Calculated parameters of the dam material.
\r\n\tIn sum, the book presents a reflective analysis of the pedagogical hubs for a changing world, considering the most fundamental areas of the current contingencies in education.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-793-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-792-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-794-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b01f9136149277b7e4cbc1e52bce78ec",bookSignature:"Dr. María Jose Hernandez-Serrano",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10229.jpg",keywords:"Teacher Digital Competences, Flipped Learning, Online Resources Design, Neuroscientific Literacy (Myths), Emotions and Learning, Multisensory Stimulation, Citizen Skills, Violence Prevention, Moral Development, Universal Design for Learning, Sensitizing on Diversity, Supportive Strategies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 12th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 1st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 30th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Phil. Maria Jose Hernandez Serrano is a tenured lecturer in the Department of Theory and History of Education at the University of Salamanca, where she currently teaches on Teacher Education. She graduated in Social Education (2000) and Psycho-Pedagogy (2003) at the University of Salamanca. Then, she obtained her European Ph.D. in Education and Training in Virtual Environments by research with the University of Manchester, UK (2009).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"187893",title:"Dr.",name:"María Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Serrano",slug:"maria-jose-hernandez-serrano",fullName:"María Jose Hernandez-Serrano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187893/images/system/187893.jpg",biography:"DPhil Maria Jose Hernandez Serrano is a tenured Lecturer in the Department of Theory and History of Education at the University of Salamanca (Spain), where she currently teaches on Teacher Education. She graduated in Social Education (2000) and Psycho-Pedagogy (2003) at the University of Salamanca. Then, she obtained her European Ph.D. on Education and Training in Virtual Environments by research with the University of Manchester, UK (2009). She obtained a Visiting Scholar Postdoctoral Grant (of the British Academy, UK) at the Oxford Internet Institute of the University of Oxford (2011) and was granted with a postdoctoral research (in 2021) at London Birbeck University.\n \nShe is author of more than 20 research papers, and more than 35 book chapters (H Index 10). She is interested in the study of the educational process and the analysis of cognitive and affective processes in the context of neuroeducation and neurotechnologies, along with the study of social contingencies affecting the educational institutions and requiring new skills for educators.\n\nHer publications are mainly of the educational process mediated by technologies and digital competences. Currently, her new research interests are: the transdisciplinary application of the brain-based research to the educational context and virtual environments, and the neuropedagogical implications of the technologies on the development of the brain in younger students. Also, she is interested in the promotion of creative and critical uses of digital technologies, the emerging uses of social media and transmedia, and the informal learning through technologies.\n\nShe is a member of several research Networks and Scientific Committees in international journals on Educational Technologies and Educommunication, and collaborates as a reviewer in several prestigious journals (see public profile in Publons).\n\nUntil March 2010 she was in charge of the Adult University of Salamanca, by coordinating teaching activities of more than a thousand adult students. She currently is, since 2014, the Secretary of the Department of Theory and History of Education. Since 2015 she collaborates with the Council Educational Program by training teachers and families in the translation of advances from educational neuroscience.",institutionString:"University of Salamanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salamanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"49486",title:"Hearing Loss in Infectious and Contagious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/61818",slug:"hearing-loss-in-infectious-and-contagious-diseases",body:'The hearing process begins when sound waves enter the outer ear and travel along the ear canal to the eardrum, causing it to vibrate. These vibrations are transmitted to the ossicles of the middle ear, which cause the sound vibration to be amplified before transmission to the inner ear. The inner ear has a part called the cochlea, which is filled with liquid and contains hair cells.[1]
The frequencies and intensities of the sound determine which hair cells will move. This causes electrical impulses to be generated and sent through the auditory pathways to the brain so that it may process the information. These electrical impulses are the codes that the brain can process and, on understanding them, assigns them various specific meanings.[1]
Hearing losses can be classified according to the location of the portion of the hearing system affected, to whether the loss is unilateral or bilateral, and to its intensity or degree. The location of the portion affected of hearing loss has to do with transmission (or conduction), perception (sensorineural), or a mixture of these (mixed). Sensorineural losses arising from some affection of the outer and middle ear are called transmission or conductive losses. Sensorineural losses result from lesions on the hair cells of the cochlear organ of Corti (inner ear) and/or of the cochlear nerve. When there are concomitant conductive and sensorineural affections, the hearing loss is classified as mixed.[2]
Hearing loss can occur due to a genetic, congenital, or acquired cause.[3] Among the acquired causes, many could sometimes be avoided, e.g., infections that occur during pregnancy, meningitis, and even due to using ototoxic medication.[4]
Deafness is a global problem that affects individuals, families, societies, and governments. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), deafness affects between 1 and 4 people per 1,000 individuals, and there has been a considerable increase in poor countries. In 2005, for example, about 278 million people had degrees of hearing loss between moderate and profound, and 80% of them live in poor and developing countries.[5] Prevalence greater than 1 per 1000, however, indicates a serious public health problem that needs urgent attention.[6]
Infectious diseases are the leading cause of hearing loss and produce about 25% of profound losses. Of these, the causes of one-fifth are congenital.[7] The main infections include diseases such as rubella, cytomegalovirus, and measles.[7]
In the newborn, congenital infections are an important cause of hearing loss, which may have implications for the development of the child.[8]
The mechanisms that lead to the onset of viral hearing loss may include infections of the upper airways, may progress to subsequent involvement of the middle ear, and may occur with conductive hearing loss.[3]
Moreover, viral invasion of the inner ear can occur.[3] The viruses that can damage the inner ear may do so at different stages of the life cycle: during intrauterine life, childhood, adolescence, or adulthood. The pathological changes that predominate in the basal cochlea include degeneration of the organ of Corti, atrophy of the stria vascularis, displacement and distortion of the tectorial membrane, and degeneration of the saccule. The utricle and semicircular canals tend to be preserved.[9]
Epidemic parotiditis or mumps is an acute systemic and contagious viral infection. A Paramyxovirus, with an RNA genome, is involved.[10]
The most typical clinical manifestations are sialadenitis, epididymo-orchitis, pancreatitis, meningitis, and hearing loss. Sensorineural hearing loss occurs in up to 5/10,000 cases and may appear some days or weeks after the parotiditis.[11]
Deafness is usually sudden, profound, associated with or without nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and tinnitus.[9] Hearing loss, which is unilateral in 80% of cases, is more common for high frequencies of sound and may present reduced caloric responses to the vestibular test.[11]
There may be atrophy of the organ of Corti and of the stria vascularis, with minimal effect on the vestibular system. Also observed are endolymphatic hydrops and obliteration of the endolymphatic duct.[11]
Cytomegalovirus (CMV), which belongs to the herpesvirus family, is an enveloped virus that has the largest genome among the viruses that infect animal species. In immunocompetent individuals, it is generally responsible for asymptomatic infections.[12]
The highest incidence of the primary infection occurs in two peak periods: the first is in childhood, with early acquisition as a result of perinatal infection, and the second is in adolescence, through sexual transmission or by kissing.[12] It infects up to 70% of children who spend the day in kindergartens, and about 1–2% of infants are infected with CMV.[13]
In the congenital form, clinical manifestations range from the unapparent to the severe and widespread. Cytomegalic inclusion disease develops in about 5% of the infected fetuses. The most common manifestations at presentation are petechiae, hepatosplenomegaly, and jaundice. The occurrence of microcephaly with or without intracranial calcifications delayed intrauterine growth, and prematurity in 30–50% of cases is observed.[12] Deafness occurs in 20–65% of infants with this disease, which is typically bilateral.[13]
In patients with hearing loss, a consistent pattern follows, and this can develop over a period of years. Among asymptomatic patients, the rate of hearing loss of such children ranges from 7% to 13% and should therefore be considered in patients with nonsyndromic and nongenetic hearing loss.[13]
This is a disease with an acute rash caused by an RNA virus of the genus Rubivírus and the Togaviridae family, which is highly contagious and mainly affects children.[13]
The clinical state is characterized by a maculopapular and diffuse pinpoint rash, starting on the face, scalp, and neck, later spreading to the trunk and limbs.[13]
The infection acquired after birth usually causes a mild or even subclinical disease. The main symptoms of this form are retroauricular, cervical and suboccipital lymphadenopathy, rash, and fever. Complications are uncommon.[10]
Maternal infection during early pregnancy can lead to infection of the fetus, resulting in congenital rubella.[10] Congenital rubella syndrome (Gregg’s syndrome) affects most organ systems, causing cataracts, microphthalmia, heart defects, skin rash, retardation of growth, and hearing loss. In general, hearing loss affects about 50% of individuals with the disease and is normally severe to profound. Auditory manifestations may occur months to years after the initial infection.[11]
Measles is an acutely infectious viral disease that is potentially serious, transmittable, and extremely contagious. Its etiologic agent is an RNA virus of the genus Morbillivirus, family Paramyxoviridae.[13]
Among the clinical manifestations, it is characterized by high fever, above 38.5°C, a widespread maculopapular rash, cough, coryza, conjunctivitis, and Koplik spots (small white spots on the oral mucosa, prior to the rash).[13]
It may cause severe degeneration of the organ of Corti, the stria vascularis, cochlear neurons, and vestibular damage. Inflammation, fibrous deposit, and ossification in the basal turn of the cochlea may also be present. Hearing loss tends to be asymmetrical, bilateral, and severe. Vestibular abnormalities are not rare.[11]
Viral meningitis is characterized by a clinical state of neurological changes, which usually develops benignly. Approximately 85% of cases are due to the group of Enteroviruses, among which the poliovirus, echovirus, and coxsackievirus stand out. Other less common groups are arboviruses, herpes simplex virus, and varicella, mumps, and measles viruses.[14]
It occurs most frequently in children over two years old and can lead to sensorineural hearing loss.[3]
Herpes simplex has been considered one of the most common viral contamination agents in humans and is subdivided into two groups: type 1 and type 2.[15]
Infections caused by herpes simplex type 1 usually affect areas such as the lips, mouth, intraoral region, nose, eyes, while infections caused by herpes simplex type 2 are mainly found in the genital and surrounding areas. Trigger factors include fever, exposure to cold temperatures or ultraviolet rays, skin or mucous abrasions, emotional stress, and nerve injury. In the case of occurrence in newborns, the onset of infection can be at different periods: prenatal (congenital infection), perinatal (infection through the birth canal), or postnatal (infection through contact with infected individuals).[15]
The virus of the herpes group is regarded as causing sensorineural loss. In pregnancy, it can also cause spontaneous miscarriages, still births, and congenital defects.[15]
Infectious mononucleosis (IM) is caused by the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), characterized by fever, pharyngitis, lymphadenopathy, and atypical lymphocytosis. EBV is a member of the Herpesviridae family.
One of the main viral agents associated with sensorineural hearing loss in adulthood is the IM virus. Other agents that can also often affect this age-group and are related to hearing loss are adenovirus, enterovirus, influenza, and parainfluenza.[3]
Meningitis is frequently associated with a high mortality rate. A large portion may still present sequelae of the disease, among which is hearing loss. This disease is held to be among the main ones responsible for postnatal acquired hearing impairment.[16]
Among the mechanisms elucidated, as being responsible for hearing damage, is the direct invasion of the bacteria into the cochlea and labyrinth, lesion of cranial nerve VIII, by toxins, and blockage of small vessels and ototoxic action of the antibiotics used. Regarding the degree of loss, a high percentage of profound hearing loss (66.95%) has been evidenced. However, hearing loss of all degrees (mild to anacusis) was observed.[16]
In a study of 124 children recruited from 21 hospitals in England and South Wales, aged between 4 weeks and 16 years old, with a recent diagnosis of bacterial meningitis, 92 (74%) had meningococcal and 18 (15%) had pneumococcal meningitis. All cases showed obvious hearing loss in the first assessment. Three children had permanent sensorineural hearing loss. Thirteen children (10.5%) had reversible loss, nine of which were resolved within 48 hours of diagnosis.[17]
The impact on the development of the child after meningitis can be devastating. In the postmeningitis period, a possibility of rehabilitation for patients with severe and profound sensorineural loss is a cochlear implant.[18]
In cases of postmeningitis hearing loss, it is particularly important to do the implant as early as possible due to the intracochlear ossification that may occur, thus preventing the placement of electrodes in the lumen of the cochlea.[19]
During the decade of 2003–2012, the diagnosis of primary syphilis increased 61% in men in England, while in contrast, this diagnosis in women decreased by 16%.[20] In the 2004 Sentinela Parturiente (Mother in Labour Sentinel) Study of the Ministry of Health in Brazil, the prevalence of syphilis in pregnant women was 1.6%, about four times higher than HIV infection in the same group, the estimate being that a total of 48,425 pregnant women were infected in that year. Between 2005 and June 2012, 57,700 cases of syphilis in pregnant women were registered in SINAN (the Brazilian statutory body for notifiable diseases), most of which occurred in the Southeast and Northeast regions.[21]
Syphilis is an infectious disease caused by a bacterium, Treponema pallidum, which is predominantly transmitted sexually. If left untreated, the disease can progress to stages that adversely affect the skin and internal organs such as the heart, liver, and nervous system central.[18] Hearing loss can occur because of syphilis, but currently this is rare, and this being most often in the tertiary phase.[3]
Otosyphilis may be present in the form of a sudden and fluctuating sensorineural loss, episodic vertigo, with progressive unilateral or bilateral loss.[11]
Acquired syphilis may also affect the inner ear, simulating Ménière’s disease. Hearing loss can progress rapidly progressive, initially with good discrimination; tinnitus and vestibular symptoms disappear to the extent that the destruction of the labyrinth is completed.[9]
Congenital syphilis is due to the hematogenous spread of Treponema pallidum of pregnant women who have not been treated or inadequately treated for their unborn child, via the placenta. Transmission can occur at any stage of pregnancy and in any stage of the disease.[22]
Congenital syphilis can cause severe deafness and separately affect both ears. Manifestation occurs when a child is around two years old or between 8 and 20 years old.[9]
Toxoplasmosis is caused by infection with the obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Both in its acute and in its chronic form, it is related to the appearance of a clinically evident disease, including lymphadenopathy, encephalitis, myocarditis, and pneumonitis.[10]
In immunocompetent individuals, acute toxoplasmosis is habitually asymptomatic and goes unnoticed in 80–90% of adults and children with acquired infection. In the congenital form, the infection of the placenta determines the hematogenous infection of the fetus. The proportion of fetuses that are infected increases as pregnancy progresses, but the severity of the infection declines.[10]
Toxoplasma gondii has been associated with lesion of the auditory pathways with a demonstration of calcium deposits (similar to the calcifications found in the brains of children with congenital toxoplasmosis) in the spiral ligament and the cochlea. A hearing deficit has been reported in about 20% of cases of congenital toxoplasmosis.[23]
Hearing loss can interfere with the life of affected individuals because in addition to affecting communication, this can influence the quality of life, on expressing feelings such as sadness and anxiety, or can even lead to social isolation. In infancy, hearing loss can still represent consequences for development.
Thus, proper treatment and/or monitoring of infectious diseases for the purpose of establishing the prevention or early diagnosis of hearing loss is important. With regard to congenital infections, public measures that encourage primary prevention and early identification of these affections in newborns are needed. Therefore, hearing health will depend on epidemiological studies of each location and on a perfect integration between health and education authorities working in an integrated way with all other sectors of society.
With the rapid development of the economy and the large-scale development of water energy, the construction of reservoir dams has become an important engineering initiative to meet the needs of social and economic development. Over time, the sediment in the reservoir continues to accumulate, and the storage capacity for prosperity and flood control continues to decrease or even loses capacity completely. In addition, due to a lack of water level data and drainage area data in the original design or a lack of labor, equipment, funds, or other resources during construction, the construction of small storage capacity reservoirs cannot meet the current demand for water resources. Therefore, the construction of new water conservancy facilities or the heightening of the old dams has become an urgent problem to consider. Compared with the construction of a new dam, raising an original dam body does not require the consideration of the location of a new dam, and it can obtain a larger storage capacity at a lower economic cost. Therefore, the dam heightening scheme has attached increasing attentions from engineers [1].
Addressing the technical problems that rise during the process of heightening is becoming a top priority due to the large amount of work and the complexity of construction technology. There are different key problems in dam heightening engineering due to the dam type and heightening method. Earth-rock dams are a widely used type of dam. Due to the permeability of earth-rock materials, it is urgent to study the impact of seepage on the earth-rock dam during the heightening process [2]. For slope-type heightened and thickened concrete dams, the key issues related to dam heightening are the stress concentrations and deformation of the dam body during construction and operation, stress analysis and structural form of the interface between new and old concrete, and design of drainage and water stop [3]. Periodic changes in the temperature and changes in the temperature of the old dam after new concrete is placed will cause problems such as deterioration of the dam heel stress, cracks in the joint surface, and cracks in the downstream dam surface [4].
There are many engineering precedents for dam elevation, such as the Goscheneralp Dam and Grande Dixence Dam in Switzerland, Steenbras Dam in South Africa, Roseires Dam in Sudan, and Danjiangkou Dam and Songyue Dam in China [3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Due to the rapid increases in the urban population of Cape Town, raising the Steenbras Dam offered an effective solution to the problem of a serious water shortage. During the course of anchoring the dam, engineers considered that post-stressing would have advantages in terms of cost and expedition. Essentially the process is one of placing vertical cables through the wall of a mass concrete dam from the crest into the foundation and stressing the cables to produce stabilizing compressive forces on the upstream face. Similar to the Steenbras Dam, the Songyue Dam also raised the dam to meet the water supply needs of Helong City. The Songyue Dam is located in a severely cold area, with an average annual temperature of 4.8°C, and the temperature changes greatly during the year. Therefore, the heightened structure needed to adapt to the characteristics of the severely cold area. The calculation research on the Songyue Dam heightening scheme shows that setting a sliding joint in the middle of the joint surface can absorb the shrinkage and deformation of a part of the newly poured concrete, which has a significant effect on improving the tensile stress of the upstream and downstream dam surfaces.
The Zhushou Reservoir is located in Sichuan Province, China, which is located in a seismically active area. The dam of Zhushou Reservoir is a clay core rock-debris dam. To meet the production and domestic water demand of nearby cities, it is necessary to expand the capacity of the Zhushou Reservoir. Under the action of gravity loads, water loads, and earthquake loads, effectively coordinating the deformation of the rockfill of the new and old dams to allow the stress and deformation of the seepage control system to be within the allowable range of the materials is a major technical difficulty to be solved. Therefore, based on the experience of previous engineering technologies, the necessary theoretical research is carried out to accurately predict the stress and deformation of the dam, especially the coordination between the deformation of the old and new dams, to improve the rationality of engineering design and to improve future engineering operations.
The Zhushou Reservoir pivotal project is located in Liangshan Prefecture, Sichuan Province, and is a medium-sized reservoir. The dam is made of a clay core rock-debris dam. Its top elevation is 2416.10 m, the dam length is 190.00 m, the top elevation of the wave-proof wall is 2417.10 m, the dam height is 63.4 m, and the width of the dam top is 6.0 m. Both the upper and lower dams are provided with rockfilled prisms. The upstream slope is protected by dry block stone, while the downstream slope is protected by a dry block stone arch ring and turf in the circle. The thickness of the dry block stone is 40 cm. The top width of the gravel soil core wall is 6.0 m, the top elevation is 2415.3 m, and the upper and lower slopes are 1:0.4.
According to the water supply project planning of the Baihetan hydropower station resettlement area, to meet the production and domestic water demand of the resettlement area, the Zhushou Reservoir should be expanded and matched to the corresponding water diversion project. The dam should be increased from 63.4 m to 98.1 m. At the same time, when the dam is heightened, the impervious body of the original dam should be strengthened [10].
The objective of dam heightening is to make use of the water-retaining capacity of the original core wall dam to produce rockfill heightening on the top and downstream slope of the old dam so that the original dam body becomes a part of the heightened dam. At the same time, a core wall and foundation anti-seepage system of the original dam is strengthened, a concrete cutoff wall is added, and the foundation anti-seepage curtain grouting is strengthened. The anti-seepage type of the heightening dam body adopts the upstream reinforced concrete-faced slab, the slope ratio of the upstream dam is 1:1.4, and the comprehensive slope of the downstream rockfill body is 1:1.6 [11]. Figures 1 and 2 show general view of the Zhushou Reservoir dam.
Plane figure of heightening of the Zhushou Reservoir dam.
Standard profile of heightening of the Zhushou Reservoir dam.
To avoid excessive deformation and cracking of the lower core wall caused by the compression of the upper high rockfill, the cutoff wall is constructed after the upper rockfill body is filled and settled for 3 months. The concrete connecting plate between the cutoff wall and the toe slab shall be constructed after the toe slab and the face plate are completed.
The overall construction procedure is as follows: old dam filling → new dam filling to 2447.90 m → core wall reinforcement and cutoff wall construction → toe slab construction → panel construction → connecting plate construction → new dam filling to 2451 m. The water level remains at 2395.0 m during the construction period. The construction period of dam heightening is 31 months, which are as follows:
From September of the first year to February of the second year, the construction period of the old dam filling is 6 months.
From March of the second year to November of the second year, the construction period of the new dam filling to an elevation of 2447.9 m is 9 months.
From December of the second year to May of the third year, the construction period of core wall reinforcement and cutoff wall construction is 6 months.
During June of the third year, the construction period of toe slab is 1 month.
From July of the third year to August of the third year, the construction period of concrete panel and wave wall construction is 2 months.
From September of the third year to November of the third year, the construction period of connecting plate construction is 3 months.
From December of the third year to July of the fourth year, the construction period of new dam filling to 2451 m is 4 months.
Figure 3 shows a finite element mesh diagram of a typical riverbed section, Figure 4 shows a three-dimensional finite element mesh diagram, and Figure 5 shows an anti-seepage system (core wall, connecting plate, toe slab and panel) meshing diagram, where the X forward direction is defined as from the left bank to the right bank, the Y forward direction is defined as upstream to downstream, and the Z forward direction is defined as the opposite direction of gravity. The three-dimensional solid element adopts an 8-node hexahedral isoparametric element and a 4-node tetrahedral isoparametric element, and the latter is treated as a degenerated hexahedral element. There are 29,905 generating units and 33,482 nodes in total.
Finite element mesh diagram of a typical riverbed section.
Three-dimensional finite element mesh diagram.
Anti-seepage system meshing diagram.
According to the above construction and water storage process, the order of the filling and storage simulation in the finite element calculation is as follows: old dam filling → new dam filling to 2447.90 m (the water level remained at 2395.0 m) → cutoff wall construction → toe slab construction → panel construction → connecting plate construction → new dam filling to 2451 m → upstream water storage to a normal water level elevation of 2444 m. There are 70 stages for simulation, including 42 stages for dam filling and 38 stages for water storage. Figure 6 shows the simulation diagram of the Zhushou Reservoir construction and water storage process. Figure 7 shows the water level-time curve of the Zhushou Reservoir during the construction and water storage process.
The Zhushou reservoir construction and water storage process simulation diagram.
The Zhushou reservoir water level-time curve during the construction and water storage process.
As the main body of the concrete-faced rockfill dam, reasonable simulation of its stress–strain relationship is very important to improve the rationality of the calculation results of the stress and deformation of the concrete-faced rockfill dam. In this project, the constitutive model of rockfill material is based on the Shen Zhujiang double-yield surface elastic-plastic model proposed by Shen Zhujiang. Compared with the nonlinear elastic model, the model can consider the dilatancy and shear-shrinkage characteristics of rockfill bodies and can more accurately reflect the stress-strain characteristics of dam bodies than other models.
In the Shen Zhujiang double-yield surface elastic-plastic model, the two-yield surfaces are only regarded as the boundary of elastic region and are no longer related to hardening parameters. The double-yield surface is used to establish the unloading criterion, make the elastic-plastic matrix symmetrical, and specify the direction of plastic strain. As shown in Figure 8, due to the double-yield surface, not only the loading direction B will produce plastic strain, but also the loading directions A and C will produce plastic strain.
Double hardening model.
The two-yield surfaces of the Shen Zhujiang double-yield surface elastic-plastic model are
where
where
The model adopts the normal flow rule, so the plastic potential surface is orthogonal to the direction of the plastic strain increase and
Tangent Young’s modulus is defined as
where
In the formula, the elastic Poisson’s ratio
where
However, the expression of
where
The Shen Zhujiang elastic-plastic model has eight model parameters, which are
The Shen Zhujiang elastic-plastic model can also be calculated by the parameters of the model Duncan
The tangent Poisson’s ratio
For unloading, the modulus of resilience is calculated as follows:
where
The loading and unloading criteria of the Shen Zhujiang elastic-plastic model are as follows:
If
If
If
For coarse-grained materials,
where
The linear elastic model is used for concrete materials, and the stress–strain relationship conforms to the following generalized Hooke’s law:
where
At present, the Goodman thickness-free elements and Desai thin-layer elements are commonly used. Because the interface is a kind of interface without a thickness, it is more suitable to use the Goodman element without a thickness to theoretically simulate the interface. However, in fact, a Goodman element without a thickness must obtain a large normal stiffness to avoid overlap. In addition, shear dislocation does not necessarily occur on the interface and may penetrate into the soil at a certain distance. Desai thin-layer elements reflect normal deformation to a certain extent, but the choice of the thickness of thin-layer elements has a great influence on the calculation results. A large element thickness will introduce errors in the physics, and a small element thickness will introduce errors in the mathematics. Desai suggests that the ratio of the thickness
For the constitutive model of the contact surface, the hyperbolic model and ideal elastic-plastic model of the relationship between the shear stress and relative displacement proposed by Clough and Duncan are most commonly used. The results show that the shear stress on the interface between the soil and structure is not uniform, the shear deformation is actually a rigid-plastic deformation, and the contact friction model can be well simulated.
Before the shear stress
The deformation on the contact surface can be divided into two parts: basic deformation and failure deformation. The basic deformation is similar to the deformation calculation model of other soils, expressed as
There are two forms of failure and deformation of the elements: tension cracking and slip. The rigid-plastic model is used to calculate the relative shear deformation of the element. There is no relative slip on the contact surface before failure, and after failure, the relative slip will continue to develop.
For the three-dimensional thin-layer contact surface element, the Y direction is the normal direction of the contact surface:
If the contact surface is under tension,
The value of
The flexibility matrix
The dam uses C25 concrete and C30 concrete. The unit weight, elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of C25 and C30 concrete are 2.5 t/m3, 2.8 × 104 N/mm2, and 0.167 and 2.5 t/m3, 3.0 × 104 N/mm2, and 0.167, respectively.
The lithology of the newly filled rockfill material in the Zhushou Reservoir is the Ordovician Hongshiya Formation (O1h) quartz sandstone, fine sandstone with silty mudstone, and Qiaojia Formation (O2q) gray thin-to-medium thick sandstone, dolomite, and limestone. According to design filling standards and field testing data, the triaxial CD test had been carried out on rockfill materials of the heightening dam and the filling materials of the old dam body. The calculated parameters determined by the test are shown in Table 1.
Material name | ρd (g/cm3) | c (kPa) | φо (°) | Δφ (°) | k | n | Rf | D | F | G | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Old dam | Gravel clay core wall | 1.84 | 56.9 | 29.3 | 0 | 164.4 | 0.46 | 0.69 | 3.68 | 0.1 | 0.3 |
Stone slag in the upper part of the dam hell (elevation above 2390 m) | 2.04 | 0 | 41.8 | 9.1 | 318.8 | 0.46 | 0.79 | 2.78 | 0.04 | 0.35 | |
Stone slag in the lower part of the dam shell (elevation above 2390 m) | 2.12 | 0 | 44.9 | 9.1 | 431.3 | 0.38 | 0.72 | 3.3 | 0.09 | 0.37 | |
Rockfill | 2.14 | 0 | 47.7 | 10.1 | 811 | 0.31 | 0.54 | 10.4 | 0.12 | 0.4 | |
New dam | Cushion zone | 2.2 | 0 | 58.8 | 10.9 | 1245.6 | 0.35 | 0.60 | 10.4 | 0.12 | 0.4 |
Transition region | 2.17 | 0 | 59.5 | 13.3 | 1405.4 | 0.29 | 0.65 | 10.1 | 0.15 | 0.39 | |
Main rockfill area | 2.16 | 0 | 59.4 | 13.6 | 1301.5 | 0.27 | 0.60 | 9.3 | 0.15 | 0.39 | |
Secondary rockfill area | 2.14 | 0 | 56.1 | 11.9 | 954.1 | 0.37 | 0.63 | 9.5 | 0.13 | 0.36 |
Calculated parameters of the dam material.
Considering the stress and deformation of the new dam after filling and storage period and influence of the stress and deformation of the new dam on the old dam, Table 2 lists the characteristic values of the stress and deformation of the dam body.
Statistical items | Dam body | ||
---|---|---|---|
Completion period | Storage period | ||
Displacement along the river (cm) | Downstream | −18.2 | −10.2 |
Upstream | 6.9 | 9.25 | |
Settlement (cm) | 47.5 | 48.8 | |
Major principal stress (MPa) | 2.13 | 2.14 | |
Minor principal stress (MPa) | 1.21 | 1.23 |
Characteristic values of stress and deformation of the dam body.
Figures 9 and 10 show the contour of the displacements of the dam body during the completion period and the storage period. The simulation results show that the maximum horizontal displacement occurs in the dam body of the old dam and the maximum settlement occurs at the interface between the old and new dams. During the completion period, the maximum settlement of the dam is 47.5 cm, and the horizontal displacement to the upstream and downstream is 18.2 cm and 6.90 cm, respectively. After the water storage, the maximum deformation of the dam body under upstream water load was reduced to 10.2 cm, while the horizontal displacement towards the downstream was increased to 9.25 cm, and the maximum settlement was increased to 48.8 cm.
Contour of the displacements of the dam body during the completion period (cm). (a) Displacement along the river and (b) settlement.
Contour of the displacements of the dam body during the storage period (cm). (a) Displacement along the river and (b) settlement.
The results of principal stress calculation show that due to the large modulus of cutoff wall and pile foundation, significant stress concentration has occurred in the dam.
Table 3 lists the characteristic values of the stress and deformation of the cutoff wall.
Statistical items | Cutoff wall | ||
---|---|---|---|
Completion period | Storage period | ||
Dam axial displacement (cm) | Left side bank | / | −0.11 |
Right side bank | / | 0.12 | |
Displacement along the river (cm) | Downstream | / | 10.6 |
Settlement (cm) | / | 0.48 | |
Dam axial stress (MPa) | Tensile stress | −0.21 | −2.53 |
Compressive stress | 1.18 | 3.21 | |
Major principal compressive stress (MPa) | 2.25 | 12.0 | |
Minor principal tensile stress (MPa) | −0.23 | −1.74 |
Characteristic values of stress and deformation of the cutoff wall.
Since the cutoff wall is constructed after the new dam is filled to 2447.9 m, the deformation of the cutoff wall will not occur during the completion period, so only the deformation distribution during the storage period is given. Figure 11 shows contour of the displacement of the cutoff wall during the storage period. The axial displacement of the dam is represented by the compression from both sides towards the riverbed, and the deformation in the direction of the right bank and the left bank is 0.12 cm and 0.11 cm, respectively. The axial displacement of the dam is generally small. For the displacement along the river, the water load shows a deformation towards the downstream, and the maximum value is 10.6 cm. Because the upper part of the impervious wall is filled with rockfill and supported by the connecting plate, the deformation along the river of the impervious wall increases first and then decreases slightly from the bottom to the top. For the vertical displacement, the maximum value is 0.48 cm, which increases gradually from the bottom to top under the action of the upper water load.
Contour of the displacements of the cutoff wall during the storage period (cm). (a) Dam axial direction, (b) displacement along the river and (c) settlement.
Figure 12 shows the contour of the dam axial stresses on the downstream and upstream sides of the cutoff wall during the completion period. Figure 13 shows the contour of the dam axial stresses on the downstream and upstream sides of the cutoff wall during the storage period. Because the cutoff wall will be built after the new dam is basically completed, the stress difference between the upstream and downstream faces of the completion period is small, the stress of the cutoff wall is mainly caused by the self-weight, and the tensile and compressive stresses are small. During the storage period, the axial stress of the dam corresponds to the deformation direction. After storage, the upstream face is in tension at both ends of the middle compression zone, while the downstream face is basically in compression, but the pressure stress at both sides is significantly greater than that at the riverbed. The maximum value of the tensile and compressive stress is −2.53 MPa and 3.21 MPa, respectively. For the major principal stress, the downstream stress is greater than the upstream stress because the deformation is oriented downstream during the storage period. At the same time, due to the relatively small height of the wall near the bank slope and the influence of the boundary constraints, the local stress near the bank slope is concentrated, so the stress at the bank slope on both banks is large, and the maximum pressure stress is 12.0 MPa. For the minor principal stress, the upstream and downstream faces are all in compression at the middle part and tension at both sides. The maximum tensile stress is −1.74 MPa.
Contour of the dam axial stresses on the downstream and upstream sides of the cutoff wall during the completion period (MPa). (a) Downstream side and (b) upstream side.
Considering the ultimate compressive strain of 700 με and ultimate tensile strain of 100 με, the allowable compressive strength and tensile strength of C25 concrete are 19.6 MPa and −2.8 MPa, respectively. From the above calculation results, the tensile and compressive stresses of the cutoff wall are all within the allowable range for C25 plain concrete (Figure 13).
Contour of the dam axial stresses on the downstream and upstream surface of the cutoff wall during the storage period (MPa). (a) Downstream side and (b) upstream side.
Table 4 lists the characteristic values of the stress and deformation of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period.
Statistical items | Storage period | ||
---|---|---|---|
Connecting plate and toe slab | Dam axial displacement (cm) | Left side bank | −0.71 |
Right side bank | 0.89 | ||
Displacement along the river (cm) | Upstream | / | |
Downstream | 5.36 | ||
Settlement (cm) | 5.63 | ||
Connecting plate | Dam axial stress (MPa) | Tensile stress | −1.81 |
Compressive stress | 0.56 | ||
Major principal stress (MPa) | Compressive stress | 0.86 | |
Minor principal stress (MPa) | Tensile stress | −1.82 | |
Compressive stress | 0.32 | ||
Toe slab | Dam axial stress (MPa) | Tensile stress | −4.78 |
Compressive stress | 1.53 | ||
Major principal stress (MPa) | Compressive stress | 6.33 | |
Minor principal stress (MPa) | Tensile stress | −4.80 | |
Compressive stress | 0.90 |
The characteristic values of the stress and deformation of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period.
Figure 14 shows the contour of the deformation of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period. For the axial displacement of the dam, the water displacement is represented by the compression from both sides of the riverbed. The axial displacement of the dam is generally small. The maximum displacements of the left and right banks after water storage are 0.71 cm and 0.89 cm, respectively, which occur in the 0 + 209 and 0 + 65 sections. The displacement of the river is characterized by a downward-directed deformation under the water load during the storage period, with a maximum value of 5.36 cm, which occurs in the 0 + 125 section of the riverbed. For the vertical displacement, the maximum value is 5.63 cm during the storage period, which also occurs at the 0 + 125 section of the riverbed. It can also be seen from Figure 14 that due to the deformation joint between the connecting plate and the toe slab, the connection between the toe slab and the connecting plate is staggered, but the magnitude is small, and the setting of the toe slab length is appropriate.
Contour of the deformation of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period (cm). (a) Dam axial displacement, (b) displacement along the river and (c) settlement.
Figure 15 shows the contour of the dam axial stresses of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period. Under the action of water loading, the deformation of the connecting plate is constrained by the toe slab, and the deformation of the toe slab is constrained by the face slab, so the stress of the toe slab is greater than that of the connecting plate. The dam axial stress, corresponding to the deformation direction, is mainly manifested as tension at both ends and compression in the middle, and the downstream compressive stress is greater than the upstream compressive stress. After the storage period, the maximum tensile compressive stress is −4.78 MPa and 1.53 MPa, respectively, which occurs at the right end of the toe slab and in the 0 + 95 section of the riverbed.
Contour of the dam axial stresses of the connecting plate and toe slab during the storage period (MPa).
Considering the ultimate compressive strain of 700 με and ultimate tensile strain of 100 με for C30 concrete, the allowable compressive strength and tensile strength are 27.3 MPa and −3.9 MPa, respectively. It can be seen from the above calculation results that the compressive stress and tensile stress of the connecting plate and toe slab are within the allowable range for C30 plain concrete, but the maximum tensile stress of the toe plate exceeds the allowable value of C30 plain concrete, and the exceeding area is mainly located in the local area at the junction of the toe slab and the bank slope, which could be resolved by adding reinforcement.
The Zhushou Reservoir was transformed from a clay core rock-debris dam to a concrete-faced rockfill dam, with the maximum dam height increasing from 63.4 m to 98.1 m. The three-dimensional finite element method was used to simulate the operation process of construction filling and the storage period, and the conclusions are discussed as follows:
The simulation results show that the maximum horizontal displacement occurs in the dam body of the old dam, and the maximum settlement occurs at the interface between the old and new dams. Due to the large modulus of cutoff wall and pile foundation, significant stress concentration has occurred in the dam.
During the storage period, the maximum axial tensile and compressive stresses of the cutoff wall are −2.53 MPa and 3.21 MPa, respectively, and the maximum major and minor principal stresses are 12.0 MPa and −1.74 MPa, respectively. The tensile and compressive stresses are all within the allowable range for C25 plain concrete, and the cutoff wall will not be damaged under static conditions.
During the storage period, the maximum axial tensile and compressive stresses of the toe slab (connecting plate) dam are −4.78 MPa and 1.53 MPa, respectively, and the maximum major and minor principal stresses are 6.33 MPa and −4.80 MPa, respectively. The compressive stress of toe slab and connecting plate and the tensile stress of connecting plate are all within the allowable range for C30 plain concrete, but the tensile stress of the local area at the junction of toe slab and bank slope has exceeded the allowable value for C30 plain concrete, so the reinforcement should be strengthened at this location.
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