and record humidity, ambient temperature, and airflow | Daily during storage | Adjust aeration time of day or airflow to achieve desired temperature and humidity |
HACCP plan of maize [102].
Mycotoxin is a well-known food safety risk, which is a threat to human and livestock health, and has high economic significance in food industry. Recently, the food industry has become aware of the new term modified mycotoxins introduced by Rychlik et al. (masked mycotoxin) [104]. Food safety risk has risen since masked mycotoxins which pose many difficulties including the unknown occurrence/co-occurrence of these compounds and their toxicological properties. In addition, Lorenz et al. reported that the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has taken into account efforts to address this emerging issue in food safety by developing strategies on how to evaluate potential added health risk due to the occurrence of modified mycotoxins [104].
Mycotoxigenic molds are difficult to prevent and control due to their widespread presence in nature. Prevention of mycotoxin synthesis in all stages of food processing is an essential point for public health and economic reasons. Many practices used for prevention of mycotoxin include good agricultural practices (GAP) in field, control practices of harvesting and storage, physical methods (cleaning, milling, etc.), implementation of biotechnological application, biological control through the use of controlled atmosphere during storage, detoxification/degradation, and fermentation techniques.
Meanwhile a number of techniques for mycotoxin control and management prove to be quite costly and/or unenforceable in some cases. On the other hand, using fermentation process for appropriate process has been recommended for mycotoxin reduction by Adebiyi et al. [99]. In the future, more emphasis should be given to nanotechnology and genetic engineering practices in the development of durable product types to ensure food safety.
In addition to these applications, food safety management systems such as HACCP, GAP, and good manufacturing practices (GMP) should be integrated at all stages of production, transport, and storage, in order to minimize contamination in food industry. Also fairly new food safety system including threat assessment critical control points (TACCP), vulnerability critical control points (VACCP), and hazard analysis and risk-based preventive controls (HARPC) should be investigated and implemented to ensure an effective control system.
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Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of 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2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"40",title:"Marine Biology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-marine-biology",parent:{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:74,numberOfWosCitations:51,numberOfCrossrefCitations:31,numberOfDimensionsCitations:66,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"40",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5895",title:"Chondrichthyes",subtitle:"Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b1860c7ca50c0cf7b5442fe1539fa3a0",slug:"chondrichthyes-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Luis Fernando da Silva Rodrigues Filho and João Bráullio de Luna Sales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5895.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104512",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigues-Filho",slug:"luis-fernando-rodrigues-filho",fullName:"Luis Fernando Rodrigues-Filho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5210",title:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c78e2a5e686279a30ed3fb640769dad",slug:"fisheries-and-aquaculture-in-the-modern-world",bookSignature:"Heimo Mikkola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5210.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo",middleName:"Juhani",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Mikkola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50559",doi:"10.5772/63026",title:"Oil and Gas Platforms in the Gulf of Mexico: Their Relationship to Fish and Fisheries",slug:"oil-and-gas-platforms-in-the-gulf-of-mexico-their-relationship-to-fish-and-fisheries",totalDownloads:1663,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"There are over 2300 standing oil and gas platforms in the northern Gulf of Mexico (GOM). It has been argued that platforms provide reef-like habitat that increases the growth and survival rates of fishes by increasing prey availability and affording shelter for protection from predators, provide additional spawning substrate, and by acting as a visual attractant for organisms not otherwise dependent upon hard bottom. Platforms differ from most natural habitats, and from traditional artificial reefs, in that their vertical profile extends upward through the water column into the photic zone and the sea surface. Increased habitat quality on, or immediately around, oil and gas platforms are thought to be derived from increased in situ food production associated with encrustation by fouling organisms. In this chapter, we address the issue of how to evaluate the role of artificial reefs by first establishing levels of evaluation for individual fish species found on oil and gas platforms in the GOM. The levels of evaluation relate to the amount and adequacy of the available information, which was populated with an extensive literature and data search. Three levels of assessment are established, analogous to the levels of analysis established National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries for identification of Essential Fish Habitat. More than 1300 documents, including reports, stock assessments, other gray literature, and papers published in the primary literature, were used to complete this chapter. When available, published literature was the preferred source of information.",book:{id:"5210",slug:"fisheries-and-aquaculture-in-the-modern-world",title:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World"},signatures:"James H. Cowan and Kenneth A. Rose",authors:[{id:"139993",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:"Howard",surname:"Cowan, Jr.",slug:"james-cowan-jr.",fullName:"James Cowan, Jr."}]},{id:"50363",doi:"10.5772/62876",title:"The Brown Seaweeds Fishery in Chile",slug:"the-brown-seaweeds-fishery-in-chile",totalDownloads:1754,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Chilean fishery of brown algae includes species belonging to the genus Lessonia, Durvillaea, and Macrocystis, which can be found along the coast, ranging latitudes from 18° to 55°S. The exploitation of these seaweeds is done mainly in the Northern coast because the environmental conditions of this region decrease initial production costs. Brown algae are exploited from natural populations and exported to international markets as row material, source of alginates, widely utilized in diverse manufacturing processes and industries. International demand for Chilean kelps has produced sustained increase in harvest during the last decade, reaching more than 390,000 dry tons/year. This chapter approaches the most relevant aspects of the brown seaweed fishery in Chile which covers a wide range of the Southeast Pacific coast, considering the number of commercial species, its abundance and distribution, knowledge achieved on their ecology and biology regarding management, and conservation of these resources, and finally, provides tools for stakeholders and policy makers directed to sustainable management of natural kelp beds occurring in the cold temperate seas.",book:{id:"5210",slug:"fisheries-and-aquaculture-in-the-modern-world",title:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World"},signatures:"Julio A. Vásquez",authors:[{id:"180745",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Vásquez",slug:"julio-vasquez",fullName:"Julio Vásquez"}]},{id:"55984",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69471",title:"Deep-Water Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras of Brazil",slug:"deep-water-sharks-rays-and-chimaeras-of-brazil",totalDownloads:1614,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The deep-water fishery in Brazil is currently in expansion due to depletion of most neritic economic species. This increasing deep-water effort brings concern on the bycatch impact, its specific composition, the need for capture’s evaluation and development of bycatch reduction devices. The impact is particularly aggressive on deep-water elasmobranchs, which have an extreme ecological k-strategy due to their reproductive constraints (lower fecundity and late first maturity age). Scientific deep-water surveys and intensive research programs (REVIZEE) along the past decade indicate that Brazilian elasmobranch diversity is higher than previously imagined. However, the deep-water fishery threatens this poorly known community of sharks and rays on the Brazilian continental slope as they become bycatch of a fast-growing and uncontrolled fishery. The recent study case of the monkfish (Lophius gastrophysus) fishery dynamics, well presented and discussed by the Brazilian scientific community, provided evidence of the need of bycatch-specific monitoring programs and fast-response fishery regulations. The present work discusses the Brazilian deep-water elasmobranch bycatch problem under the light of its biological diversity and completely unknown population status. Suggestions and management considerations are presented in order to coordinate and manage the establishment and growth of this deep-water fishery in Brazil.",book:{id:"5895",slug:"chondrichthyes-multidisciplinary-approach",title:"Chondrichthyes",fullTitle:"Chondrichthyes - Multidisciplinary Approach"},signatures:"Getulio Rincon, Rodrigo Cordeiro Mazzoleni, Ana Rita Onodera\nPalmeira and Rosangela Lessa",authors:[{id:"205621",title:"Dr.",name:"Getulio",middleName:null,surname:"Rincon",slug:"getulio-rincon",fullName:"Getulio Rincon"},{id:"206465",title:"MSc.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Mazzoleni",slug:"rodrigo-mazzoleni",fullName:"Rodrigo Mazzoleni"},{id:"206466",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeira",slug:"ana-rita-palmeira",fullName:"Ana Rita Palmeira"},{id:"206467",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosangela",middleName:null,surname:"Lessa",slug:"rosangela-lessa",fullName:"Rosangela Lessa"}]},{id:"56228",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70028",title:"A Review of the Mitogenomic Phylogeny of the Chondrichthyes",slug:"a-review-of-the-mitogenomic-phylogeny-of-the-chondrichthyes",totalDownloads:1483,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The phylogenetic analysis of the Chondrichthyes has been the subject of intense debate over the past two decades. The principal relationships within the group based on the analysis of morphological traits are inconsistent with the available molecular topologies, and the phylogeny of these animals is highly controversial, at all levels, ranging from superorders to families and even the genera within families. With the recent development of new generation sequencing (NGS), many phylogenies are now being inferred based on the complete genome of the species. In 2015 and 2016 alone, around 21 new elasmobranch genomes were made available in GenBank. In this context, the principal objective of the present study was to infer the phylogeny of the sharks and rays based on the complete mitochondrial genomes available in the literature. A total of 73 mitogenomes of chondrichthyan species were analyzed. The phylogenetic trees generated rejected the “Hypnosqualea” hypothesis and confirmed the monophyly of the Neoselachii and Batoidea as sister groups of the sharks. These mitogenomic analyses provided ampler and more complete insights into the relationships between the sharks and rays, in particular, the topologies obtained by the analyses revealed a number of incongruities in certain groups of sharks and rays, and the interrelationships between them.",book:{id:"5895",slug:"chondrichthyes-multidisciplinary-approach",title:"Chondrichthyes",fullTitle:"Chondrichthyes - Multidisciplinary Approach"},signatures:"Divino Bruno da Cunha, Luis Fernando da Silva Rodrigues‐Filho and\nJoão Bráullio de Luna Sales",authors:[{id:"104512",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigues-Filho",slug:"luis-fernando-rodrigues-filho",fullName:"Luis Fernando Rodrigues-Filho"},{id:"205219",title:"Dr.",name:"Divino Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Da Cunha",slug:"divino-bruno-da-cunha",fullName:"Divino Bruno Da Cunha"},{id:"205690",title:"Dr.",name:"João Bráullio De",middleName:null,surname:"Luna Sales",slug:"joao-braullio-de-luna-sales",fullName:"João Bráullio De Luna Sales"}]},{id:"52331",doi:"10.5772/64252",title:"Setting Up Traceability Tools for the Indonesian Blue Swimming Crab Fishery: A Case Study in Southeast Sulawesi",slug:"setting-up-traceability-tools-for-the-indonesian-blue-swimming-crab-fishery-a-case-study-in-southeas",totalDownloads:1694,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The Indonesian blue swimming crab fishery developed rapidly during the 1990s to become an important source of income for coastal communities. The blue swimming crab (BSC) in 2015 is the third highest export commodity in Indonesia, primarily to USA markets. Southeast (SE) Sulawesi is a relatively minor area for blue swimming crab production (approximately 1200–2000 mt per annum), in which only a subset of Asosiasi Pengelolaan Rajungan Indonesia (APRI) members are active, and it may be a conducive region in which to conduct a pilot activity to form a fisheries management structure that demonstrates the benefits that can be achieved via collaboration. The control document (CD) is a traceability and documentation process to be implemented by all of the segments of the supply chain (collectors/cooking stations, miniplants, and processors) in order to promote compliance to new Ministry and Marine Affair (MMAF) regulations and generate the records and documents of the supply chain application and verification of the new regulations. The self-recorded logbook by the fishermen and miniplant, as the point in the supply chain, could help with a meaningful and long-term solution to the fishery management in Southeast Sulawesi. This is the first trial of CD in Indonesia and could be a good model for BSC fishery in other region in Indonesia.",book:{id:"5210",slug:"fisheries-and-aquaculture-in-the-modern-world",title:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World"},signatures:"Hawis Madduppa, Zairion, Siti Nuraini, Kuncoro Nugroho and\nBambang Arif Nugraha",authors:[{id:"180161",title:"Dr.",name:"Hawis",middleName:null,surname:"Madduppa",slug:"hawis-madduppa",fullName:"Hawis Madduppa"},{id:"185944",title:"Dr.",name:"Zairion",middleName:null,surname:"Zairion",slug:"zairion-zairion",fullName:"Zairion Zairion"},{id:"185945",title:"Mrs.",name:"Siti",middleName:null,surname:"Nuraini",slug:"siti-nuraini",fullName:"Siti Nuraini"},{id:"185946",title:"Mr.",name:"Bambang Arif",middleName:null,surname:"Nugraha",slug:"bambang-arif-nugraha",fullName:"Bambang Arif Nugraha"},{id:"185947",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuncoro Catur",middleName:null,surname:"Nugroho",slug:"kuncoro-catur-nugroho",fullName:"Kuncoro Catur Nugroho"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50289",title:"Effect of Special Fish Feed Prepared Using Food Industrial Waste on Labeo rohita",slug:"effect-of-special-fish-feed-prepared-using-food-industrial-waste-on-labeo-rohita",totalDownloads:2298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"All food processing industries generate wastes of varying nature in significant quantities. Managing these wastes so as to minimize the impact on the environment is the prime concern. The concept of waste has undergone much change in recent times, with the focus being on utilizing the waste materials as inputs for generation of new or reusable products. Vegetable and fruit wastes are generated in significant quantities and are easily available at minimal charge. The comparative utilization of these wastes as a dietary ingredient was assessed employing the Labeo rohita fingerlings as the test species. The study was conducted over a period of 60 days. Orange peels and potato peels are characterized, and then, formulation of orange peel feed (OPF) and potato peel feed (PPF) was carried out. Market common fish feed (CFF) was taken as a control. The three test diets were designated as CFF, OPF and PPF. Feeding was done once daily. The water quality parameters such as dissolved oxygen, water temperature pH, total alkalinity, total hardness; calcium hardness and magnesium hardness as well as growth response were monitored at fortnightly intervals. The quality of water was maintained by periodic partial replenishment over the period of study. On termination of the trial, higher growth response was recorded in the PPF treatment. The initial and final weight and length of fishes was recorded. The results shows significant growth in PPF and OPF showed brighter body scales than other two feed. Fishes were very healthy and normal throughout the study period indicating no adverse effect on their health. No infection whatsoever was noted during 60 days of experimental period.",book:{id:"5210",slug:"fisheries-and-aquaculture-in-the-modern-world",title:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World"},signatures:"Sanyogita R. Verma and Shanta Satyanarayan",authors:[{id:"183699",title:"Dr.",name:"Verma",middleName:"Rajroop",surname:"Sanyogita",slug:"verma-sanyogita",fullName:"Verma Sanyogita"},{id:"185353",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanta",middleName:null,surname:"Satyanarayan",slug:"shanta-satyanarayan",fullName:"Shanta Satyanarayan"}]},{id:"51124",title:"Fishery Status and Taxonomy of the Carangids (Pisces) in the Northern Arabian Sea Coast of Pakistan",slug:"fishery-status-and-taxonomy-of-the-carangids-pisces-in-the-northern-arabian-sea-coast-of-pakistan",totalDownloads:1977,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The objectives of this study were i) to evaluate number of existing members of the family Carangidae in the area ii) to establish a distinguishable and lucid key based on the taxonomic characteristics, meristic count and otolith description. In this study, thirty-six species were collected from the main fish landing facilities between 2012~2015. Fish body colour, taxonomic characteristics, fin rays and otolith shape description were used to identify each species. Otolith description comprises of shape of ostium, sulcus and margins of anterior and posterior surface along with distinct definite shape possess by each species make it easier for identification.",book:{id:"5210",slug:"fisheries-and-aquaculture-in-the-modern-world",title:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World"},signatures:"Nazia Qamar, Sher Khan Panhwar and Ghazala Siddiqui",authors:[{id:"182414",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Panhwar",slug:"sher-khan-panhwar",fullName:"Sher Khan Panhwar"},{id:"184264",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazia",middleName:null,surname:"Qamar",slug:"nazia-qamar",fullName:"Nazia Qamar"},{id:"184265",title:"Prof.",name:"Ghazala",middleName:null,surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"ghazala-siddiqui",fullName:"Ghazala Siddiqui"}]},{id:"50583",title:"Trawl Selectivity in the Barents Sea Demersal Fishery",slug:"trawl-selectivity-in-the-barents-sea-demersal-fishery",totalDownloads:1714,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter provides a general overview of the Barents Sea demersal trawl fishery. First, it reviews historical catch levels and current biomass status of four commercially important demersal species (cod, haddock, Greenland halibut, and redfish) and includes an overview of their management plan that has been carried out by the Joint Norwegian–Russian commission. Then, it presents the evolution of the technical regulations for improving size selectivity in this fishery and describes current challenges in gear selectivity. Later, this chapter describes the concept of size selectivity, introduces the selective parameters that define a selection curve, and progressively introduces different parametric models that describe the selection process. The most common experimental methods and gear used to collect selectivity data are described, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Finally, this chapter describes an alternative, or a complementary method, to the conventional estimation of trawl selectivity—the FISHSELECT method. This method is based on morphology measurements and fish penetration models to estimate the selective properties of different mesh shapes and sizes at different mesh openings, which are later used to provide simulation-based prediction of size selectivity. FISHSELECT has already been applied to four important species of the Barents Sea Demersal Fishery, and the results have in all cases showed to be coherent with the results obtained from sea trial results.",book:{id:"5210",slug:"fisheries-and-aquaculture-in-the-modern-world",title:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World"},signatures:"Eduardo Grimaldo, Manu Sistiaga, Bent Herrmann and Roger B.\nLarsen",authors:[{id:"107079",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Grimaldo",slug:"eduardo-grimaldo",fullName:"Eduardo Grimaldo"},{id:"185311",title:"Dr.",name:"Manu",middleName:null,surname:"Sistiaga",slug:"manu-sistiaga",fullName:"Manu Sistiaga"},{id:"185312",title:"Dr.",name:"Bent",middleName:null,surname:"Herrmann",slug:"bent-herrmann",fullName:"Bent Herrmann"},{id:"185313",title:"Prof.",name:"Roger B.",middleName:null,surname:"Larsen",slug:"roger-b.-larsen",fullName:"Roger B. Larsen"}]},{id:"50363",title:"The Brown Seaweeds Fishery in Chile",slug:"the-brown-seaweeds-fishery-in-chile",totalDownloads:1751,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Chilean fishery of brown algae includes species belonging to the genus Lessonia, Durvillaea, and Macrocystis, which can be found along the coast, ranging latitudes from 18° to 55°S. The exploitation of these seaweeds is done mainly in the Northern coast because the environmental conditions of this region decrease initial production costs. Brown algae are exploited from natural populations and exported to international markets as row material, source of alginates, widely utilized in diverse manufacturing processes and industries. International demand for Chilean kelps has produced sustained increase in harvest during the last decade, reaching more than 390,000 dry tons/year. This chapter approaches the most relevant aspects of the brown seaweed fishery in Chile which covers a wide range of the Southeast Pacific coast, considering the number of commercial species, its abundance and distribution, knowledge achieved on their ecology and biology regarding management, and conservation of these resources, and finally, provides tools for stakeholders and policy makers directed to sustainable management of natural kelp beds occurring in the cold temperate seas.",book:{id:"5210",slug:"fisheries-and-aquaculture-in-the-modern-world",title:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Modern World"},signatures:"Julio A. Vásquez",authors:[{id:"180745",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Vásquez",slug:"julio-vasquez",fullName:"Julio Vásquez"}]},{id:"50462",title:"Direction of Fisheries (SUISAN) Education from a Historical Perspective in Japan",slug:"direction-of-fisheries-suisan-education-from-a-historical-perspective-in-japan",totalDownloads:1450,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Fishing, aquaculture, and food processing is collectively referred to as “SUISAN”, and the term was translated to “fisheries” in the Meiji period. Fisheries education in Japan was at its dawn. Fisheries education was necessary for improvement of local fisheries subsistence. Fisheries education was performed, centering on nurturing of mid-career engineers for deep-sea fishing after 1950s. However, when the Heisei period in the 1990s started, “participatory = citizen involvement type fisheries education” was promoted extensively. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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