Uncommon histologic features and more related disease of pemphigus foliaceus.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10999",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Carbene",title:"Carbene",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Carbenes are important molecules in chemistry because of their photochemistry and high reactivity. They have many potential applications in medicinal and materials chemistry. This book provides a comprehensive introduction to carbenes and discusses their characteristics, structure, and synthesis procedures. It gives special emphasis to N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) and their metal complexes.",isbn:"978-1-83969-930-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-929-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-931-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95696",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"carbene",numberOfPages:182,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"605a68d742896b92a81b245cdacc150a",bookSignature:"Satyen Saha and Arunava Manna",publishedDate:"March 30th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10999.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1214,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 17th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 23rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 22nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 10th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"226917",title:"Dr.",name:"Satyen",middleName:null,surname:"Saha",slug:"satyen-saha",fullName:"Satyen Saha",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226917/images/system/226917.png",biography:"Dr. Satyen Saha received a BSc and MSc in Chemistry from Jadavpur University, India, in 1994 and 1996, respectively. He obtained a Ph.D. in Photochemistry from Hyderabad Central University, India, in 2002. He completed postdoctoral research at the University of Tokyo, Japan, and Georgetown University, Washington DC, USA. He received a postdoctoral fellowship and bridge fellowship for foreign researchers from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). Currently, he is a professor in the Department of Chemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, India. His research interests include synthesis, structure (solid and liquid phases), Ionic liquids, NIR emitting materials, and photophysical studies (steady-state and time-resolved) of fluorescent molecules in condensed phases.",institutionString:"Banaras Hindu University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Banaras Hindu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"346806",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunava",middleName:null,surname:"Manna",slug:"arunava-manna",fullName:"Arunava Manna",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/346806/images/system/346806.png",biography:"Dr. Arunava Manna is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, India. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Carnegie Mellon University (CMU), Pennsylvania, USA. After graduating from CMU in 2015, he worked for a couple of years as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Geneva, Switzerland, working on synthesizing peptide libraries for the screening of small molecules. Following this, Dr. Manna spent two years at Emory University, Georgia, USA, as a postdoc working on bio-catalysis. His research interests lie at the interface of organic chemistry and biology.",institutionString:"Banaras Hindu University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Banaras Hindu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"85",title:"Organic Chemistry",slug:"organic-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"79890",title:"Recent Development of Carbenes: Synthesis, Structure, Photophysical Properties and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101413",slug:"recent-development-of-carbenes-synthesis-structure-photophysical-properties-and-applications",totalDownloads:152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbenes are highly reactive intermediates in organic synthesis. These divalent carbon species are generally transient in nature and cannot be isolated. However, they can form stabile metal complexes. Later on, the development of N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) and other stable carbene led to the application of these carbon (II) donor ligands in the synthesis of complex natural products, transition metal catalysis, organo-catalysis and several other synthetic methodologies. Here in this short review, we will discuss the brief history of the development of carbenes, synthesis of stable carbenes (NHC in particular), and their applications in natural products synthesis transition metal chemistry/organometallics. In addition to synthesis and application, the chapter will consist of a detailed structural analysis of carbenes and exciting photophysics of this class of compounds. Special emphasis will be given to electronic structure. The role of carbene in the development of luminescent NHC transition metal complexes, the tuning of emission properties as well as their active role as photocatalysts in the reduction of CO2 will also be discussed.",signatures:"Arunava Manna, Abhineet Verma, Sumit K. Panja and Satyen Saha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79890",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79890",authors:[{id:"226917",title:"Dr.",name:"Satyen",surname:"Saha",slug:"satyen-saha",fullName:"Satyen Saha"},{id:"421338",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunava",surname:"Manna",slug:"arunava-manna",fullName:"Arunava Manna"},{id:"421339",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumit K.",surname:"Panja",slug:"sumit-k.-panja",fullName:"Sumit K. Panja"},{id:"421341",title:"MSc.",name:"Abhineet",surname:"Verma",slug:"abhineet-verma",fullName:"Abhineet Verma"}],corrections:null},{id:"79373",title:"Recent Advances in Cooperative N-Heterocyclic Carbene Catalysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101328",slug:"recent-advances-in-cooperative-n-heterocyclic-carbene-catalysis",totalDownloads:184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) open the new field of organocatalysis, leading to the dramatic progress on the cooperative NHC catalysis with transition-metal catalysts or photocatalysts.",signatures:"Hideto Miyabe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79373",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79373",authors:[{id:"148413",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideto",surname:"Miyabe",slug:"hideto-miyabe",fullName:"Hideto Miyabe"}],corrections:null},{id:"80662",title:"N-Heterocyclic Carbenes (NHCs): An Introduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102760",slug:"n-heterocyclic-carbenes-nhcs-an-introduction",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In 1991, the isolation and characterization of nitrogen heterocyclic carbene (NHCs) prompted the discovery of a new class of chemical compounds. NHCs have developed academic curiosity as one of the most potent tools in organic chemistry, exhibiting its utility in commercially relevant protocols. NHCs are cyclic compounds with a divalent carbon atom bonded to at least one nitrogen atom. The size of the carbene ring, the substituent moieties on the nitrogen atoms, and the extra atoms within the heterocycle can be changed to produce a variety of distinct NHCs with various electrical properties. They make excellent ligands in coordination chemistry because of their ability to act as donors and the consequent stable bonds with most transition metals. Free NHCs have also been used as organocatalysts in chemical reactions that require no metals. This chapter provides an outline of the N-Heterocyclic Carbenes in Contemporary Chemistry, including their general properties and highlighting the essential structural and electronic features of different NHCs along with their synthetic procedure.",signatures:"Ruchi Bharti, Monika Verma, Ajay Thakur and Renu Sharma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80662",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80662",authors:[{id:"435933",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruchi",surname:"Bharti",slug:"ruchi-bharti",fullName:"Ruchi Bharti"},{id:"451163",title:"Ms.",name:"Monika",surname:"Verma",slug:"monika-verma",fullName:"Monika Verma"},{id:"451164",title:"Mr.",name:"Ajay",surname:"Thakur",slug:"ajay-thakur",fullName:"Ajay Thakur"},{id:"451165",title:"Prof.",name:"Renu",surname:"Sharma",slug:"renu-sharma",fullName:"Renu Sharma"}],corrections:null},{id:"79135",title:"Basic Information about Carbenes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100425",slug:"basic-information-about-carbenes",totalDownloads:241,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In organic chemistry, good knowledge of the chemistry of reactive intermediates is very important in understanding organic chemistry, which has a systematic like mathematics. Having this information, it is possible to predict the reactions and the products to be formed on the reactive intermediates. Otherwise, it becomes impossible to learn organic chemistry, which has a very wide scope. This chapter of the book will be a guide that summarizes the essential information about carbene, one of the important reactive intermediates. It is planned to include the following sub-headings in this chapter: Carbene definition and properties, Nomenclature of carbenes, Structure and reactivity of carbenes, Carbene synthesis, Carbene reactions.",signatures:"Nuriye Tuna Subasi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79135",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79135",authors:[{id:"279801",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuriye Tuna",surname:"Subaşı",slug:"nuriye-tuna-subasi",fullName:"Nuriye Tuna Subaşı"}],corrections:null},{id:"79294",title:"Late Transition Metal (LTM)-NHC Catalyzed Transformations of Renewable Chemicals to Fine Chemicals, Fuels, and Intermediates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101164",slug:"late-transition-metal-ltm-nhc-catalyzed-transformations-of-renewable-chemicals-to-fine-chemicals-fue",totalDownloads:146,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This title of the book chapter deals with the late transition metal-NHC (N-heterocyclic carbene) catalyzed transformations of renewable chemicals, i.e., bio-mass resources (carbohydrates/vegetable oils/natural products) into useful chemicals via oxidation, hydrogenation, dehydration, polymerization, hydrolysis, etc. along with brief introductory notes on late transition metals, carbenes, and renewable chemicals for better understanding to the reader.",signatures:"Kurra Mohan, Bollikolla Hari Babu, Khandapu Bala Murali Krishna, Kotra Vijay and Varala Ravi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79294",authors:[{id:"212519",title:"Dr.",name:"Varala",surname:"Ravi",slug:"varala-ravi",fullName:"Varala Ravi"},{id:"221476",title:"Dr.",name:"Bollikolla",surname:"Hari Babu",slug:"bollikolla-hari-babu",fullName:"Bollikolla Hari Babu"},{id:"440595",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotra",surname:"Vijay",slug:"kotra-vijay",fullName:"Kotra Vijay"},{id:"440596",title:"Dr.",name:"Khandapu Bala",surname:"Murali Krishna",slug:"khandapu-bala-murali-krishna",fullName:"Khandapu Bala Murali Krishna"},{id:"440597",title:"Dr.",name:"Kurra",surname:"Mohan",slug:"kurra-mohan",fullName:"Kurra Mohan"}],corrections:null},{id:"80490",title:"Novel N-Heterocyclic Carbene Silver (I) Complexes: Synthesis, Structural Characterization, Antimicrobial, Antioxidant and Cytotoxicity Potential Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101950",slug:"novel-n-heterocyclic-carbene-silver-i-complexes-synthesis-structural-characterization-antimicrobial-",totalDownloads:89,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, N-heterocyclic carbene-based silver-complexes Ag(I) have been widely used as an organometallic drug candidate in medicinal and pharmaceutical chemistry researches due to their low toxicity. Due to the success of Ag(I) complexes in biological applications, interest in the synthesis and applications of such compounds is increasing rapidly. Therefore, in this study, a series of unsymmetrical N,N-disubstituted benzimidazolium salts were synthesized as N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) (2a-2j). The interaction of these benzimidazolium salts having their two nitrogen atoms substituted by bulky groups with Ag2O in DMF has been carried out to afford Ag(I) complexes and characterized by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, FT-IR and elemental analyses. The antimicrobial activity of Ag(I) complexes was tested against some standard culture collections of Gram-negative, Gram-positive bacterial strains and Fungal strains, which are the most frequently isolated among the society and hospital-acquired infectious microorganisms as potential metallopharmaceutical agents. The Ag-NHC complexes showed effective antimicrobial activity against microorganisms with MIC values between 0.0024 and 1.25 mg/ml. Moreover, these Ag-NHC complexes exhibited significant antioxidant activities. In addition, of benzimidazoles salts 2,4 and Ag(I) complexes 3,5 were screened for their antitumor activity. The highest antitumor activity was observed for 3e and 3d Complexes.",signatures:"Ichraf Slimani, Khaireddine Dridi, Ismail Özdemir, Nevin Gürbüz and Naceur Hamdi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80490",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80490",authors:[{id:"198225",title:"Prof.",name:"Naceur",surname:"Hamdi",slug:"naceur-hamdi",fullName:"Naceur Hamdi"},{id:"446879",title:"Dr.",name:"Nevin",surname:"Gürbüz",slug:"nevin-gurbuz",fullName:"Nevin Gürbüz"},{id:"446880",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail",surname:"Özdemir",slug:"ismail-ozdemir",fullName:"Ismail Özdemir"},{id:"446881",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaireddine",surname:"Dridi",slug:"khaireddine-dridi",fullName:"Khaireddine Dridi"},{id:"446882",title:"Dr.",name:"Ichraf",surname:"Slimani",slug:"ichraf-slimani",fullName:"Ichraf Slimani"}],corrections:null},{id:"80680",title:"Imidazolium-Based N-Heterocyclic Carbenes (NHCs) and Metal-Mediated Catalysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102561",slug:"imidazolium-based-n-heterocyclic-carbenes-nhcs-and-metal-mediated-catalysis",totalDownloads:92,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The journey of “carbenes” is more than a century old. It began with a curiosity to understand a then less familiar carbon moiety in its divalent state. It reached an important milestone in the form of 1,3-imidazolium-based N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs), where the quest for bottleable carbenes was achieved through simple and elegant synthetic routes. The properties of these carbenes were finely tunable through the steric and electronic factors via chemical modifications. Thus, it became one of the unique and extensively studied ligands for its properties and applications. This chapter first briefs about structural details of NHCs and different synthetic routes for the preparation of imidazolium-based NHC precursors. The later section focuses on various methods for characterizing the steric and electronic properties of these ligands and their metal intermediates, which are crucial for developing efficient catalytic processes. Finally, the chapter concludes with NHC-metal-mediated catalytic applications and its immediate challenges.",signatures:"Vittal B. Gudimetla, Bony P. Joy and Sudeep Paul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80680",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80680",authors:[{id:"420496",title:"Dr.",name:"Vittal B.",surname:"Gudimetla",slug:"vittal-b.-gudimetla",fullName:"Vittal B. Gudimetla"},{id:"421089",title:"Mr.",name:"Bony P.",surname:"Joy",slug:"bony-p.-joy",fullName:"Bony P. Joy"},{id:"421090",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudeep",surname:"Paul",slug:"sudeep-paul",fullName:"Sudeep Paul"}],corrections:null},{id:"79439",title:"N-Heterocyclic Carbene Mediated Organocatalysis Reactions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100642",slug:"n-heterocyclic-carbene-mediated-organocatalysis-reactions",totalDownloads:138,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Arduengo et al., isolated the first ‘bottleable’ carbene, the first N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) 1,3-di(adamantyl)imidazol-2-ylidene resulted to an explosion of experimental and theoretical studies of novel NHCs being synthesized and analyzed have huge practical significance. These compounds emerged as successful ligands for coordinating transition metals, the complexes with NHC show diverse applications in the field of catalysis and organic transformation, NHC as ligand to main group elements and their properties and applications. Here this chapter provides the concise overview of N-heterocycle carbene as an organocatalyst that provides different organic transformation on to a carbonyl group. The majority of the NHC catalyzed reactions are employed in the phenomenon of reversing the electrophilic character of carbonyl carbon to nucleophilic carbon (umpolung activity) on coordination suggests benzoin, Stetter and hydroacylation reactions. Also, non-umpolung activity of bis-electrophile α,β-unsaturated acylazoliums reaction with suitable bis-nucleophiles in the organic synthesis have been studied.",signatures:"Yatheesh Narayana, Sandhya N.C., H.E. Dinesh, Sridhar B. Thimmaiah, Kanchugarakoppal S. Rangappa and Kempegowda Mantelingu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79439",authors:[{id:"422761",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kempegowda",surname:"Mantelingu",slug:"kempegowda-mantelingu",fullName:"Kempegowda Mantelingu"},{id:"426406",title:"Dr.",name:"H.E.",surname:"Dinesh",slug:"h.e.-dinesh",fullName:"H.E. Dinesh"},{id:"435589",title:"Mr.",name:"Yatheesh",surname:"Narayana",slug:"yatheesh-narayana",fullName:"Yatheesh Narayana"},{id:"435590",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sandhya",surname:"N. C.",slug:"sandhya-n.-c.",fullName:"Sandhya N. C."},{id:"435591",title:"Dr.",name:"Sridhar B.",surname:"Thimmaiah",slug:"sridhar-b.-thimmaiah",fullName:"Sridhar B. Thimmaiah"},{id:"440205",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanchugarakoppal S.",surname:"Rangappa",slug:"kanchugarakoppal-s.-rangappa",fullName:"Kanchugarakoppal S. Rangappa"}],corrections:null},{id:"80297",title:"N-Heterocyclic Carbenes: A Powerful Catalyst for Polymerization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102466",slug:"n-heterocyclic-carbenes-a-powerful-catalyst-for-polymerization",totalDownloads:72,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As much of the concern is being placed on metal-free polymerization, carbenes are attracting researcher attention. Besides their impact on organic synthesis, they played an integral role in several types of polymerization. This unique class of organocatalyst revives the preparation of polymeric materials that possess functional groups at each carbon atom on the polymer chain, which was hardly reached by conventional methods. This chapter will concern with the contribution of N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) in the preparation of functional polymers from diversified monomers. Also, will discuss the advantages of N-heterocyclic carbenes in some conventional polymerization such as ring-opening and step-growth polymerizations along with the direct zwitterionic polymerization.",signatures:"Eman A. Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80297",authors:[{id:"421273",title:"Dr.",name:"Eman A.",surname:"Ali",slug:"eman-a.-ali",fullName:"Eman A. Ali"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6650",title:"Photochemistry and Photophysics",subtitle:"Fundamentals to Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da9099061fcae2fc23e81302d3002364",slug:"photochemistry-and-photophysics-fundamentals-to-applications",bookSignature:"Satyen Saha and Sankalan Mondal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6650.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"226917",title:"Dr.",name:"Satyen",surname:"Saha",slug:"satyen-saha",fullName:"Satyen Saha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8085",title:"Photophysics, Photochemical and Substitution Reactions",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d12a01a39921705f78e98baf99705b4e",slug:"photophysics-photochemical-and-substitution-reactions-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Satyen Saha, Ravi Kumar Kanaparthi and Tanja V. 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Therefore, disease control is crucial, and this cannot be achieved without a definitive diagnosis. One of the most important diagnostic tools is light microscopic findings with the additional support of immunofluorescence results. Furthermore, vesiculobullous reaction patterns can be seen in various dermatologic conditions. Histopathological assessment with clinical correlation is also important in ruling out nonautoimmune blistering disease.
\nTo render a definitive result, the histomorphologist follows an algorithm starting with the exclusion of nonautoimmune blistering diseases with morphological and clinical findings. Second, the anatomic level of the split should be localized, which could be either intraepidermal or subepidermal. Third, the predominant inflammatory cell component should be determined, which can vary due to age of the lesion. Then, additional pathologic features, such as presence or absence of acantholysis, should be considered. The combination of all clinical and histomorphological data with results of immunofluorescence assays and salt split tests is crucial for diagnosing autoimmune vesiculobullous diseases.
\nIn this chapter, practical histomorphological and direct immunofluorescence findings on autoimmune blistering skin diseases are explained using illustrative microscopic photographs.
\nAutoimmune bullous diseases are classified as follows:
Pemphigus group
Pemphigus vulgaris
Pemphigus vegetans
Pemphigus foliaceus
Pemphigus erythematosus
Endemic pemphigus
IgA pemphigus
Pemphigus herpetiformis
Paraneoplastic pemphigus
Drug-induced pemphigus
Subepidermal autoimmune bullous disease
Subepidermal blisters with eosinophils
Bullous pemphigoid
Gestational pemphigoid
Subepidermal autoimmune bullous diseases with neutrophils
Dermatitis herpetiformis
Linear IgA bullous dermatitis
Mucous membrane (cicatricial) pemphigoid
Anti-p200 pemphigoid
Bullous lupus erythematosus
Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita
Pemphigus vulgaris is a suprabasilar acantholytic vesiculobullous disease. Extension of a cleft formation throughout the adnexal epithelium is its characteristic. Basal cells lose their intercellular connections but retain dermal attachments. Hence, they attain their classical “tombstone” appearance (Figure 1). Split space usually contains detached acantholytic cells. Occasionally, a few eosinophils and neutrophils accompany acantholytic cells in the bulla cavity.
\nPemphigus vulgaris. (a) Subrabasal split with few acantholytic cells (40×). (b) Classical “tombstone” appearance at the basal layer (100×). (c) Extention of subrabasal split throughout the adnexal epithelium (200×). (d) Intraepidermal IgG positivity mainly at the deep levels of the epidermis (400×).
The early stages of pemphigus vulgaris, epidermal edema and intercellular bridges are lost at the epidermis and adnexal epithelium. One should be alerted for follicular acantholysis because it could be a clue for early diagnosis for pemphigus vulgaris. Early lesion may show eosinophilic spongiosis.
\nThe dermal level exhibits mild nonspecific changes such as mild perivascular dermatitis with mild mix inflammation usually containing eosinophils.
\nA biopsy should be taken from nonaffected perilesional area. Direct immunofluorescence shows intraepidermal intercellular IgG deposition predominantly in the lower portion (Figure 1). Less frequently, C3, IgM and IgA intercellular positivity is present. Outer root sheet of the anagen hair follicle may also be positive within intercellular area.
\nApplication of C4d immunohistochemistry on routinely processed tissue sections could be a helpful tool for pemphigus vulgaris [1].
\nPemphigus vegetans is characterized by a vegetative histologic appearance caused by hyperkeratosis, acanthosis, papillomatosis and downward proliferation of rete ridges. On occasion, proliferation can be exuberant condition known as “pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia.” Epidermal hyperplasia involves both the follicular epithelium and the epidermis. Characteristically, mild suprabasilar acantholysis and an intense collection of inflammatory infiltrate with neutrophils and eosinophils are present. The dermis contains a heavy infiltrate of lymphocytes, eosinophils and/or neutrophils.
\nDirect immunofluorescence findings are the same as those of pemphigus vulgaris, as both show intercellular deposition of IgG and/or C3.
\nBullas of Pemphigus foliaceus are very fragile due to superficial splitting, thus, it is very difficult to obtain intact bulla. Biopsy taken from an established lesion reveals an upper granular or subcorneal split (Figure 2). In the bulla cavity, it is common to see acantholytic cells, fibrin and some neutrophils. Through careful examination, a pathologist can detect a focal acantholysis inside the follicular epithelium. When the bulla cavity contains neutrophils, other subcorneal blistering disorders (such as bullous impetigo, staphylococcal scaled skin syndrome, IgA pemphigus and subcorneal pustular dermatosis) will be in differential. Immunofluorescence will be helpful in making this distinction.
\nPemphigus foliaceus. (a) Upper granular split (40×). (b) Fragile bulla is tearing off the upper epidermal layers (40×). (c) Acantholytic granular layer cells (200×). (d) Intraepidermal IgG positivity mainly at the superficial levels of the epidermis (200×).
The superficial dermis could be edematous with a mixed inflammatory cell infiltrate.
\nThere are some uncommon histologic features of pemphigus foliaceus, which are presented in Table 1.
\nUncommon histological manifestation | \nMore related disease | \n
---|---|
Neutrophilic spongiosis | \nIgA pemphigus | \n
Neutfophilic pustules | \nIgA pemphigus Pustular psoriasis Bullous impetigo Subcorneal pustular dermatosis | \n
Eosinophilic spongiosis | \nEndemic pemphigus | \n
Uncommon histologic features and more related disease of pemphigus foliaceus.
Late lesions can show parakeratosis and acanthosis. Dyskeratotic cells resembling Darier’s corps and rounds can accompany.
\nDirect immunofluorescence shows intercellular staining of IgG and C3 mostly at the higher levels of the epidermis.
\nImmunofluorescence is a helpful tool to differentiate other lichenoid-looking lesions in oral mucosa, and it is recommended to perform when a lichenoid lesion is detected [2].
\nThe H&E appearance of pemphigus erythematosus is almost the same as that of the pemphigus foliaceus (an upper granular or subcorneal split with acantholysis).
\nDirect immunofluorescence displays intercellular and dermoepidermal linear positivity of IgG and/or C3. The dermoepidermal positivity of IgG could be related to sun exposure [3].
\nHistological features are very similar to those of pemphigus foliaceus; a superficial split can be seen if non-bullous erosions are not biopsied. Early lesions typically show eosinophilic spongiosis. An established lesion can display inflammatory cells (mainly neutrophils) and a few acantholytic cells.
\nTwo major types are identified:
Subcorneal pustular dermatosis (SPD) (IgA pemphigus foliaceus).
Intraepidermal neutrophilic IgA dermatosis (IEN) (IgA pemphigus vulgaris).
In the SPD variant, vesicles are typically located at a subcorneal location. The bulla cavity is usually full of neutrophils (Figure 3). In the IEN, pustules can be found throughout all layers of the epidermis. Hair follicle involvement is also evident. Apart from the major two subtypes, patients with IgA pemphigus can show histomorphological features of
IgA pemphigus. (a) Intra/sub corneal vesicle (40×). (b) The bulla cavity is full of neutrophils (200×).
Direct immunofluorescence exhibits intraepidermal IgA positivity. SPD variant IgA deposition is at the superficial layers of epidermis, whereas in IEN variant fluorescence, it is seen throughout the epidermis.
\nInflammatory cell infiltrate (eosinophils, neutrophils or both) and acantholysis are usually prominent. Subcorneal or intraepidermal eosinophilic/spongiotic abscess formation is frequent. Pemphigus herpetiformis histomorphology usually presents as eosinophilic spongiosis.
\nDirect immunofluorescence usually demonstrates IgG and/or C3 in the intercellular spaces [5].
\nThe histomorphological findings of paraneoplastic pemphigus are highly variable.
\nCharacteristically:
Suprabasal acantholysis with cleft of vesicle formation (resembles pemphigus foliaceus)
Interphase changes dense lymphohistiocytic infiltrate with basal degeneration and dyskeratotic cells
Spongiosis and lymphocyte exocytosis
Pigment incontinence is in evidence
Eosinophils are rare.
Some studies show that keratinocyte necrosis is associated with an adverse prognosis [3].
\nDirect immunofluorescence shows intercellular and linear basement membrane staining with C3 and IgG.
\nSubcorneal split, spongiosis with eosinophils, necrotic foci of keratinocytes, focal acantholysis are mentioned as histomorphologic findings of drug-induced pemphigus [6]. Unfortunately, drug-induced pemphigus is indistinguishable from idiopathic counterparts based on histomorphological and immunofluorescence findings [4].
\nNotably, vesiculobullous reaction patterns can be seen in many other dermatologic conditions. Histomorphologic evaluation should begin with exclusion of other diseases if possible and should consider other histologic features.
\nNonautoimmune vesiculobullous diseases with subcorneal and intraepidermal split are given in Table 2.
\nIntracorneal and subcorneal blisters | \nİntraepidermal blisters | \nSuprabasilar blisters | \n
---|---|---|
Impetigo | \nSpongiotic blistering diseases | \nHailey-Hailey | \n
Staphlococcal “scalded skin” syndrome | \nPalmoplantar pustulosis | \nDarier’s disease | \n
Dermatophytosis | \nErosive pustular dermatosis of the leg | \nGrover’s disease | \n
Subcorneal Pustular Dermatosis | \nViral blistering Disease | \nAcantholytic solar keratosis | \n
Infantile Acropustulosis | \nFriction Blister | \n\n |
Erythema toxicum neonatorum | \n\n | \n |
Transient Neonatal Pustular Melanosis | \n\n | \n |
Acute Generalized Exanthematous Pustulosis | \n\n | \n |
Non-autoimmune vesiculobullous diseases with subcorneal and intraepidermal split.
A well-developed bullous pemphigoid blister is classically subepidermally located and is unilocular (Figure 4). Inflammatory cells are seen in the blister cavity, predominantly eosinophils. The dermal papillary outline is typically retained, and papillary dermal bulges are typically projected into the bulla cavity otherwise known as festooning. Bullous pemphigoid histological findings vary according to the duration of the lesion and the clinical appearance of the biopsy site.
\nBullous pemphigoid. (a) Unilocular subepidermal located split (40×). (b) Dermal papillary outline is typically retained (100×). (c) Predominantly eosinophilic dermal inflammatory infiltrate is seen (200×). (d) Homogenous linear positivity with IgG at the basal membrane zone.
If the biopsy is taken from apparently normal skin, a sparse dermal infiltrate is seen. However, when a biopsy is taken from a lesion with an erythematous base, a more prominent dermal infiltrate is seen sometimes accompanied by eosinophilic spongiosis. It is not unusual to see an eosinophilic flame in clinically erythematous-based lesions.
\nIn lesions of several days duration, the blister may appear intraepidermal.
\nProdromal lesions can show edema of the papillary dermis and a superficial perivascular dermatitis with eosinophils, neutrophils and lymphocytes is usually accompanied by an inflammatory component (Figure 5). An eosinophilic spongiosis pattern is also a well-known feature of early lesions of bullous pemphigoid. Occasionally, bullous pemphigoid lesions are accompanied by a predominance of neutrophils and aligned close to the basilar layer portion of the papillary dermis.
\nUrticarial phase of the bullous pemphigoid (100×). Edema of the papillary dermis and a superficial perivascular dermatitis with eosinophils.
When direct immunofluorescence is applied to the biopsy from the perilesional area, it shows homogenous linear positivity with IgG and/or C3 at the basal membrane zone. Prodromal lesions may be positive with C3 only. IgA and IgM are positive in 20% of the cases [7].
\nApplication of C4d immunohistochemistry on routinely processed tissue sections could be a helpful tool for bullous pemphigoid and confirms immunoreactant deposition [1, 8].
\nA biopsy taken from an early lesion often shows the prominent dermal edema looking like a “teardrop.” The edema consists of various inflammatory cells predominantly eosinophils. Tips of the dermal papilla consist of spongiosis and/or necrotic keratinocytes. The dermis underlying vesicle demonstrates a perivascular and interstitial inflammatory infiltrate mainly of eosinophils. Neutrophils, histiocytes and lymphocytes are the accompanying cell component. Neutrophils may also predominate.
\nDirect immunofluorescence will show C3 positivity, and 30–50% of cases show linear IgG positivity at the basal membrane zone [4].
\nMicroscopic differential diagnosis in the early stages can include urticarial reactions and conditions associated with eosinophilic spongiosis. Without any clinical information, classical lesions are almost impossible to differentiate from bullous pemphigoid.
\nBiopsies taken from established bulla show subepidermal blisters with a dermal papillary neutrophilic microabscess, which is a hallmark histologic feature of dermatitis herpetiformis (Figure 6). Fibrin found at the tips of the dermal papilla forms a reticular network at the bulla cavity. When the duration of the lesion reaches to 38–48 h, neutrophilic consistency of bulla cavity decreases and eosinophils increase. The roof of the bulla cavity has usually smooth outline, contrast to the “festooning” pattern of the bullous pemphigoid.
\nDermatitis Herpetiformis. (a) Subepidermal split with reticular fibrin network (100×). (b) Dermal papillary microabcess (100×). (c) Eosinophilic consistency of the lesion (200×). (d) Granular IgA deposition in the dermal papillae (200×).
At the dermis, mixed inflammatory cell infiltrate consists of abundant neutrophils. Leukocytoclasis and swelling of the endothelium are typical findings; however, vasculitis is not in evidence.
\nElementary lesions of celiac disease in an intestinal mucosal biopsy occur due to an increase in intraepidermal lymphocytes and crypt hyperplasia and a decrease in villous height. These histological changes are reversed following a gluten-free diet.
\nDirect skin immunofluorescence shows granular IgA deposition in the dermal papillae.
\nThe histological differential diagnosis of dermatitis herpetiformis includes linear IgA disease, bullous pemphigoid and bullous lupus. Immunofluorescent studies are critical in making this distinction.
\nLinear IgA light microscopic features are subepidermal blisters with neutrophils; these frequently resemble dermatitis herpetiformis. The neutrophilic infiltrate is more localized to dermal papilla in dermatitis herpetiformis, whereas in linear IgA dermatosis neutrophils are more widespread. On occasion, eosinophils are also seen in the bulla cavity. The disease is rarely presented with eosinophilic spongiosis.
\nDirect immunofluorescence reveals homogenous linear IgA deposition along the basement membrane. In 80% of the cases, IgA is the only immunoreactant. IgG, IgM and C3 may also be present.
\nThe mucous membrane pemphigoid consists of a varying number and consistency of inflammatory cells, depending on the age of the lesion. Lesions of less than 48 h duration, like dermatitis herpetiformis, present with dermal papillary microabscesses. As a lesion gets older, the neutrophil consistency of the infiltrate decreases and the eosinophil and latter lymphocyte content increases. Even in early lesions, if the biopsy corresponds to a previous bulla site, mucosal scar formation is in evidence.
\nThe dermis contains perivascular lymphohistiocytic infiltrate accompanied by neutrophils, eosinophils and plasma cells. In late lesions, the superficial dermis shows scarring, with or without subepidermal split.
\nDirect immunofluorescence shows linear deposits of IgG and often C3 along the basement membrane. Positivity rate increases in buccal mucosa.
\nIt is a very rare subepidermal blistering disease. A study of 12 cases by Meijer JM et al. in 2014 found that subepidermal blistering is present in every case. An upper dermal infiltrate of eosinophils and neutrophils was seen in nearly all cases. Direct immunofluorescence results displayed IgG and C3 positivity in all cases [9].
\nIn bullous systemic lupus erythematosus, the findings are often identical to dermatitis herpetiformis. The blister cavity consists of fibrin and many neutrophils. Lymphocytes, histiocytes and eosinophils are occasionally seen. Nuclear dusts (leukocytoclastic debris) are evident in both bulla cavity and perivascular areas. Perivascular neutrophilic debris and the evidence of vasculitis usually situated deeper than dermatitis herpetiformis. Vacuolar interphase change with dyskeratotic cells is occasional.
\nClassically, by using direct immunofluorescent test, the disease is characterized by the presence of IgG and C3 at the basement membrane. Pattern could be both linear and granular. Biopsy infrequently shows epidermal nuclear IgG staining, which is diagnostically very helpful staining. Concurrence of IgG, IgA and IgM positivity is not rare. Immunoreactants are also demonstrated at the vessel walls.
\nClassical pattern is a cell-free subepidermal blister. Disease can present with neutrophil (papillary microabscesses) or occasionally, eosinophil-rich infiltrate. Blister roof is usually intact, although some dermal fragments and fibrin may be displayed. PAS positivity is demonstrated at the bulla roof due to the basement membrane split.
\nDirect immunofluorescence shows linear deposition immunoglobulins particularly, IgG and C3 along the basement membrane.
\nNonautoimmune vesiculobullous diseases with subepidermal split should always be in differential (Table 3).
\nSubepidermal blisters with little inflammation | \nSubepidermal blisters with lymphocytes | \nSubepidermal blisters with eosinophils | \nSubepidermal blisters with neutrophils | \n
---|---|---|---|
Porphyria cutanea tarda | \nErythema multiforme | \nArthropod bite | \nBullous urticaria | \n
Burns and cryotherapy | \nParaneoplastic pemphigus | \nDrug reactions | \nBullous acute vasculitis | \n
Toxic epidermal necrolysis | \nFixed drug eruption | \nEpidermolysis bullosa | \nErysipelas | \n
Suction blisters | \nLichen sclerosus Et atrophicus | \n\n | Sweet syndrome | \n
Blisters overlying scars | \nLichen planus pemphigoides | \n\n | \n |
Bullous solar elastosis | \nPolymorphic light eruption | \n\n | \n |
Bullous amyloidosis | \nBullous lichen planus | \n\n | \n |
Bullous drug reaction | \nBullous allergic contact dermatitis | \n\n | \n |
Non-autoimmune vesiculobullous diseases with subepidermal split.
This is a modified indirect immunofluorescence technique that aims to produce artificial split between lamina lucida and lamina densa of the basal membrane. The split roof is supposed to be covered by lamina lucida and the floor by lamina densa. Artificial splitting is obtained by treating normal skin with a 10–15 ml 1 M NaCl solution for 48 h at 4°C. The direct technique then involves applying IgG to the tissue. Split testing with a saline application is commonly used in daily practice. Practical use of salt split test is summarized in Table 4.
\nDisease with supralamina densa split (roof labeling) | \nDisease with sublamina densa split (floor labeling) | \nVariable diseases | \n
---|---|---|
Bullous pemphigoid | \nEpidermolysis bullosa acquisita | \nLinear IgA | \n
Pemphigoid gestationis | \nBullous systemic lupus erythematosus | \nMucosal pemphigoid (mostly supralamina densa-roof) | \n
Practical use of salt split technique in autoimmune vesiculobullous diseases.
Practical summary of histomorphology and immunofluorescent findings of autoimmune vesiculobullous diseases is given in Table 5.
\nAutoimmune disease | \nTarget antigen | \nAnatomic localization and pattern of immunofluorescence | \nAnatomic localization of split | \nStaining of salt split test | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Pemphigus vulgaris | \nDesmoglein-3 | \nIgG and/or C3. İntraepidermal – predominantly basal | \nSuprabasal | \nN/A | \n
Bullous pemphigoid | \nBPAg1, BPAg2 | \nIgG and/or C3. Subepidermal- linear | \nSubepidermal | \nRoof | \n
Dermatitis herpetiformis | \nTissue transglutaminase | \nGranular IgA at the dermoepidermal junction | \nSubepidermal | \nN/A | \n
Linear IgA bullous dermatitis | \nLABD97, LAD-1, LAD285 | \nLinear IgA at the dermoepidermal junction | \nSubepidermal | \nRoof or floor or both | \n
Bullous lupus erythematosus | \nType VII collagen | \nLinear IgG, C3 | \nSubepidermal | \nFloor | \n
EBA | \nType VII collagen | \nLinear IgG, C3 | \nSubepidermal | \nFloor | \n
Summary of histomorphology and direct Immunofluorescent findings of autoimmune vesiculobullous diseases.
General rules for direct immunofluorescence testing are also valid for indirect immunofluorescence technique. A punch or excisional biopsy from perilesional skin or mucous membrane should be send to laboratory without fixative within a plastic tube or in isotonic NaCl solution. If the biopsy is planning to be sent elsewhere, biopsy can be placed in a Michel’s solution [10]. This solution is also a well-established medium for polymerase chain reaction analysis [11]. Laboratory method is complicated than the direct method, so it is not preferred in daily routine practice. First, the patient serum should be prepared for testing. The blood sample is needed to be centrifuged to separate the serum. A total of 4–6 micron thick slides are prepared from the biopsy, then, treated with prepared serum for 30 min. In case of titer requirement, doubling dilution is performed. Slides are washed, and then, the standardized fluorescein-labeled antibody binds to the serum antibody. It is examined under florescent microscope.
\nA new rural area is a modern civilized rural area but still retains the traditional beauty. New rural area is the result of a new strategic-oriented rural development process, meeting new economic, social, environmental, and institutional development requirements in rural area under specific conditions of each rural area [1]. The new rural area is expressed through the following basic contents:
The people’s material, cultural, and spiritual life of people in rural area is constantly improved, which gradually reduces the gap between rural and urban areas.
A rural area has spacious and civilized villages with modern and synchronous infrastructure, developed according to the planning to ensure favorable conditions for production and daily life of rural residents, combined between agriculture and industry, services and cities.
A rural area has reasonable economic structure, comprehensive development. The economic fields are developed toward efficient and sustainable production of goods. Farmers are trained, absorbed advanced technical engineering.
A stable rural area is clean, beautiful, and the ecological environment is protected. The political security and social order remain.
The criteria reflecting the sustainable development goals in Vietnam rural area cover all economic, social, and environmental aspects [2] as below:
Economical sustainable development is fast, safe, and qualitative development. One sustainable economy needs to meet the following requirements: (i) having high GDP growth and GDP per capita; (ii) GDP structure is a criterion of evaluating economic sustainable development; (iii) economic growth must be growth with high efficiency and the growth with safe environment.
Social sustainable development is assessed by criteria such as: HDI (Human Development Index), income equality coefficient, indicators on education, health, social welfare, cultural enjoyment. In addition, social sustainability is the guarantee of a harmonious social life; there is equality between social classes, gender equality; the gap between richness and poorness is not too high and tends to be small; the difference of life between regions is not large.
Sustainable development on the environment includes: (i) effectively using resources, especially nonrenewable resources; (ii) development does not exceed the load-bearing threshold of the ecosystem; (iii) protecting biodiversity and ozone layer; (iv) controlling and reducing greenhouse gas emissions; (v) protecting sensitive ecosystems; (vi) minimizing discharge, overcoming pollution (water, gas, soil, food), improving and restoring the environment of polluted areas.
The overall objective of the whole program is to build a new rural areas to improve the material and spiritual life of the people; Socioeconomic infrastructure is appropriate; economic structure and forms of production organization are reasonable, agricultural development and industry and service are linked; rural development combines with urban areas; a rural society is democratic, equal, and stable; ecological environment is protected; the political security and social order remain.
Sustainable new rural construction associated with urbanization is an integrated process in which the construction is associated with sustainable development goals and the urbanization process [3].
China government demanded that it was necessary to gradually change “the disparity between industry and agriculture, between urban and rural areas, between regions,” “unifying urban socio-economic development planning, building modern agriculture, developing rural economy, increasing income for farmers” [4].
Up to now, China has achieved many great achievements such as: agriculture fields and rural areas have developed strongly. China’s agriculture has formed many high-value agricultural products such as: food, livestock, natural rubber, and fruits. Many agricultural products are cultivated on a large area with high output and high economic efficiency. The number of large enterprises operating in the agricultural sector as well as the number of cooperatives and associations constantly increased. As a result, the rural agricultural economy has developed rapidly, the average income of farmers has increased significantly. The infrastructure of rural areas has been significantly improved. Building a cultural life in rural areas has achieved many important achievements.
Useful experiment:
Attracting businesses to invest in agriculture and rural areas
Forming linkages along the value chain and implementing commitments between farmers and enterprises.
Encouraging many large economic groups to invest in agriculture
The agricultural economy is prioritized for development by the Japanese Government. Therefore, at each stage, Japan applied a different plan and “agricultural extension policy” such as: “Socio-economic development plan,” “Building rural area as an attracting and comfortable living space,” “one village one product” in order to carry out the construction of new rural areas, create a foundation for agricultural economic development with the solidarity of people [5].
Japan developed agricultural economy from the first small-scale villages from 900 to 1000 farming households, then replicated the model to 4548 villages. Japan government has applied a financial support policy to build new rural areas in addition to local revenue and the loans from agricultural credit funds.
The Japanese government has launched the movement as “One Village One Product (OVOP).” OVOP is a movement with three main principles: (i) localization and then globalization; (ii) autonomy, independence, and creation; (iii) human resource development. The government is in charge to do the basic construction items of the rural areas, improve the environment, bring water, electricity, road construction, information (telephone) to the people. The primary education was completely free, rural and urban areas supported each other for sustainable development.
Useful experiment:
Three main principles: (i) localization and then globalization; (ii) autonomy, independence, and creation; (iii) human resource development.
Applying to craft villages, regions with specialty products and implementing the branding, traceability production, and product consumption.
Preserving and developing traditional craft villages under the motto “One village, one product,” developing crafts according to local strengths was one of the core contents to realize the goal of “transforming structure, economic development and increasing income of people”
The SU (Saemaul Undong) movement was established with three criteria: (i) diligence (hard work); (ii) self-reliance to overcome difficulties; (iii) cooperation (community synergies). As a result, many projects have been implemented and completed with the aim of developing infrastructure in rural areas. South Korea has applied high technology in agricultural production in order to increase productivity and value of agricultural products. The number of economical autonomous villages in South Korea reached 98%. Thus, the effectiveness of the SU movement made an important contribution to the sustainable development of the South Korean rural economy [6, 7].
Useful experiment:
The leader’s determination
The role of training and building capacity of managers.
Promoting the role of the people at the village.
Creating motivation instead of pressure that associated with the spirit of “industrious, self-reliant, reunited.”
The important role of farmers’ organizations was one of the factors that made up the success of agricultural development. Taiwan has four farmers’ organizations such as: the Agricultural Association, the Fruit Cooperative, the Irrigation Association, and the aquaculture Association. Basically, they were economic organizations that cooperate each other to provide nonagricultural services, including supplying materials and consuming agricultural products. The main function of these organizations was to help farmers in trading activities. All four organizations were registered to operate under the state management of the government [8].
The government focused on supporting many aspects of the Agricultural Association. First of all, 50% of the farm’s capital was provided by the government. Besides, the government implemented many direct investments in rural areas such as building infrastructure, transferring new varieties and technology through development programs. Basing on the activities of the Agricultural Association, Taiwanese farmers have mastered the entire supply chain of input materials and output products of agricultural production.
Useful experiment:
The model of farmer association, forming farmers’ organizations, not only organized production but also represented the voice of farmers in policy criticism and policy implementation.
Policy directions for rural development in ASEAN countries focused on many aspects such as: from the program of promoting the rural economy to the program of infrastructure development; from improving the life quality of rural residents to developing high-quality human resources and protecting natural resources and the environment in rural areas. Mainly, the Rural Development Program of ASEAN countries focused on three main points: (i) strengthening the legal authority for rural people; (ii) training and developing human resources in rural areas; and (iii) agricultural and rural development associated with environmental protection and sustainable development [9, 10].
In generally, the useful experiment, which was applied in building new rural area in Vietnam, could be considered as: i) encouraging many large economic groups to invest in agriculture to form the linkages between farmers and enterprises. ii) preserving and developing the traditional rural villages’ values including both cultural life and production. iii) Implementing the human resource development, in which, the role of the rural people was promoted and the capacity of managers in building new rural area should be considered. iv) Implementing the process of building new rural area step by step in accordance with the Government’s strategy.
The process of forming the National Target Program on building new rural areas in Vietnam through the periods was shown in Figure 1 [11, 12].
The formation of the National Target Program on building new rural areas in Vietnam.
In which, in 1988, the Vietnamese government implemented the renovation policy, which created significant developments for Vietnam’s agriculture in the renovation period. Orientations for building a new rural areas have been set out in terms of rural planning, infrastructure development, production organization, building a prosperous rural life, solidarity, democratization and publicization, and promoting the mastery of the working people.
In the period of 2001–2009, there were two pilot programs of building new rural areas such as: the program on building a model of rural development in the direction of industrialization, modernization, cooperation, and democratization in the period of 2001–2005 and the pilot program on building new rural areas at village levels in the period of 2006–2009. The practical experience from the pilot programs showed that in order to achieve the goals of building a new rural area, it was necessary to develop in a harmonious manner in different fields, not just to focus on building infrastructure.
In the period of 2009–2011, the Vietnamese government directed the implementation of the pilot program on building a new rural area in the period of accelerating industrialization and modernization in the period of 2009–2011. In particular, the new rural area criterion was promulgated that has created a comprehensive rural development approach and become a prominent feature of rural development in Vietnam.
The lessons learned from the pilot programs were the basis for officially implementing the National Target Program on building new rural areas for the period of 2010–2020. Thus, after more than 20 years of innovation, basing on lessons learned and practical needs as well as the suitability of the general context, the National Target Program on building new rural areas was born to implement the building new rural areas through all rural areas of the Vietnam and to contribute the foundations for sustainable rural development.
The National Target Program on building new rural areas took the commune level as the implementing unit with the goal that the whole country would have 50% of communes meeting the new rural area standard by 2020. Besides, there were other objectives such as: encouraging each province and city to have at least one district meeting the new rural area standard; basically completing essential works to meet the requirements of production development and life of rural residents as: traffic, electricity, water, daily life, schools, commune health stations; improving the life quality of rural residents, creating many production models associated with stable jobs for people, increasing income at least 1.8 times than that of 2015 [11, 12].
The basic principle of building a new rural area was to promote the role of the local population community, the government played the role of orientation and promulgation of criteria, standards, policies, support mechanisms, staff training, and implementation guidance. The community of people in villages and communes democratically discussed and implemented the specific activities. In addition, building a new rural area must be carried out on the basis of inheriting and integrating national target programs, targeted support programs, and other programs and projects being implemented in the rural area that associated with the local socioeconomic development plan. The ownership role of the people and the community was promoted and the process of planning, organizing, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating must be implemented democratically [11, 12].
It could be said that the National Target Program on building new rural areas was a comprehensive rural development program that paid attention to most of the different fields in rural areas. The scope of implementation was all communes across the country and the beneficiaries were residential communities in rural areas; The subjects of implementation were the communities in rural areas, the government, enterprises, and socioeconomic organizations.
The new rural area criteria set of the program has promulgated 11 group of contents, each group of content included specific goals and contents such as: [13].
Content 1: New rural area construction planning;
Content 2: Development of socioeconomic infrastructure;
Content 3: Developing production in association with the agricultural sector, restructuring rural economy, raising income for people;
Content 4: Poverty reduction and social security;
Content 5: Development of education in rural areas;
Content 6: Developing basic health care, improving the quality of health care for rural people;
Content 7: Improving the quality of cultural life of rural people;
Content 8: Implementing rural environmental sanitation, pollution solution, and environmental improvement in craft villages;
Content 9: Improving the quality and promoting the role of authorities and social organizations in building a new rural area;
Content 10: Maintaining national defense, security, and rural social order;
Content 11: Improving the capacity of building new rural area and carrying out the communication on building new rural area
In the period of 2011–2020, the achievement of new rural area standard increased sharply in the second phase, many important targets of new rural area construction completed in 2019. By July 2021, 195/664 districts (29.6%) belonging to 52 provinces and cities were recognized as meeting new rural area standard. The number of communes meeting the new rural area standard was 5331/8267 communes (64.8%) [11, 12]. The result of new rural area construction by 2020 is given in Table 1.
Province/ City | Total number of communes of the province | Number of districts meeting new rural area standard | Number of communes meeting new rural area standard | Percentage of communes meeting the new rural area standard (%) | Average of criteria per commune |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
+ Total | 8,902 | 173 | 5,555 | 62.4 | 16.4 |
+ Northern Midlands and Mountains | 2,280 | 18 | 828 | 36.3 | 13.5 |
+ Red river delta | 1,882 | 69 | 1,805 | 95.9 | 18.9 |
+ North Central | 1,585 | 18 | 1,019 | 64.3 | 16.8 |
+ South Central Coast | 825 | 12 | 476 | 57.7 | 16.4 |
+ Highlands | 599 | 3 | 270 | 45.1 | 15.2 |
+ South East | 445 | 22 | 354 | 79.5 | 18.0 |
+ Mekong Delta | 1,286 | 31 | 782 | 60.8 | 16.9 |
The result of new rural area construction by 2020.
In general, the construction of new rural areas has achieved great achievements over the past 10 years. That significantly changed the face of the rural areas, especially in rural infrastructure. In the construction of new rural areas, the promotion of urbanization in rural areas has not been clearly shown.
The basic socioeconomic infrastructure in the rural areas was strengthened in a synchronous direction, which significantly changed the face of the rural areas and connected with the urban areas step by step. The basic socioeconomic infrastructure gradually met the living and production needs of the rural population and gradually caught up with the needs of socioeconomic development in rural areas. That was shown below [11, 12]:
The rural transport infrastructure: by 2020, over 206,743 km of roads has been built and upgraded, which increased the rate of hardened rural roads to 68.7%; Over 97% of communes had plasticized and hardened roads; The quality of roads has been improved and quite synchronous, which has contributed to the formation of large production areas and created favorable conditions to attract investors to the rural areas including large enterprises. Up to now, there have been 6460 communes (78.2%) meeting the criteria of rural transport (increasing 41.8% compared with 2015 and exceeding 23.2% compared with the 5-year target for the period of 2016–2020);
The irrigation system has been gradually completed. The thousands of small and large irrigation projects have been built, repaired, and upgraded. More than 80% of the productive area was actively irrigated, which contributed to the transformation of crop structure and improved production value and promoted the restructuring of the agricultural sector. Up to now, the area that applied the advanced and water-saving irrigation was 288,620 hectares (for upland crops, reaching 17.5%), 1,320,118 hectares (for rice, reaching 18%). Thus, the crop productivity and irrigated areas were increased and adapted to water-scarce areas and effectively that formed the large-scale production areas with high economic value. Some regions have developed advanced water-saving irrigation system such as the Southeast (40%), the Central Highlands (27%), the Mekong River Delta (18%). There were 7934 communes (96%) reaching the irrigation criteria (increasing 34.6% compared with 2015 and exceeding 19% compared with the 5-year target for the period of 2016–2020);
The rural electricity system, up to now, 100% of communes and 99.25% of rural households have had electricity, in which, 7729 communes (93.5%) have met the electricity criteria (increasing 11.1% compared with 2015). The quality of electricity in rural areas was increasingly improved and stable and basically met people’s daily-life needs and developing production. The quality of electricity has created favorable conditions for the application of hi-tech agricultural production, including in highland districts. In particular, remote, extremely difficult, and border areas and island communes were also focused on investing in electricity supply.
The education system at all levels in rural areas has received special attention of government. There were 31,016 schools at all levels in rural areas in the whole country. Many localities have prioritized resources to invest in building new synchronous schools including: supplementing classrooms and function rooms, enhancing teaching equipment, libraries, physical or skill training areas, and toilets, improving the green-clean-beautiful landscape. In which, many localities have promoted the socialization of education and invested in school systems in the direction of modernity, meeting the new requirements of education. There were 6375 communes that met the school criteria (77.2%, and increasing 35.1% compared with 2015).
The system of rural health facilities in recent years has continued to be invested, upgraded, and improved and highly appreciated by international organizations. 100% of communes had health stations, of which, about 76% of commune health stations met the National Health Standards (an increase of 8.9% compared with 2015); about 87.5% of commune health stations had doctors working; 95.0% of villages, hamlets had medical staff working.
The system of rural commercial infrastructure has developed in both quantity and scale. The types and levels of markets were diversified. Many forms of modern retail infrastructure, different types of convenience shops and mini markets have also been formed and developed to meet the consumption needs of rural people. There were 7763 communes that met the criteria for rural commercial infrastructure (accounting for 93.9%, increasing 36% compared with the end of 2015 and 23.9% higher than the 5-year target for the period of 2016–2020).
The sustainable development of the rural economy was in the direction of increasing added values and raised people’s incomes and gradually narrowed the gap between rural and urban areas [11, 12].
In the period of 2010–2020, basing on the construction of new rural areas and the process of urbanization, the rural economy had many drastic changes, active transfer structure in the right direction. The industries, construction, trade, and services in rural areas developed rapidly and accounted for an increasing proportion; agricultural, forestry, and aquicultural production has restructured in production type and scale.
Industry and services in the rural areas have had positive changes, the value of rural industrial production has grown well. Services in rural areas developed diversely with the participation of all economic sectors. Industrial production value in rural areas tended to grow significantly and reached 12.2% in the period of 2010–2018. That contributed to job creation, restructuring of rural labor (the proportion of agricultural laborers decreased from 49.5% in 2010 to 32.8% in 2020) and raised incomes of rural households.
Restructuring the agricultural sector has achieved many important achievements in terms of both scale and production level. Agriculture has shifted strongly to international competitive commodity production. The productivity and product quality increased and firmly ensured national food security, and exports have increased rapidly. The agricultural sector has a sustainable growth, the average GDP growth rate of the industry is 2.85%/year in the period 2011–2019, the agricultural production value will reach VND 99.5 million/ha in 2020 (an increase of 82% compared with 2010). Vietnam’s agricultural, forestry, and aquicultural exports in 2020 reached over $41.25 billion, ranking in the top 15 in the world and second in ASEAN. Agriculture continued to be Vietnam’s strength. Many specific agricultural regions were formed according to functions as: peri-urban agriculture, large-scale commodity agriculture, agriculture adapting to climate change, and agriculture with application of high technology.
The forestry industry has had a remarkable development in the past period with a stable growth rate. The national forest coverage rate in 2020 reached 42%, which formed the second largest forestry product processing industry in Asia and the fifth largest in the world. Over the past 10 years, aquiculture had the highest growth with an average growth of 5.2% per year in production value. In 2020, the total output was 8.4 million tons, the production value obtained on 1 hectare of aquaculture land reached 10,462 USD (2.3 times higher than 2010). The level of processing technology and hygiene safety of aquacultural product were invested to meet the requirements of the market in the world.
Types of production organizations are renewed in a more appropriate and effective manner; household economy continues to be supported and organized in the direction of increasing production scale, gradually adapting to the market mechanism. Strongly develop agricultural product value chains, form more and more product consumption linkage chains between producers, cooperatives, and enterprises; some large corporations have joined the linkage chain in agriculture such as Dabaco, Ba Huan, Saigon Coop, Masan Group…). Local authorities are increasingly interested in agricultural development, well performing the role of “State” in linking “4 houses” to organize production and consumption of agricultural products.
By the end of June 2021, 57/63 provinces have issued the policies to encourage linkages in production and consumption of local agricultural products, in which, 44/63 provinces and cities approved projects and plans on linkage under the guidance of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. As a result, up to now, more than 27,000 value chain-linked production models have been built; 1644 safe agricultural product chains were developed with 3267 places of sale of controlled products according to the chain and 2038 places of sale of controlled products according to the value chain. By 2020, there were about 49,600 enterprises investing in agriculture (of which, more than 11,800 enterprises invested directly), accounting for about 8% of the total number of enterprises operating in the country.
The speed of cooperative development has increased sharply year by year. By the end of 2020, there were 17,642 agricultural cooperatives (beyond the target to 2020 assigned by the government). The cooperatives gradually promoted their effective support role for farmers by actively linking with enterprises under the form of that the enterprises provided inputs, production techniques, and product consumption that created stable output for agricultural products.
The income and living standards of rural people were continuously improved and enhanced and the gap between rural and urban areas was narrowed [11, 12].
Average income per person per year in rural areas increased faster than the growth rate of urban people’s income. The income increased from 676 USD/person in 2010 to about 1807 USD/person in 2020. Basically, the target by 2020 was achieved. The income gap between rural and urban areas tended to decrease from 1.99 times in 2010 to 1.61 times in 2020. People in rural areas are less and less dependent on agriculture. The structure of income from agricultural, forestry, and aquicutural activities decreased from 33.5% in 2010 to 18.5% in 2020. The rate of poor households in rural areas decreased by 1% per year on average. By the end of 2020, the rate reached 7.1%.
Along with the increase in income, the spiritual life in rural areas has also been significantly improved. The people had easier access to basic social services, especially rural people in remote and isolated areas and ethnic minority areas. The countryside was the place where they maintained and developed the vibrant culture, artist, physical training, and sports. The civilized lifestyle was implemented and the unsound customs and superstition were eliminated. The maintenance of security and order was ensured. The evils of drugs, theft, gambling, addiction were controlled and managed. Many activities of planting trees, lighting up rural roads and protecting the environment have been actively organized by the community in order to create many fresh, bright, green, clean, and beautiful rural areas.
The work of landscape construction, implementation of environmental sanitation had a remarkable change, representing the achievements of building a new rural areas [11, 12] . Many models of landscape improvement in villages and hamlets have been creatively applied according to actual conditions; Thousands of kilometers of flower routes have been formed, and many districts have had the percentage of rural roads planted with trees and flowers that reached over 50%.
By the end of 2020, 51% of rural households used standard clean water; There were 6222 communes (75.3%) meeting the criteria on Environment and Food Safety (increasing by 32.9% compared with 2015, completing 5.3% more than the 5-year target for the period of 2016–2020).
The protection of the rural environment, especially in industrial production, services and craft villages has always been concerned, and environmental pollution has been gradually overcome. Up to now, 59/63 provinces and cities have approved the solid waste management planning in the areas; 42/63 provinces and cities have plans for concentrated waste treatment in rural areas, of which, a number of localities have implemented that throughout the province; 16/63 provinces and cities have approved the investment policy of rural solid waste treatment plants.
Solid waste collection has been promoted, and most villages and communes have formed a domestic waste collection team. The proportion of daily-life solid waste collected has increased significantly year by year, from 44.1% in 2011 to 66.0% in 2020. The scale and methods of solid waste treatment have also changed significantly. Common treatment methods included landfilling, incineration, fertilizer, and fuel pellet production. Although the current method of landfilling still accounted for a relatively high rate (about 70%), the trend of incineration became more common in many localities. There were about 425 domestic solid waste incinerators, of which, there were more than 100 incinerators with a capacity of over 300 kg/h, meeting the requirements of the National Technical Regulation.
The environment in craft villages has been significantly improved. There have been 33 provinces and cities that have issued the policies on environmental protection of craft villages. Many craft village waste treatment models have been implemented. Many craft villages applied advanced technology and production processes to limit waste emissions into the environment. The percentage of craft villages with centralized wastewater collection accounted for 27.6% of the total number of craft villages with industrial wastewater. The percentage of craft villages with concentrated wastewater treatment meeting environmental standards accounted for 16.1%; the percentage of craft villages with industrial solid waste collection places accounted for 20.9% of the total number of craft villages with industrial solid waste.
A healthy and colorful cultural environment was created in the cultural and spiritual life of rural people. Cultural activities, arts, and sports in residential areas were promoted. The preservation and promotion of cultural values have made a practical contribution to the construction of cultural life of the new rural areas.
Social security was guaranteed. The combat and timely prevention of crimes and social evils were effectively implemented in accordance with the Government’s strategy. The security and defense continued to be maintained. Thus, the people felt secure and they worked, created, and dedicated themselves to the task of new rural area construction and development.
Based on the objectives, principles, and scope of the National Target Program on building new rural areas for the period of 2010–2020, Vietnam has implemented sustainable new rural construction associated with urbanization. The results showed that Vietnam rural areas have changed both in terms of the basic socioeconomic infrastructure, the income, and living standards of rural people. Vietnam rural areas have had economic restructuring. In which, the occupation was shifted from agriculture to nonagricultural occupation, and the population, labor, and employment were shifted from rural to urban areas. Thus, millions of new jobs were created. Besides, the rural infrastructure system was invested and met the needs of production, travel, education, health care, goods circulation, service development. People’s income and living standards were improved and enhanced. The security and defense continued to be maintained.
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Some systems are highly affected by a small fraction of influential nodes. Number of fast and efficient spreaders in a network is much less compared to the number of ordinary members. Information about the influential spreaders is significant in the planning for the control of propagation of critical pieces of information in a social or information network. Identifying important members who act as the fastest and efficient spreaders is the focal theme of a large number of research papers. Researchers have identified approximately 10 different methods for this purpose. Degree centrality, closeness centrality, betweenness centrality, k‐core decomposition, mixed degree decomposition, improved k‐shell decomposition, etc., are some of these methods. In this expository article, we review all previous works done in the field of identifying potential spreaders in a network.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Reji Kumar Karunakaran, Shibu Manuel and Edamana Narayanan\nSatheesh",authors:[{id:"200190",title:"Dr.",name:"Reji Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Karunakaran",slug:"reji-kumar-karunakaran",fullName:"Reji Kumar Karunakaran"},{id:"200193",title:"Mr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Shibu",slug:"manuel-shibu",fullName:"Manuel Shibu"},{id:"200194",title:"Dr.",name:"E N",middleName:null,surname:"Satheesh",slug:"e-n-satheesh",fullName:"E N Satheesh"}]},{id:"55541",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68703",title:"Modeling Rooted in‐Trees by Finite p‐Groups",slug:"modeling-rooted-in-trees-by-finite-p-groups",totalDownloads:1138,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Graph theoretic foundations for a kind of infinite rooted in-trees T(R)=(V,E) with root R, weighted vertices v ∈ V, and weighted directed edges e∈E⊂V×V are described. Vertex degrees deg(v) are always finite but the trees contain infinite paths (vi)i≥0. A concrete group theoretic model of the rooted in-trees T(R) is introduced by representing vertices by isomorphism classes of finite p-groups G, for a fixed prime p, and directed edges by epimorphisms π: G → πG of finite p-groups with characteristic kernels ker(π). The weight of a vertex G is realized by its nuclear rank n(G) and the weight of a directed edge π is realized by its step size s(π)=logp(#ker(π)). These invariants are essential for understanding the phenomenon of multifurcation. Pattern recognition methods are used for finding finite subgraphs which repeat indefinitely. Several periodicities admit the reduction of the complete infinite graph to finite patterns. The proof is based on infinite limit groups and successive group extensions. It is underpinned by several explicit algorithms. As a final application, it is shown that fork topologies, arising from repeated multifurcations, provide a convenient description of complex navigation paths through the trees, which are of the greatest importance for recent progress in determining p-class field towers of algebraic number fields.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Daniel C. Mayer",authors:[{id:"198580",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel C.",middleName:null,surname:"Mayer",slug:"daniel-c.-mayer",fullName:"Daniel C. Mayer"}]},{id:"57771",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71774",title:"Governance Modeling: Dimensionality and Conjugacy",slug:"governance-modeling-dimensionality-and-conjugacy",totalDownloads:1324,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The Q-analysis governance approach and the use of simplicial complexes—type of hypergraph—allow to introduce the formal concepts of dimension and conjugacy between the network of entities involved in governance (typically organizations) and the networks of those attributes taken into account (e.g. their competences), which offer a specific angle of analysis. The different sources of existing data (e.g. textual corpora) to feed the analysis of governance—environmental in particular—are mentioned, their reliability is briefly discussed and the required pre-processing steps are identified in the perspective of evidence-based analyses. Various indices are constructed and evaluated to characterize the context of governance as a whole, at mesoscale, or locally, i.e. at the level of each of the entities and each of the attributes considered. The analysis of ideal-type stylizing boundary cases provides useful references to the analysis of concrete systems of governance and to the interpretation of their empirically observed properties. The use of this governance modeling approach is illustrated by the analysis of a health-environment governance system in Southeast Asia, in the context of a One Health approach.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Pierre Mazzega, Claire Lajaunie and Etienne Fieux",authors:[{id:"220099",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Mazzega",slug:"pierre-mazzega",fullName:"Pierre Mazzega"},{id:"220102",title:"Dr.",name:"Claire",middleName:null,surname:"Lajaunie",slug:"claire-lajaunie",fullName:"Claire Lajaunie"},{id:"220103",title:"Prof.",name:"Etienne",middleName:null,surname:"Fieux",slug:"etienne-fieux",fullName:"Etienne Fieux"}]},{id:"57940",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72145",title:"Graph-Based Decision Making in Industry",slug:"graph-based-decision-making-in-industry",totalDownloads:1693,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Decision-making in industry can be focused on different types of problems. Classification and prediction of decision problems can be solved with the use of a decision tree, which is a graph-based method of machine learning. In the presented approach, attribute-value system and quality function deployment (QFD) were used for decision problem analysis and training dataset preparation. A decision tree was applied for generating decision rules.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",authors:[{id:"218951",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",slug:"izabela-kutschenreiter-praszkiewicz",fullName:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz"}]},{id:"72140",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91972",title:"Comparative Study of Algorithms Metaheuristics Based Applied to the Solution of the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem",slug:"comparative-study-of-algorithms-metaheuristics-based-applied-to-the-solution-of-the-capacitated-vehi",totalDownloads:653,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter presents the best-known heuristics and metaheuristics that are applied to solve the capacitated vehicle routing problem (CVRP), which is the generalization of the TSP, in which the nodes are visited by more than one route. To find out which algorithm obtains better results, there are 30 test instances used, which are grouped into 3 sets of problems according to the position of the nodes. The study begins with an economic impact analysis of the transportation sector in companies, which represents up to 20% of the final cost of the product. This case study focuses on the CVRP for its acronym capacitated vehicle routing problem, analyzing the best-known heuristics such as Clarke & Wright and sweep, and the algorithms GRASP and simulated annealing metaheuristics based.",book:{id:"8241",slug:"novel-trends-in-the-traveling-salesman-problem",title:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem",fullTitle:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem"},signatures:"Fernando Francisco Sandoya Sánchez, Carmen Andrea Letamendi Lazo and Fanny Yamel Sanabria Quiñónez",authors:[{id:"155426",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Francisco",surname:"Sandoya",slug:"fernando-sandoya",fullName:"Fernando Sandoya"},{id:"313162",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Letamendi",slug:"carmen-letamendi",fullName:"Carmen Letamendi"},{id:"319376",title:"Dr.",name:"Fanny",middleName:null,surname:"Sanabria",slug:"fanny-sanabria",fullName:"Fanny Sanabria"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71899",title:"Moments of Catalan Triangle Numbers",slug:"moments-of-catalan-triangle-numbers",totalDownloads:542,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we consider the Catalan numbers, \n\n\nC\nn\n\n=\n\n1\n\nn\n+\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2\nn\n\n\n\n\nn\n\n\n\n\n\n, and two of their generalizations, Catalan triangle numbers, \n\n\nB\n\nn\n,\nk\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nA\n\nn\n,\nk\n\n\n\n, for \n\nn\n,\nk\n∈\nN\n\n. They are combinatorial numbers and present interesting properties as recursive formulae, generating functions and combinatorial interpretations. We treat the moments of these Catalan triangle numbers, i.e., with the following sums: \n\n\n∑\n\nk\n=\n1\n\nn\n\n\nk\nm\n\n\nB\n\nn\n,\nk\n\nj\n\n,\n\n∑\n\nk\n=\n1\n\n\nn\n+\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n2\nk\n−\n1\n\n\nm\n\n\nA\n\nn\n,\nk\n\nj\n\n,\n\n for \n\nj\n,\nn\n∈\nN\n\n and \n\nm\n∈\nN\n∪\n\n0\n\n\n. We present their closed expressions for some values of \n\nm\n\n and \n\nj\n\n. Alternating sums are also considered for particular powers. Other famous integer sequences are studied in Section 3, and its connection with Catalan triangle numbers are given in Section 4. Finally we conjecture some properties of divisibility of moments and alternating sums of powers in the last section.",book:{id:"8142",slug:"number-theory-and-its-applications",title:"Number Theory and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Number Theory and Its Applications"},signatures:"Pedro J. Miana and Natalia Romero",authors:null},{id:"55642",title:"Monophonic Distance in Graphs",slug:"monophonic-distance-in-graphs",totalDownloads:1534,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"For any two vertices u and v in a connected graph G, a u − v path is a monophonic path if it contains no chords, and the monophonic distance dm(u, v) is the length of a longest u − v monophonic path in G. For any vertex v in G, the monophonic eccentricity of v is em(v) = max {dm(u, v) : u ∈ V}. The subgraph induced by the vertices of G having minimum monophonic eccentricity is the monophonic center of G, and it is proved that every graph is the monophonic center of some graph. Also it is proved that the monophonic center of every connected graph G lies in some block of G. With regard to convexity, this monophonic distance is the basis of some detour monophonic parameters such as detour monophonic number, upper detour monophonic number, forcing detour monophonic number, etc. The concept of detour monophonic sets and detour monophonic numbers by fixing a vertex of a graph would be introduced and discussed. Various interesting results based on these parameters are also discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"P. Titus and A.P. Santhakumaran",authors:[{id:"198301",title:"Dr.",name:"P.",middleName:null,surname:"Titus",slug:"p.-titus",fullName:"P. Titus"},{id:"199035",title:"Prof.",name:"A. P.",middleName:null,surname:"Santhakumaran",slug:"a.-p.-santhakumaran",fullName:"A. P. Santhakumaran"}]},{id:"71501",title:"Accelerating DNA Computing via PLP-qPCR Answer Read out to Solve Traveling Salesman Problems",slug:"accelerating-dna-computing-via-plp-qpcr-answer-read-out-to-solve-traveling-salesman-problems",totalDownloads:783,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"An asymmetric, fully-connected 8-city traveling salesman problem (TSP) was solved by DNA computing using the ordered node pair abundance (ONPA) approach through the use of pair ligation probe quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (PLP-qPCR). The validity of using ONPA to derive the optimal answer was confirmed by in silico computing using a reverse-engineering method to reconstruct the complete tours in the feasible answer set from the measured ONPA. The high specificity of the sequence-tagged hybridization, and ligation that results from the use of PLPs significantly increased the accuracy of answer determination in DNA computing. When combined with the high throughput efficiency of qPCR, the time required to identify the optimal answer to the TSP was reduced from days to 25 min.",book:{id:"8241",slug:"novel-trends-in-the-traveling-salesman-problem",title:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem",fullTitle:"Novel Trends in the Traveling Salesman Problem"},signatures:"Fusheng Xiong, Michael Kuby and Wayne D. Frasch",authors:[{id:"14757",title:"Prof.",name:"Wayne",middleName:null,surname:"Frasch",slug:"wayne-frasch",fullName:"Wayne Frasch"},{id:"317054",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Kuby",slug:"michael-kuby",fullName:"Michael Kuby"},{id:"317055",title:"Dr.",name:"Fusheng",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",slug:"fusheng-xiong",fullName:"Fusheng Xiong"}]},{id:"72027",title:"Identification of Eigen-Frequencies and Mode-Shapes of Beams with Continuous Distribution of Mass and Elasticity and for Various Conditions at Supports",slug:"identification-of-eigen-frequencies-and-mode-shapes-of-beams-with-continuous-distribution-of-mass-an",totalDownloads:904,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the present article, an equivalent three degrees of freedom (DoF) system of two different cases of inverted pendulums is presented for each separated case. The first case of inverted pendulum refers to an amphi-hinge pendulum that possesses distributed mass and stiffness along its height, while the second case of inverted pendulum refers to an inverted pendulum with distributed mass and stiffness along its height. These vertical pendulums have infinity number of degree of freedoms. Based on the free vibration of the above-mentioned pendulums according to partial differential equation, a mathematically equivalent three-degree of freedom system is given for each case, where its equivalent mass matrix is analytically formulated with reference on specific mass locations along the pendulum height. Using the three DoF model, the first three fundamental frequencies of the real pendulum can be identified with very good accuracy. Furthermore, taking account the 3 × 3 mass matrix, it is possible to estimate the possible pendulum damages using a known technique of identification mode-shapes via records of response accelerations. Moreover, the way of instrumentation with a local network by three accelerometers is given via the above-mentioned three degrees of freedom.",book:{id:"8142",slug:"number-theory-and-its-applications",title:"Number Theory and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Number Theory and Its Applications"},signatures:"Triantafyllos K. Makarios",authors:[{id:"69418",title:"Prof.",name:"Triantafyllos",middleName:"Konstantinos",surname:"Makarios",slug:"triantafyllos-makarios",fullName:"Triantafyllos Makarios"}]},{id:"57940",title:"Graph-Based Decision Making in Industry",slug:"graph-based-decision-making-in-industry",totalDownloads:1693,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Decision-making in industry can be focused on different types of problems. Classification and prediction of decision problems can be solved with the use of a decision tree, which is a graph-based method of machine learning. In the presented approach, attribute-value system and quality function deployment (QFD) were used for decision problem analysis and training dataset preparation. A decision tree was applied for generating decision rules.",book:{id:"5842",slug:"graph-theory-advanced-algorithms-and-applications",title:"Graph Theory",fullTitle:"Graph Theory - Advanced Algorithms and Applications"},signatures:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",authors:[{id:"218951",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz",slug:"izabela-kutschenreiter-praszkiewicz",fullName:"Izabela Kutschenreiter-Praszkiewicz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1399",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"