\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"},{slug:"suf-and-intechopen-announce-collaboration-20200331",title:"SUF and IntechOpen Announce Collaboration"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"171",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Integrated Waste Management - Volume I",title:"Integrated Waste Management",subtitle:"Volume I",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book reports research on policy and legal issues, anaerobic digestion of solid waste under processing aspects, industrial waste, application of GIS and LCA in waste management, and a couple of research papers relating to leachate and odour management.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-469-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6030-4",doi:"10.5772/698",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"integrated-waste-management-volume-i",numberOfPages:550,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"7a1c57e4914eb99c25e35de95cc77558",bookSignature:"Sunil Kumar",publishedDate:"August 23rd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/171.jpg",numberOfDownloads:107181,numberOfWosCitations:115,numberOfCrossrefCitations:43,numberOfDimensionsCitations:109,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:267,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 11th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 8th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 15th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 14th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 13th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"7879",title:"Mr.",name:"Sunil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"sunil-kumar",fullName:"Sunil Kumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/7879/images/1856_n.jpg",biography:"Er. 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Nanostructured materials can be easily accessible to the cellular level of a tissue or an organ in comparison to macro scale particles given their small size that makes them prone to passive entrance. On the other hand the functional performance of nanoparticles depends on their size, morphology and chemical nature of its surface which influence the triggering of phagocytosis through the cellular membranes. Moreover, large pay loads may conduce to stress conditions, and thereby increase inflammation and reduce defense action against pathogens [1, 2]. It is also known that nanoparticles made up of non-degradable or slowly degradable materials may accumulate at the cellular level hindrance the enzymatic activity of functional proteins [3]. The toxic manifestations may also arise due to their chemical composition and structure, surface charge, solubility and aggregation on the site of elimination or filtration such as at the glomerular filtration of nephrons. In this context, it is fundamental to investigate the aggregation and agglomeration of the nanostructured particles and materials, followed in the ionic environment of the biological fluids to elicit its functional activity and resulting toxicity.
\nAmong available manufactured nanomaterials, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is one of the most widely used to date [4]. Previous studies suggested that TiO2 nanoparticles production ranged from 7800 to 38,000 metric tons per year in the USA alone and will be approximately 2.5 million metric tons by 2025 [5, 6]. The fate and bioaccumulation of TiO2 based nanomaterials (nanotubes TiO2-NTs) and nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) in a paddy microcosm over a period of 17 days showed that the Ti levels were the highest in biofilms during the exposure period [7].
\nBioaccumulation factors indicated that TiO2-NPs and TiO2-NTs were largely transferred from low to superior trophic levels [8]. Considering the potential entries of TiO2 based nanomaterials in organisms, their bioaccumulation throughout the food chain should be regarded with great concern in terms of the overall health of the natural ecosystems [9].
\nAquatic floras play a vital role as primary producers of biomass which constitutes the elementary level of food in trophic chains. Environmental exposure of algae to nanoparticles at potential toxic concentrations may affect natural ecosystems by interfering at the basic energy source of the food webs. As an example, Chandler et al. demonstrated that increased alga mortality occurred upon exposure to nano-ZnO and C60 at the size of 1 ppm in comparison to 10 ppm [10].
\nAt the level of primary consumers it was revealed that bioaccumulation of nanomaterials in Daphnia magna through alga (used as food source), presented a more toxic profile for zinc oxide in comparison to carbon based nanomaterials which may be explained by its higher solubility [10]. In addition Teer and colleagues investigated the effects of nano-Ag derived from coated AgNPs and AgNO3 on phosphate availability given its potential as Ag + ligand and as determinant of phytoplankton productivity [11]. It was observed that both nanparticles accumulated at similar concentrations into the primary producer during high phosphate insult. Yet, AgNO3 accumulation was only increased for low phosphate condition [11].
\nRegarding studies at superior trophic level, it was shown that goldfish Carassius auratus exposed to 10–100 mg/L of TiO2-NPs significantly accumulated these nanoparticles on tissues and organs, namely: intestine from 42.71 to 110.68 ppb and gills from 4.10 to 9.86 ppb. In addition, overall growth inhibition induced by lipid oxidation in the liver was recorded [12]. In other work, Hanna and colleagues investigated the potential ecological damage of an essential trace element - Cu - derived from CuO engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) exposed marine mussels exposed to 3 mg of CuO ENPs for 4 weeks resulting its clearance of ionic Cu which decreased to 48% leading to a reduction in the invertebrates growth rate in comparison to the control animals, suggesting that CuO ENPs are less toxic than ionic Cu probably due to the slow dissolution rate of the former [13].
\nInvestigation on top predators including humans demonstrated that inhaled nanoscale particles are less cleared by macrophages than large sized particles [14], and are able to translocate to other organs through circulatory or lymphatic drainage which may increase cytokine production and imbalance in redox potential [15] toward oxidation, leading to inflammation or cell death [16]. Nano sized particles and materials were also demonstrated to be taken up by mitochondria and nucleus of the cell [17] causing DNA mutation [18].
\nTo surmount the health risk and potential toxic manifestations or disease associated conditions resulting from nano-devices or nano-structured materials exposure, efficient multifunctional designs are required to make the most of their interesting features while avoid adverse effects.
\nMetallic elements such as Ni, Cu, Ti and Ag are increasingly considered as nanoparticles components that are being applied to biocides and antimicrobials [19]. Once release to the natural environment their safety profile is of concern. Studies on their toxicological potential were greatly investigated in aquatic species from invertebrates to vertebrates given that these ecosystems compose the ultimate sink of their fate: zooplankton [20, 21], fish [22, 23], algae [24], marine [25] and fresh water crabs [26]. Overall, these works point to three principal factors as potentially responsible for the metallic nanoparticles toxicity, namely: (i) dissolution rate, (ii) cellular uptake and (iii) induced level of oxidative stress and subsequent cellular damage [27].
\nNonmetallic carbon-based nanomaterials such as fullerenes and carbon nanotubes, which are under exploration in cancer drug delivery, were reported to be cytotoxic [28]. Obtained data on cell proliferation of human lung cancer cells and human keratinocytes upon exposure to carbon-based nanomaterials revealed decreased cellular viability [29]. Intravenous administration of single-walled carbon nanotubes on mice showed their long term accumulation in the mammalian organs such as liver, lungs and spleen, which was observed using Raman spectroscopy and TEM technique [30]. In addition, decreased levels glutathione (GSH), and increased malondialdehyde (MDA) levels suggested that the toxicity of the carbon nanotubes is due to oxidative stress [31].
\nIncreased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were further reported after administration of silica nanoparticles (15–46 nm) at a dose of 10–100 μg/mL in human bronchoalveolar carcinoma cells [32].
\nThe toxicity of metallic nanoparticles was found to be dependent on the rate of dissolution of the metal ions from its respective nanoparticulate formulations. Bondarenko and colleagues demonstrated that Zn-ions released from ZnO NPs did not exerted significantly different toxic effects in vivo on different aquatic models, neither in vitro on mammalian cells [33]. Differences were only found on its dissolution rate, which were revealed to be non-species dependent [33]. Under aerobic conditions it was also found a positive correlation among the dissolution rate of AgNPs and their toxicological profile upon exposure of bacteria and zooplankton models [34, 35]. In addition, sub-toxic effects of CuO NPs observed in bacteria seem to be associated with dissolved Cu ions liberated from the respective nanoformulation, triggering ROS production and causing cell death [36].
\nRegarding non-metallic nanoscale particles, biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles made up of poly-(D), L-lactide-co-glycolide) i.e. PLGA and its derivatives it is known that their drug release is based on the dissolution rate of its surface coating polymeric material PLGA [37]. Nevertheless, it was demonstrated in macrophages that the surface coating of these polymeric nanoparticles may be linked to induced toxicity by increasing oxidative stress levels [38].
\nMetallic nano-sized particles as ZnO NPs, with size inferior to 10 nm, were demonstrated to be highly internalized by prokaryotes in vitro causing cellular damage to both Gram negative Escherichia coli and Gram positive Staphylococcus aureus [39, 40]. This bactericidal potential was also observed for Ag NPs in the size range of 1–10 nm which was shown to be size-dependent [41, 42]. TEM microscopy confirmed bacteria internalization and showed a uniform pattern of distribution [40]. Even at non cytotoxic concentrations cellular uptake occurred [43].
\nRegarding the mechanisms of internalization, it was proposed that non-specific diffusion and membrane damage, and porins-specific intake are the potential modes through which the NPs could transpose bacterial wall [44]. Cellular uptake depends on multiple intrinsic (e.g. specific and dependent on the types of cell, tissue or organs) and extrinsic (e.g. NPs size and coating) variables [45]. ZnO NPs functionalization was demonstrated to affect bacteria membrane permeability increasing cellular uptake levels [46]. The hydroxyl groups of polyvinylalcohol (PVA) macromolecule existent on the surface of the coated ZnO NPs was found to disrupt the cellular membrane given its alkaline nature [46]. In case of Ag NPs, it has been shown that certain sizes of these metallic nanoparticles attached to Gram-negative Escherichia coli wall, resulting in its perforation which lead to the cell death [47], given that their direct contact with bacteria facilitated their dissolution at cell-NP interface and thus, enhanced their antibacterial effects [48].
\nIn this regard, cationic-NPs have been reported as potential nanoparticles to cause pronounced disruption of plasma membrane integrity leading to mitochondrial and lysosomal damage, and production of autophagosomes, more than anionic-NPs [49]. Also, nonphagocytic cells were demonstrated to ingest cationic NPs to higher extent than anionic NPs [50]. Taking into account their surface charge nanoparticles can influence the selectivity and efficacy of drug delivery and imaging by selecting either a phagocytic or non-phagocytic pathway [51].
\nTo evaluate cellular uptake of polymeric nanoparticles composed of poly-(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and coated with PVA and vitamin E TPGS, human colon adenocarcinoma cells were exposed in vitro [52]. It was found that vitamin E TPGS-coated PLGA NPs showed 1.4 folds higher cellular uptake than that of PVA-coated PLGA nanoparticles [53]. Cryo-SEM and TEM analysis confirmed the cellular internalization, indicating that NPs surface modification with vitamin E TGPS and PLGA enhance loading of chemotherapeutic agents to be administered through oral route for cancer therapy [54].
\nOxidative damage, caused in consequence of cellular internalization of NPs, has been considered one of the main causes of NPs cytotoxicity [55]. ZnO, CuO and Ag NPs, were already reported as ROS levels disruptors in aquatic microorganisms [56].
\nAlso, the toxic effects of ROS generating potential of engineered Ag NPs were tested on different strains of recombinant Escherichia coli mutants and that of wild type strain [57]. The results showed that mutant strains of recombinant type were 15 folds more responsive to Ag NPs than the wild type [58]; although, analogous effects were observed for Ag ions [59]. In eukaryotes, induction of ROS by Ag NPs exposure was also observed in zebrafish Danio rerio [60].
\nIt is well known that ions of redox-active metals, including Cu, may yield free radicals via the Fenton-type reaction and inflict intracellular oxidative stress [61, 62]. The Cu (II) ions can be transformed to Cu (I) ions in the presence of biological reducing agents such as ascorbic acid or glutathione (GSH), and consequently generate reactive hydroxyl radicals from hydrogen peroxide [63]. Using luminescent bacterial tests in recombinant Escherichia coli strains, ROS generating potential of aqueous suspensions of CuO NPs was demonstrated [58]. It has also been shown that CuO NPs induced oxidative stress and DNA damage in these recombinant bacteria strains at low subtoxic concentrations of 0.1 mg Cu/L [58].
\nIn vivo investigation of the exposure effects of ZnO NPs on isolated rat liver mitochondria showed increased mitochondrial membrane permeability prone to energy dissipation [64], ROS levels production caused impairment of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and even apoptosis [65]. Similarly, the experiments on isolated human liver cells in-vitro showed ROS triggered mitochondrial pathway resulting apoptosis and cell death [65].
\nMoreover, it was also demonstrated a concentration dependent genotoxicity derived from exposure of several nanoparticles composed of α-alumina, β-alumina, SiO2, SbO5, and Fe2O3 through generation of excess ROS, which leaded to DNA strand breakage [66]. DNA cleavage, an indicator of irreversible completion of apoptosis, occurred in organisms exposed to 500 μg/kg of the above-mentioned precipitated nanoparticles [67]. Moreover, cleavage of inter-nucleosomal DNA ladder bands occurred upon exposure to 500 μg/kg of γ-alumina and α-alumina [66].
\nNano-scale particles and materials applications are increasing significantly and thus their potential environmental and human health risks urges consideration. Analytical methods are required to reliably detect and characterize nanoparticles and nanomaterials in the natural environments, and their properties once interacting with complexes matrices such as air, soil and water, as well as food and consumer products. Advances in engineering particles and materials testing, either qualitative or quantitative determinations, should be pursued to ensure a safety profile, including the development of standard guidelines. In addition to the toxicological studies, various uptake paths have to be investigated, including dermal, oral and intestinal routes, as well as bioaccumulation trials and potential long-term effects consideration. Research into new analytical methods is further required to address the special properties for the establishment of ecological and human health risk factors.
\nNo conflicts of interest.
If we look at history and especially last century, there were some remarkable incidence happened which leave every lasting impact on our daily life. Moreover, these incidence changes our overall behaviors, as well. Among these incidents was an era of the First and Second World War, then the cold war and 9/11. However, the invention of recent technologies such as mobile phone communication, artificial intelligence, and the internet of things profound effect on our daily life. Besides all wars and inventions, the ongoing pandemic crises of Covid-19 will have permanent and everlasting impacts on our lives, even if we can control it immediately. In terms of economy, due to pandemic crises of Covid-19, IMF predicts that the world economy would contract with 3%; however, the revised estimated figure for the contraction of the global economy is 4.9 to 5.5% in 2020. One of the critical factors, which decline rapidly due to Covid-19, is the tourism sector.
\nAccording to the estimate, the international labor organization tourism sector created approximately 330 million jobs worldwide, and it is 10.3% of the total global employment. The tourism sector creates jobs; promote local economic development and culture. In terms of career, it contributes to direct and indirect jobs for young people and women. Globally, tourism is an essential source of employment. There are some distinctive characteristics of the labor market. In general tourism industry is labor-intensive. Furthermore, approximately 54% of posts are taken by the tourism sector by the woman and young people, which makes the industry inclusive.
\nThe expected loss for 2020 in the tourism sector can be estimated by analyzing the figure of the previous year, as in 2018, approximately 1407 million international tourist arrivals were recorded, which generate total tourist receipts amount 1480 billion dollars. Similarly, the tourism sector also provides a significant amount of indirect employment, such as in construction and infrastructure development, and even a long chain of the supply chain of food and drinks is also associated with this sector. Many staff in the tourism offices, airlines, aircraft, hotels, restaurants, shopping centers, and various tourist attractions often has direct interaction with visitors. Below giveFigure 1 indicate, inbound tourist expenditure recorded in 2018 by top tourist destination in the world.
\nInbound tourism expenditure of 2018 by top tourist destinations. Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
It is not the first time where the world is experiencing a pandemic outbreak. In the past 20 years, the earth had also experienced two regional pandemic crises, SARS 2004 and Ebola 2014. Both pandemic disasters did not affect the airline and especially the tourism industry. However, due to the Tsunami 2004, the tourism sector of Far East Asian countries. The 9/11 incident did not account for the massive decline in the airline industry. Give below Figure 2 present, these incidences and overall flight operations.
\nImpact of major crises on the global tourism. Source: Gössling et al. [1].
In the European Union, it is expected that 13 billion people might lose their job due to Covid-19, and in terms of revenue, it is approximately 12 billion per year. The key drivers of the tourism industry in Europe are the local festivals, trade fairs, sports events, and concerts. Therefore due to Covid-19 in many tourist places, hotels, restaurants, bars, and theme parks already closed. Similarly, sports events like the Euro 2020 football championship already postpone until 2021. Likewise, on the other hand, at the beginning of the Covid-19 outbreak, many tourists faced difficulty with returning home due to the border controls in massive countries of Europe.
\nThe primarily purpose of this chapter is to explore the nexus between the impact of Covid-19 and tourism. Furthermore, this chapter explains the overall impact of tourism and lockdown on pollution as well.
\nTourism also has an indirect economic effect, in addition to incoming tourism expenditures. Tourism employs workers, ports, and airports as well as a wide variety of intermediate inputs, including financial services, education, food and alcohol, and domestic transport. According to IATA estimation, as compared to April 2019, 80% fewer flights were recorded in 2020 due to the Covid-19 outbreak. In terms of numeric values, the estimated monetary loss recorded in the airline industry is 84.3 billion and 2020. Furthermore, according to IATA estimation, regular international flight schedules will start working until 2023–2024, whereas domestic flights will soon be restored.
\nIn terms of survivor crises of the Covid-19 outbreak, three kinds of potential threats have been indicated by 2020, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. These scenarios are listed below in Figure 3.
\nThree kinds of potential threats. Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
According to the above table, each scenario indicates the annual tourism expenditure is reduced as productivity shock. Similarly, on the other hand, the social effect on the output of the other products and sectors also hit massively in each of the scenarios explained in the table, such as food, drink, logistics, and construction. However, in the case of a moderate scenario, for four-month, the global economy reduced by 1.2 trillion US dollars. Intermediate for eight-month it reduces 2.2 trillion US dollars. In the last, in case of a dramatic scenario, the world would experience a loss of 3.3 trillion US dollars in terms of GDP (2020, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development).
\nSimilarly, Ali and Cobanoglu [2], mention in work once, as initially due to Covid-19 world experience lockdown situation, they predicted that under the current circumstances of international travelers can be shrinking from 1.4 to 1 billion. Furthermore, they also reveal that approximately 50 million jobs could be lost. However, the current statistics are indicating the worse situation. The world has already experienced massive outbreaks, crises, and other natural disasters that directly or indirectly impact the overall tourism sector. In the past, one of the significant crises hit the tourism sector, especially, was the Tsunami of 2004, which ran almost 15 countries of the Indian Ocean, and more than 200,000 people lost their lives. It was a natural disaster, as [3] disasters are unpredictable catastrophic change; usually, it happens all of a sudden and can be responded after the event, furthermore response is possible either by contingency plans or by through reactive responses as well. Although Covid-19 is not a regional issue or any specified geographical disaster, it is pandemic crises spread worldwide, and eventually, every human living in this world is disturbed due to it. It is right to argue that the tourism sector hit and disrupted massively due to Covid-19 due to that sector, every other industry of the world experience a downward trend.
\nIn terms of Covid-19 impact of economy, Barro et al. [4] empirically investigate the economic effect of Covid-19 and reveals that due pandemic crises, on average, 2.1% death rate could cause the decline of averagely 6% of world GDP and 8% decline in private consumption. On the other hand, one more study conducted by Coibion et al. [5] using a survey on the household in the US concluded due to pandemic crises, consumption and employment decreased whereas inflation and economic uncertainty increased.
\nSimilarly, a massive number of empirical studies have been conducted that explain the positive impact of the tourism sector on the economy. Some of these studies which demonstrate a positive relationship between economic growth and tourism are [6] for Turkey, [7] for six Balkan countries, Chen and Chiou-wei [8] for Thailand and Korea [9] for India, and more recently Khan et al. (2019) empirically investigate that relationship between multiple variables for Thailand using ARDL estimation and conclude that the logistics and transportation sector positively impact inbounds tourism. Therefore it is correct to argue that, due to current pandemic crises, the overall economic industry hit massively due to the downfall of the commercial sector. The figure below indicates the global destruction of GDP in terms of the percentage and value of the top 15 tourist destinations in the world (Figure 4).
\nOverall GDP change in top 15 countries due to Covid-19. Source: World Tourism Organization.
The above table indicates that from Asia, Thailand, and Malaysia’s GDP falls with 9 and 3%. In terms of the monetary value of GDP, Indian GDP decreased by 28,120 million US dollars, China bear loss of 104,690 million US dollars, and Korea experienced the loss of 22,092 million US dollars. Jamaican and Dominican republic GDP indicate a downward trend of 11 and 5%. However, European countries’ tourism sector hit massive due to the Covid-19 outbreak. Croatian GDP fall by 8%, Portugal 6%, Greece 4%, Ireland and Spain 3%. In terms of monetary value, France bears losses of 47,289 million US dollars, Germany 46,260 million US dollars, and then Italy lost 34,104 million US dollars. All these losses are due to the lockdown of other sectors, directly or indirectly, with the tourism sector of Europe.
\nSimilarly, the net of loss experience by European countries is due to massively unemployed labor and capital. One of the main reasons for the substantial loss in Europe is the high percentage of Tourism to GDP ratio. According to the estimate, the overall tourism sector is responsible for 30% of the EU’s GDP [10]. Due to this, many people are unemployed or displaced in Europe. However, due to the lockdown situation, all these unemployed people also face difficulty searching for new work.
\nGössling et al. [1] indicate in their research work that various airlines such as Scandinavian Airlines (March 17, 2020), Singapore Airlines (March 27, 2020) and Virgin (March 30, 2020), and German TUI (March 27, 2020) have already requested for state aid due to pandemic crises. According to the Federal Aviation Administration estimate in the USA, approximately 64 million take-offs and landed recorded. However, the Covid-19 pandemic crises became a significant cause of downfall in the airline industry. The below figure indicates the trend of airlines from January to April 2020, and due to lockdown situations, a massive number of airlines top working (Figure 5).
\nFlight operations during for first four mother of 2020. Source: International Energy Agency (2020).
At the beginning of 2020, it was not expected that Covid-19 caused economic down and air restriction. In the middle of February the causalities and death rate due to Covid-19 start increasing especially in the UK, Italy and Spain, most of the European countries lockdown their border, and also put travel bans. Besides that, all the schools, universities, bar-restaurants, and other tourist spots were also closed by authorities in Europe. Given the below figure, indicate travel restriction imposed by countries due to the Covid-19 (Figure 6).
\nTravel restriction on 31 March. Source: Gössling et al. [1].
However, as the number of confirmed cases started increasing, most of the world’s countries put travel restrictions. In the case of tourism, many people also faced issues related to their visa, which was on a visit to other countries as international tourists. However, it is notable that almost every country of the world increased visa validity for an unknown period. Similarly, embassies of the different countries also played an active role during the crises. Many countries arranged chartered flights for their nationals, which were stuck in different countries of the world.
\nBesides the airline industry, exploring and travel by cruise ship is also very much popular in European, American, and Asian countries. However, due to Covid-19 cruise industry also faced a downward trend. The significant number of cruise ships also experienced heavy losses. The cruise industry stops its operation until 2020 September, and also it is expected that it will be until the first quarter of 2021. The top three cruise ship lines which experienced heavy losses are cruise lines Carnival, Norwegian Cruise Line, and Royal Caribbean Cruises. However one of the most significant reasons for imposing bans on cruise ships is indicated by Travel.State.Gov [11], they mention in their work, due to the close environment of the cruise it is a high possibility that the Covid-19 spread among the traveler very quickly and therefore it will also be hard to provide help and assistance immediately.
\nOn the other hand, some of the positive attributes have also been observed due to the Covid-19 impact of the tourism sector—one of the crucial factors found in the rapid downfall of air pollution. Due to the massive lockdown number of airlines grounded their air craft’s, which ultimately reduces the air-pollution. As the airline industry accounts for about 2.5% of global CO2 emission, and it is also predicted that until 2050 the airline industry will averagely increase 1.5 degrees Celsius worldwide [12]. After the lockdown, the clean environment has been observed worldwide, not only in highly industrialized countries, more specifically in European countries due to the lockdown situation, and the concentration of NO2 emission in the air rapidly decreased. It has alone been observed after a long time, in Italy due to lockdown and tourist restriction marine line start running in the canals of Vince. The change in terms of environmental change, which we are experiencing at the moment due to the lockdown situation in terms of clean air and clean water channels will not be long-lasting. It is expected that once in the world normal life cycle starts, we will again experience massive air and other pollutions [13].
\nDue to the deep concentration of tourism in the economy of numerous countries, many tourism business are associated with the global food market due to low cost, which generates employment for the local state. Similarly, on the other hand, there is a high volume of food waste involved in the tourism industry. Due to the Covid-19 outbreak, food waste and supply are declining, but on the other hand, it also becomes the cause of job losses for the people who work in the food industry [14].
\nIt is right to argue that, due to the lockdown situation and downward trend of tourism, the natural beauty around the world is restored. One of the critical factors which are noticed is the reduction of waste and trashes. Covid-19 provides us with a chance to restore our natural beauty. Besides tourism, another significant factor contributing to the decrease in pollutions (water and air) is less transporting activities. Thus due to lockdown, most people working from home, on the other hand, a massive number of industrial units not operational at the moment, which also decreased air pollution.
\nDue to the lockdown activities and the non-operational tourism sector, environmental quality is improved worldwide. Various gases such are CO2, NO2, and SO2 concentration decreased within the air. Furthermore, the critical factor which increases air quality around the world is also due to less operational activities of the airline industry. The figure given below presents the air quality which is observed in some of the cities in Europe (Figure 7).
\nChange in NO2 emission due to lockdown in Europe. Source: Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air.
On the other hand, in the country, China’s economy is considered one of the world’s top growing economies due to its industrialization. However, due to the Covid-19 outbreak and lockdown in china, its air quality increased as well. Similarly, as we have stated earlier, China also bears massive losses due to the downfall of the tourism sector. One of the critical factor which can be noticed that due to the lockdown situation and decline in tourism sector indicatively impact on overall energy consumption. More especially in China, energy consumption also declined due to the Covid-19 lockdown, which eventually affected its production. Less production of energy increases air quality as less coal consumption is used in the production of energy—figure, present coal consumption in Jingjinji city by five energy-generating plants (Figure 8).
\nCoal consumption by five generating plants in China. Source: Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air.
However, lockdown and the downward trend of the tourism sector provide an opportunity for the world to move toward renewable sources. It the responsibility of the government at the movement to spread awareness of green economy within their countries and further set upset those on tourist spots, which can efficiently operate with renewable energy sources, ultimately it will also reduce air pollution in the future. Similarly, after once pandemic crises will over, it is also highly recommended that, for local and international tourists, the authorities should arrange those vehicles for traveling purposes which consume renewable energy sources.
\nThis chapter aims to discuss the association between Covid-19’s outbreak and the tourism sector. The debate indicates that Covid-19 indicates an adverse effect on tourism activities. Due to the lockdown, thousands of people lost their jobs. Many airlines, restaurants, bars, and hotels are nearly to become bankrupt. On the other hand, our discussion reveals that global lockdown creates a positive impact on environmental sustainability. Also, air and water pollution have been reduced significantly, which creates a positive impact on fauna and flora.
\nFurther, we predict that in upcoming years, due to the restoration of environmental beauty, the global tourism industry will boom. However, the age of booming may not be very long. Because, once the world engine starts after Covid-19, air and water pollution will occupy the space of greeneries. It is the right time to formulate sustainable strategies and policies to maintain the beauty of the world. The following are the recommendations that will help policymakers and regulatory bodies to develop a master plan and integrate sustainable practices in the tourism industry.
The airlines, and especially tourist operators, should adopt green and eco-friendly practices in their businesses to improve environmental sustainability.
Governmental bodies should formulate strict eco-friendly policies for the tourism sector. Also, regulatory bodies encourage firms to adopt ISO certification
Regulatory bodies may encourage renewable energy and green projects by providing subsidies and tax-exemptions to corporations that adopt eco-friendly practices.
Governmental bodies embossed heavy penalties on the polluting firms, which will not only create pressure on firms to adopt sustainable practices but also motivate the eco-friendly firms.
The regulatory bodies should evaluate enterprises’ environmental performance and publicize the evaluation results, which will create competition between enterprises to be more sustainable.
This work supported by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2019 M660700), the Beijing Key Laboratory of Megaregions Sustainable Development Modeling, Capital University of Economics and Business (No. MCR2019QN09).
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