Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1615",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Quantum Theory",title:"Advances in Quantum Theory",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The quantum theory is the first theoretical approach that helps one to successfully understand the atomic and sub-atomic worlds which are too far from the cognition based on the common intuition or the experience of the daily-life. 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\r\n\tTo preserve the environment and consequently to save human health, great efforts and several studies were made to use sustainable techniques for the production of eco-friendly concrete. Industrial or municipal wastes were incorporated in concrete to conserve natural resources, reduce the cost of building materials, and eliminate the risk of the harmful impact of this waste.
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\r\n\tSeveral materials, including the virgin and recycled types, have been utilized extensively as additive material with cement for achieving more favorable utilities and concrete of high compressive strength.
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1. Introduction
Laparoscopic surgery aims to minimize trauma of the interventional process but still achieve a satisfactory therapeutic result. It is commonly performed because of various advantages such as reduced postoperative pain, faster recovery and more rapid return to normal activities, shorter hospital stay, and reduced postoperative pulmonary complications. The operative technique requires inflating gas into the abdominal cavity to provide a surgical procedure. An intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) of 10-15 mmHg is used. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is commonly used because it does not support combustion, is cleared more rapidly than other gases, and is highly soluble in blood. However, the disadvantage of CO2 is that the absorption of CO2 can cause hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis [1].
Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) procedure offers several advantages such as a reduction in stress response, postoperative pain, postoperative wound infection rate, intraoperative bleeding, impairment of respiratory function and pulmonary complications, short recovery time, and cosmetic appearance [1,2]. LC reduces hospital stay but has no overall effect on postoperative mortality [3]. The risk factors for perioperative complications in patients undergoing LC can be estimated based on patient characteristics, clinical findings and the surgeon’s experience [4]. The advantages should to be balanced with potential adverse effects caused by CO2 pneumoperitoneum.
The physiological effects of intra-abdominal CO2 insufflation combined with the variations in patient positioning can have a major impact on cardiorespiratory function. In addition, the sequential effects of anesthesia combine to produce a characteristic hemodynamic response. A thorough understanding of these physiological changes is fundamental for optimal anesthetic care. Several anesthetic techniques can be performed for LC. General anesthesia using balanced anesthetic technique including intravenous drugs, inhalation agents and muscle relaxants is usually used. Short acting drugs such as propofol, atracurirm, vecuronium, sevoflurane or desflurane represent the maintenance drugs of choice. Preprocedure assessment and preparation, appropriate monitoring and a high index of suspicion can result in early diagnosis and treatment of complications.
2. Pathophysiological effects during laparoscopic cholecystectomy
2.1. Physiological effects of pneumoperitoneum
Carbon dioxide was shown to be affected by raising the intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) above the venous pressure which prevents CO2 resorption leading to hypercapnia. Hypercapnia activates the sympathetic nervous system leading to an increase in blood pressure, heart rate, arrhythmias and myocardial contractility as well as it also sensitizes myocardium to catecholamines [5]. Increased IAP may compress venous vessels causing an initial increase in preload, followed by a sustained decrease in preload.
2.2. Respiratory effects
The changes in pulmonary function during LC include reduction in lung volumes, decrease in pulmonary compliance, and increase in peak airway pressure [6]. Increased IAP shifts the diaphragm cephalad and reduces diaphragmatic excursion, resulting in early closure of smaller airways leading to intraoperative atelectasis with a decrease in functional residual capacity. Additionally, the upward displacement of diaphragm leads to preferential ventilation of nondependent parts of lung, which results in ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) mismatch with a higher degree of intrapulmonary shunting. Oxygenation is minimally affected with no significant change in alveolar arterial oxygen gradient [7]. Higher IAP reduces the thoracic compliance and may cause pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum due to the increased in alveolar pressures [6].
2.3. Cardiovascular effects
Hemodynamic changes include the alterations in arterial blood pressure, arrhythmias and cardiac arrest. These cardiovascular changes depend on the interaction of several factors including patient positioning, neurohumoral response and the patient factors such as cardiorespiratory status and intravascular volume. The principal responses are an increase in systemic vascular resistance, mean arterial blood pressure and myocardial filling pressures, with little change in heart rate [2]. CO2 pneumoperitoneum is associated with increased preload and afterload in patients undergoing LC. It also decreased heart performance (fractional shortening), but does not affect cardiac output [8]. The patients with normal cardiovascular function are able to well tolerate these hemodynamic changes. At IAP levels greater than 15 mmHg, venous return decreases leading to decreased cardiac output and hypotension [9]. However, these changes are short lived and have no statistical significance at 10 minutes from the time that the patient undergoes pneumoperitoneum [10].
Bradyarrhythmias are attributed to vagal stimulation caused by insertion of the needle or the trocar, peritoneal stretch, stimulation of the fallopian tube during bipolar electrocauterization, or carbon dioxide embolization [11]. These may induce cardiovascular collapse during laparoscopy even in the healthy patients. Increased concentrations of CO2 and catecholamines can create tachyarrhythmias. Paroxysmal tachycardia and hypertension, followed by ventricular fibrillation, have been reported [12].
2.4. Effects of other systems
Increases in IAP, cardiovascular responses to peritoneal insufflations, changes in patient position and alterations in CO2 concentration can alter intracranial pressure (ICP) and cerebral perfusion. ICP shows a significant further increase. Cerebral blood flow has been shown to increase significantly during CO2 insufflation.
Pneumoperitoneum reduces renal cortical and medullary blood flow with an associated reduction in glomerular filtration rate (GFR), urinary output and creatinine clearance [2]. The reduction of renal blood flow may be due to a direct pressure effect on renal cortical blood flow and renal vascular compression as well as an increase in antidiuretic hormone (ADH), aldosterone and renin. Pretreatment with an ADH antagonist improves urine output and urea excretion despite an unaltered GFR.
Increased in IAP reduces femoral venous blood flow. This is due to increased pressure on the inferior vena cava and iliac veins, which reduces venous blood flow in the lower extremetries. It also has been shown to reduce the portal blood flow, which may lead to transient elevation of liver enzymes.
The C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 levels are less elevated after laparoscopy compared to the open surgery, suggesting an attenuation of the surgical inflammatory response [13].
Patient positions can further compromise cardiac and respiratory functions, can increase the risk of regurgitation and can result in peripheral nerve injuries. Head-up position reduces venous return, cardiac output, cardiac index and mean arterial blood pressure as well as an increase in peripheral and pulmonary vascular resistance [5,14]. Head-down position increases volume and cardiac output back towards normal. Respiratory function is impaired because of the cephalad shifting of diaphragm is exaggerated. Intracranial pressure is increased.
3. Anesthetic management
3.1. Preoperative assessment
The general health status of each patient must be evaluated. History and physical examinations are generally sufficient techniques. The patients with cardiorespiratory diseases require additional investigation. To aid in assessment risk, the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) has developed a classification system for patients, which categorizes individuals on a general health basis. In this preoperative assessment, there are no differences in a routine practice between the laparoscopy and the open surgery.
3.2. Patient monitoring
Appropriate patient selection with proper monitoring to detect and reduce complications must be used to ensure optimal anesthesia care during LC. Standard intraoperative monitoring including noninvasive blood pressure, electrocardiogram, pulse oximeter, airway pressure, end tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2), body temperature and peripheral nerve stimulation is routinely used. Invasive hemodynamic monitoring may be appropriate in the patients with hemodynamic unstable or those with compromised cardiopulmonary function [1].
ETCO2 is most commonly used as a noninvasive indicator of PaCO2 in evaluating the adequacy of ventilation. Careful consideration should be taken for the gradient between PaCO2 and the tension of CO2 in expired gas (PECO2) because of V/Q mismatch. However, in the patients with compromised cardiopulmonary function, the gradient between PaCO2 and PECO2 increases to become unpredictable. Direct arterial blood gas analysis may be considered to detect hypercarbia. Generally, the airway pressure monitor is routinely used during intermittent positive pressure ventilation. The high airway pressure can help detection of excessive elevation in IAP.
3.3. Anesthetic techniques
Various anesthetic techniques can be performed for LC. However, general anesthesia with endotracheal intubation for controlled ventilation is the most common anesthetic technique. In short procedures and in certain patients, ventilation using supraglottic airway device can be used as an alternative. General anesthesia without endotracheal intubation can be used safely and effectively with a ProSeal laryngeal mask airway in non-obese patients [15]. The use of laryngeal mask airway results in less sore throat and provide smoother emergence with less post-extubation coughing compared with endotracheal intubation [16].
3.3.1. General anesthesia
General anesthesia using balanced anesthesia technique including inhalation agents, intravenous drugs and muscle relaxant drugs is usually used. The uses of rapid and short acting volatile anesthetics such as sevoflurane and desflurane as well as rapid and short acting intravenous drugs such as propofol, etomidate, remifentanil, fentanyl, atracurium, vecuronium and rocuronium are commonly used and have allowed anesthesiologists to more consistently achieve a recovery profile. Propofol is effective and safe even in children and elderly patients [17-21].
Ventilation should be adjusted to keep ETCO2 of around 35 mmHg by adjusting the minute ventilation [1]. In patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in patients with a history of spontaneous pneumothorax or bullous emphysema, an increase in respiratory rate rather than tidal volume is preferable to avoid increased alveolar inflation and reduce the risk of pneumothorax [22].
Furthermore, the use of an auditory evoked potential or Bispectral index monitor to titrate the volatile anesthetics leads to a significant reduction in the anesthetic requirement, resulting in a shorter postanesthesia care stay and an improved quality of recovery from the patient’s perspective [23].
Combination of local anesthetic wound infiltration, intraperitoneum spray of local anesthetic, paracetamol and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors provides the most effective pain relief, which can be supplemented with small doses of opioids.
3.3.2. Regional anesthesia
Several advantages of regional anesthesia technique are quicker recovery, decreased postoperative nausea and vomiting, fewer hemodynamic changes, less postoperative pain, shorter hospital stay, early diagnosis of complications, improved patient satisfaction and cost effectiveness [24]. This anesthetic technique requires a cooperative patient, low IAP to reduce pain and ventilation disturbances, gentle surgical technique and a supportive operating room staff. However, regional anesthesia technique is not commonly used for LC. This technique should be performed in combination with other anesthetic techniques. Local anesthetic infiltration at the trocar site combined with general anesthesia significantly reduces postoperative pain and decreases medication usage costs [25]. Additionally, subcostal transversusabdominis block provides superior postoperative analgesia, improves theater efficiency by reducing time to discharge from the recovery unit and reduces opioid requirement following LC [26]. Bilateral paravertebral blockade at T5-6 level combined with general anesthesia can be used for LC [27].
Mehta and college had been conducted a prospective, randomized, controlled trial to compare spinal anesthesia with the gold standard general anesthesia for elective LC in the healthy patients. Their study demonstrated that spinal anesthesia was adequate and safe for LC in otherwise healthy patients and offered better postoperative pain control than general anesthesia without limiting the recovery [28]. The interim analysis of a controlled randomized trial is also confirmed [29]. Thoracic epidural anesthesia with 0.75% ropivacaine and fentanyl for elective LC is also efficacious and has preserved ventilation and hemodynamic changes within physiological limits during pneumoperitoneum with minimal treatable side effects [30]. In addition, epidural anesthesia might be applicable for LC. However, the incidence rate of intraoperative referred pain is high, and so careful patient recruitment and management of shoulder pain should be considered [31].
4. Intraoperative complications
Misplacement of the needle can lead to intravascular, subcutaneous tissue, preperitoneal space, bowel, and omentum. Inadvertent insufflation of gas into intravascular vessels, tear of abdominal wall or peritoneal vessels, can produce to gas embolism. Although, it is rare but it is a potentially lethal complication and can result in severe hypotension, cyanosis, arrhythmias and asystole. Subcutaneous emphysema may occur after direct subcutaneous gas insufflations. The majority of subcutaneous emphysema has no specific intervention. It can resolve soon after the abdomen is deflated and nitrous oxide is discontinued to ovoid expansion of closed space.
Pneumothorax can occur when the airway pressure is high. The gas traverses into the thorax through the tear of visceral peritoneum, parietal pleura during dissection, or spontaneous rupture of pre-existing emphysematous bulla [1]. Pneumothorax can be asymptomatic or can increase the peak airway pressure, decrease oxygen saturation, hypotension, and even cardiac arrest in severe cases. The treatment is according to the severity of cardiopulmonary compromise [32].
Extension of subcutaneous emphysema into thorax and mediastinum can lead to pneumomediastinum. Pneumopericardium can occur when the gas is forced through the inferior vena cava into the mediastinum and pericardium. Their managements depend on the severity of the cardiovascular dysfunction.
The other complications can be presented. Accidental insertion of the trocar or needle into the major or minor vessels, gastrointestinal tract injuries and urinary tract injuries can occur [32].
5. Postoperative period
The efficacy of post-anesthesia care units is therefore important to facilitate return to normal functions. In the early postoperative period, respiratory rate and ETC02 of laparoscopic patients breathing spontaneously are higher as compared with open surgery. So, the ventilation requirement is increased. The patients with respiratory dysfunction can have problems excreting excessive CO2 load, which results in more hypercapnia. Additionally, the patients with cardiovascular diseases are more prone to hemodynamic changes and instabilities.
Although LC results in less discomfort compared with the open surgery, postoperative pain still can be considerable. Several medications used intraoperatively for prevention and treatment of postoperative pain are the uses of local anesthesia, opioids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and multimodal analgesia techniques. Additionally, preprocedure administration of parecoxib is clinically effective [33].
Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is a common and distressing symptom following LC. The use of multimodal analgesia regimens and the reduction of opioid doses are likely to reduce the incidence of PONV. Propofol-based anesthesia has been associated with reduced PONV [34]. Ondansetron has been found to provide effective prophylaxis against PONV [35]. Administration of ondansetron at the end of surgery produces a significantly greater anti-emetic effect compared to pre-induction dosing. Reduced preoperative anxiety by providing more information should also relieve postoperative adverse effects in order to promote faster and better postoperative recovery period.
6. Summary
Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has proven to be a major advance in the treatment of patients with symptomatic gall bladder diseases. Several advantages from this procedure are minimal tissue trauma, reduction of postoperative pain, quicker recovery, shortening the hospital stay. Pneumoperitoneum induces intraoperative cardiorespiratory changes. Arterial CO2 increases because of CO2 absorption from the pneumoperitoneum. Improved knowledge of pathophysiological changes in the patients allows for successful anesthetic management. Proper patient selection and preparation as well as adequate monitoring should be performed. General anesthesia and controlled ventilation comprise the accepted anesthetic technique. Balanced anesthesia technique including inhalation agent, intravenous drug and muscle relaxant is commonly used. Intraoperative complications may arise due to physiologic changes associated with patient positioning and pneumoperitoneum. Multimodal analgesic regimen combining opioids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and local anesthetic infiltration is the most effective regimen for postoperative pain management.
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Abdelmalak B, Schoenwald PK. Recurrent complete heart block in a healthy patient during laparoscopic electrocauterization of the fallopian tube. Anesthesiology 1998; 88(5): 1401-1403. '},{id:"B12",body:'Cheong MA, Kim YC, Park HK, et al. Paroxysmal tachycardia and hypertension with or without ventricular fibrillation during laparoscopic adrenalectomy: two case reports in patients with noncatecholamine-secreting adrenocortical adenomas. Journal of Laparoendoscopic& Advanced Surgical Techniques A 1999; 9(3): 277- 281.'},{id:"B13",body:'Grabowski JE, Talamini MA. Physiological effects of pneumoperitoneum. Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery 2009; 13(5): 1009-1016.'},{id:"B14",body:'Hirvonen EA, Poikolainen EO, Paakkonen ME, Nuutinen LS. The adverse hemodynamic effects of anesthesia, head-up tilt, and carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Surgical Endoscopy 2000; 14(3): 272-277.'},{id:"B15",body:'Maltby JR, Beriault MT, Watson NC, Liepert D, Fick GH. The LMA-ProSeal is an effective alternative to tracheal intubation for laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia, 2002; 49(8): 857-862 '},{id:"B16",body:'Cook TM, Lee G, Nolan JP. The ProSeal laryngeal mask airway: a review of the literature. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 2005; 52(7): 739-760.'},{id:"B17",body:'Amornyotin S. Chalayonnavin W, Kongphlay S. Assisted sedation for percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in sick patients in a developing country. Gastroenterology Insights 2010; 2(e5): 17-20.'},{id:"B18",body:'Amornyotin S. Prakanrattana U, Chalayonnavin W, Kongphlay S, Kachintorn U. (2010). Propofol based sedation does not increase perforation rate during colonoscopic procedure. Gastroenterology Insights 2010; 2(e4): 13-16.'},{id:"B19",body:'Amornyotin S. Chalayonnawin W, Kongphlay S. Propofol-based sedation does not increase rate of complication during percutaneous endosopic gastrostomy procedure. Gastroenterology Research and Practice 2011 Article ID 134819; 6 pages, doi: 10.1155/2011/134819.'},{id:"B20",body:'Amornyotin S, Srikureja W, Pausawasdi N, Prakanrattana U, Kachintorn U. Intravenous sedation for gastrointestinal endoscopy in very elderly patients of Thailand. Asian Biomedicine 2011; 5(4): 485-491.'},{id:"B21",body:'Amornyotin S. Kachintorn U, Chalayonnawin W, Kongphlay S. Propofol-based deep sedation for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography procedure in sick elderly patients in a developing country. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management 2011; 7: 251-255.'},{id:"B22",body:'Salihoglu Z, Demiroluk S, Dikmen Y. Respiratory mechanics in morbid obese patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and hypertension during pneumoperitoneum. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2003; 20(8): 658-661. '},{id:"B23",body:'Recart A, Gasanova I, White PF, et al. (2003). The effect of cerebral monitoring on recovery after general anesthesia: a comparison of the auditory evoked potential and Bispectral index devices with standard clinical practice. Anesthesia Analgesia 2003; 97(6): 1667-1674.'},{id:"B24",body:'Collins LM, Vaghadia H. Regional anesthesia for laparoscopy. Anesthesiology Clinic of North America 2001; 19(1): 43-55.'},{id:"B25",body:'Hasaniya NW, Zayed FF, Faiz H, Severino R. Preinsertion local anesthesia at the trocar site improves perioperative pain and decreases costs of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Surgical Endoscopy 2001; 15(9): 962-964.'},{id:"B26",body:'Tolchard S, Davies R, Martindale S. Efficacy of the subcostal transversusabdominis plane block in laparoscopic cholecystectomy: comparison with conventional port-site infiltration. Journal of Anaesthesiology Clinical Pharmacology 2012; 28(3): 339-343.'},{id:"B27",body:'Naja MZ, Ziade MF, Lonnqvist PA. General anesthesia combined with bilateral paravertebral blockade (T5-6) vs. general anesthesia for laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a prospective, randomized clinical trial. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2004; 21(6): 489-495.'},{id:"B28",body:'Mehta PJ, Chavda HR, Wadhwana AP, Porecha MM. Comparative analysis of spinal versus general anesthesia for laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a controlled, prospective, randomized trial. Anesthesia: Essays and Researches 2010; 4(2): 91-95.'},{id:"B29",body:'Tzovaras G, Fafoulakis F, Pratsas K, et al. Spinal vs general anesthesia for laparoscopic cholecystectomy: an interim analysis of a controlled randomized trial. Archives of Surgery 2008; 143(5): 497-501. '},{id:"B30",body:'Gupta A, Gupta K, Gupta PK, Agarwal N, Rastogi B. Efficacy of thoracic epidural anesthesia for laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Anesthesia: Essays and Researches 2011; 5(2): 138-141. '},{id:"B31",body:'Lee JH, Huh J, Kim DK, et al. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy under epidural anesthesia: a clinical feasibility study. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology 2010; 59(6): 383-388.'},{id:"B32",body:'Joshi GP. Complications of laparoscopy. Anesthesiology Clinic of North America 2001; 19(1): 89-105.[33] '},{id:"B33",body:'Amornyotin S, Chalayonnawin W, Kongphlay S. A randomized controlled trial of preprocedure administration of parecoxib for therapeutic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Journal of Pain Research 2012; 5: 251-256.'},{id:"B34",body:'Fujii Y. Management of postoperative nausea and vomiting in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Surgical Endoscopy 2011; 25(3): 691-695.'},{id:"B35",body:'Wu SJ, Xiong XZ, Cheng TY, Lin YX, Cheng NS. Efficacy of ondansetronvs metoclopramide in prophylaxis of postoperative nausea and vomiting after laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatogastroenterology 2012; 59(119), Doi: 10.5754/hge11811 [Epub ahead of print] '}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Somchai Amornyotin",address:null,affiliation:'
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De Silva",authors:[{id:"45365",title:"Prof.",name:"Arjuna",middleName:null,surname:"De Silva",fullName:"Arjuna De Silva",slug:"arjuna-de-silva"}]},{id:"43568",title:"Therapeutic and Diagnostic Approaches in Colonoscopy",slug:"therapeutic-and-diagnostic-approaches-in-colonoscopy",signatures:"Naohisa Yoshida, Nobuaki Yagi, Yutaka Inada, Munehiro Kugai, Akio Yanagisawa and Yuji Naito",authors:[{id:"155746",title:"Dr.",name:"Naohisa",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshida",fullName:"Naohisa Yoshida",slug:"naohisa-yoshida"},{id:"157629",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Naito",fullName:"Naito",slug:"naito"}]},{id:"43573",title:"Peculiarities of Paediatric Digestive Endoscopy",slug:"peculiarities-of-paediatric-digestive-endoscopy",signatures:"Marco Gasparetto and Graziella Guariso",authors:[{id:"56467",title:"Prof.",name:"Graziella",middleName:null,surname:"Guariso",fullName:"Graziella Guariso",slug:"graziella-guariso"},{id:"62259",title:"M.D.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Gasparetto",fullName:"Marco Gasparetto",slug:"marco-gasparetto"}]},{id:"43588",title:"Liver Transplantation and Endoscopic Management of Bile Duct Complications",slug:"liver-transplantation-and-endoscopic-management-of-bile-duct-complications",signatures:"Bassam Abu-Wasel, Paul D. Renfrew and Michele Molinari",authors:[{id:"48463",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Molinari",fullName:"Michele Molinari",slug:"michele-molinari"},{id:"48519",title:"Dr.",name:"Karim",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Eltawil",fullName:"Karim Eltawil",slug:"karim-eltawil"},{id:"159865",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassam Abu",middleName:null,surname:"Wasel",fullName:"Bassam Abu Wasel",slug:"bassam-abu-wasel"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"62101",title:"Effects of Domestication on Fish Behaviour",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78752",slug:"effects-of-domestication-on-fish-behaviour",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Behaviour is an animal phenotype and could be considered as a variable of adjustment for an animal to changes of environmental factors. Domestication gives new environmental conditions to animals; they have to adapt to these restricted surroundings. In general, captive conditions are less complex than those of a natural environment but even with less complexity, the environmental conditions of farms or other rearing structures could appear as new for animals. So they have to adapt. As a phenotype, behaviour is certainly the mean and the most useful to survive under the new conditions. So during the domestication process, behaviour allows the animal to adapt to its new environmental conditions. Through domestication, the artificial selection is a process of changing characteristics of animals by artificial means such as directional selection, familial selection [1] or genomic selection [2], and the domestication may impact the behaviour even after only one generation [3, 4].
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Behavioural traits are among the first traits to be affected by domestication [5, 6]. Behaviour is more easily moulded than morphology or chemical composition and thus the costs of behavioural modification are more efficiently adjusted to environmental variations. In his book, Jensen [7] described the effects of domestication in vertebrates, mainly on birds and mammals but there was nothing on fishes. Before that, there were three major reviews [3, 4, 8] on the influence of aquaculture and domestication on fish behaviour. In these papers, the authors summarised most of the available information on the effects of domestication on different traits of fish behaviour. The major aim of these reviews was to consider the importance of behavioural modifications due to domestication on the economic interest of the culture of fishes and on the welfare of animals in fish farms. In this chapter, I focus on the behavioural traits that have been modified by domestication without consideration to either economic objectives or animal welfare.
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There are many difficulties to analyse papers dealing with the effects on domestication. First, it is not easy to identify precisely neither the number of generations in captivity nor the link between captive and wild animals. It is easy when it concerns the first generation obtained in captivity, but it is more complex when we address to ‘individuals reared in hatcheries’ for several years. Most often, we do not know if there was time introduction of wild animal (e.g. males) during the domestication process. Second, in most studies comparing wild and domesticated strains, we have very few information on the characteristics of the wild animals and on those of their native sites. It is important because there is an important variability of the behavioural trait parameters between different populations. Third, in general, fish performances of behavioural traits are tested under laboratory conditions except for displacements for which some experiments were realised in natural water areas. So whatever the experimental sites, the foreigner population (wild or domesticated) needs a period of acclimation to its new rearing conditions. These could introduce a bias in the results.
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Behaviour is the basis of all relationships between the animal and its environment and concerns with several behavioural traits: swimming, foraging, predator avoidance, relationships with conspecifics and reproduction. Moreover, it is now known that individuals exhibit behavioural or physiological characteristics, which, if they are consistent over time, define a coping style or personality [9]. As through domestication, human beings select some individuals among a population, this could modify the equilibrium between the different behavioural profiles (or coping styles) of the individuals of a population. Now, some researches integrate this individual component and highlight the effects of domestication on individual behaviour as it has recently been done considering the learning and other cognitive abilities of fish.
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In this chapter, I will review some of these behavioural traits in hatchery-reared fishes that have often been altered in a characteristic manner by domestication.
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2. Swimming behaviour
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Swimming is a general behavioural trait, which is used in different situations: foraging activity, predator avoidance, stress responses or reproduction. For fish, one of the most determinant traits that are able to improve foraging is the swimming ability. In rearing conditions, swimming is no longer as important as in nature; in general, fish have less space at their disposal, but if domestication selects individuals on their morphological and physiological characteristics, this could influence directly their swimming performances.
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This behaviour trait has been tested on fishes in response to a predator attack. It is the case for juveniles (between 55 and 125 days old) of the sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax); wild individuals showed a greater angular velocity and a stop distance to a new object more important than reared fishes [10]. These responses decrease with habituation in both groups. It means that wild individuals have a greater reactivity and a longer escape distance from an unknown object in their environment.
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In the context of swimming behaviour, one of the more common tested parameter is the C-start response: this is the ability of an individual to rest from a novel environmental situation; it is characterised by a rapid reaction of the body with a C posture and after an S followed by a rapid (less than 10 ms) displacement. It measures the physical ability of a fish to react to a stress situation by using its physical abilities to swim. It has been tested in different environmental situations: pollution [11], water temperature [12], hypoxia [13] or the influence of conspecific presence by comparing solitary and grouped individuals [14]. In all cases, wild fishes showed a greater velocity and more rapid swimming abilities, so it seems that domestication decreases the swimming performances of the fish. This decrease could be parallel to physiological events. Comparisons of swimming and metabolic physiology were done in aquaculture-reared California yellowtail (Seriola dorsalis) in comparison to wild individuals. Incremental swimming velocity trials showed that aquaculture-reared fish had a significantly slower mean maximum sustainable swimming speed (4.16 ± 0.62 Body Length s−1) in comparison to that of wild fish (4.80 ± 0.52 BL s−1). In addition, oxygen consumption was significantly higher in aquaculture-reared fish (7.31 ± 2.32 vs. 3.94 ± 1.60 mg O2 kg−1 min−1 at 18°C) in comparison to wild-caught yellowtail (15.80 ± 5.78 mg O2 kg−1 min−1) [15].
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This could alter other behaviours, which depend directly on swimming (i.e. foraging, survival). One point that concerns with swimming performances is the ability for reared individuals to be released in wild sites. This is the case for the European grayling (Thymallus thymallus) that were tagged with radio-transmitters and tracked in the Blanice River, River Elbe catchment (Czech Republic) [16]. Wild and hatchery-reared fish increased their dial movements and home range with environmental variables (light intensity, flow, temperature and turbidity), but hatchery-reared fish displayed greater total migration distance than did wild fish, which was caused mainly by their higher dispersal. Patterns in space use and activity were compared for wild and hatchery-reared Mulloway (Argyrosomus japonicus) using acoustic telemetry. Adult individuals were followed during 288 h in a river. Hatchery-reared fish used significantly larger areas with higher rate of activity than wild fish, but their movement ranges were more variable [17] than those of wild fish. By comparing initial movement, habitat use, growth and mortality between stocked hatchery and wild fish of juveniles of Florida Bass (Micropterus floridanus) with a radio telemetry experiment, Thomson et al. [18] showed that tagged hatchery fish exhibited greater movement (75 and 124 m/d, respectively), greater proportion of locations offshore (8 and 23%, respectively), but slower growth (1.73 and 0.41% of their body weight gained per day, respectively), and higher predation (47 and 0%, respectively) than wild fish.
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These results showed that domestication can not only be influenced through selecting the physical characteristics of the individuals, but also through their swimming performances and consequently the foraging and space use by hatchery-reared individuals when released in wild conditions.
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3. Foraging behaviour
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Foraging is not only the activity, which consists to take off resources in the environment, that is, prey, but also the choice of the best site or the most favourable period where and when to forage. The animal must be at the good place at the best moment. This aim seems easy for animals in controlled environments where the food is abundant and regular; but this fact could be a disadvantage when aquaculture-reared fish are released in natural environment in order to supply the low level of the wild stocks.
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Fishes change their foraging habits with domestication. Zebra fish (Danio rerio) and coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) change the place where they forage after domestication after just one generation. Domestic fishes swim at the surface of the water column instead of the lower part for wild animals [19, 20]. One of the consequences is that farmed animals had a higher rate of prey capture than their wild congeners [21, 22]. These changes in foraging behaviour could be the result of changes in the relation of the fishes with its environment: as the predation rate was lower for farmed fishes, they adopt a more risky behaviour near the surface; the farmed conditions modified also the social relationships between individuals and could result in a lower influence of dominance in the foraging behaviour [23].
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Perhaps, the main difference is that the natural environment provides a lot of different situations to which fishes have to adapt. It seems that the environmental complexity of natural environments may facilitate training to different situations [24], with a more important prey variability [25, 26, 27] or opportunity of social learning [28]. Consequences could be measured when farmed fishes were realised into natural environment: they use less of natural objects such as stones or leaves for digestion than wild animals [25] or they make no difference between prey of different profitability [26] and they do not choice an unknown prey [27].
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The conditions of foraging allow the fish to get a certain amount of resources from the environment and could explain important differences between hatchery-reared and wild individuals in terms of survival and growth. If we compare the survival rate of aquaculture-reared or wild Chinook salmon fry (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) facing predation by rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) or sculpin (Cottus rhotheus) under experimental conditions, wild fry had a survival advantage within the two next years of experiment [29]. So it is possible that the domestication can affect the vulnerability of juveniles of salmon after only one generation in a culture system. But it is not always the case. For example, the survival of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the Baltic Sea was examined in relation to the origin, and prey fish abundance (here herring Clupea harengus and sprat Sprattus sprattus). The study was based on recapture data for tagged hatchery-reared, and wild smolts demonstrated a combined influence of origin and environmental factors on survival; prey fish abundance had no influence on the survival of reared or wild smolt groups [30]. The results suggest that some larger smolt of the reared groups compared with the wild groups compensated for their lower ability to live in the wild.
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4. Predator avoidance behaviour
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The anti-predator behaviour is highly sensitive to artificial rearing and so to domestication [12, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Anti-predator behaviour is thought to change during domestication, along with other traits. One prediction is that domestication should reduce behavioural responses to predation risk. This prediction was supported by a lot of studies most of the time on salmonids, on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) [31, 32], on brown trout (Salmo trutta) [12] and on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) [35, 37].
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In wild population, decreased activity, spatial avoidance of risky areas and the use of refuges reduce the rate of mortality caused by predators [38, 39]. This natural reaction of a fish faced to a high level of predation seems to disappear after two or three generations reared under artificial conditions; that is, after two generations, the common trout becomes non-sensitive to the predation risk; animals were active during the daylight and not during the night as their wild conspecifics [40]. As a consequence, domestication would decrease the level of defences against predators, as the reared animals would not experiment contacts with predators or some other life history traits should be affected by domestication and consequently affect the response of the animal to predator risk. For example, wild fishes react more rapidly to a predator than reared fishes [41, 42]. Wild animals may use natural refuges in their environment they know to escape from predation [43]. Moreover, wild individuals seem more careful to predators than reared fishes in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio); but these results are under suspicion because ‘wild’ animals are in fact reared individuals, which were returned back to natural conditions [44]. Domestication may also affect the reaction to a novel object in the environment; reared fishes approach more easily to a novel object and take more risks [36, 45]. This difference in behaviour is linked to physiological variations (heart activity, mobility, swimming abilities…) [35, 37]: but the results are not so clear and in a large number of cases, the responses of reared fishes to predators are variable [19, 46].
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Some more recent results confirm the complexity of the relationships between this behavioural trait (anti-predator behaviour) and domestication. For example, the anti-predator behaviour of juvenile Atlantic salmon of conventional hatchery compared with that of wild-caught juveniles from the same population, tested in two unfamiliar environments, did not differ between the two strains in the spontaneous escape response [47], but after this first reaction, hatchery-reared juveniles stayed less time in association with the shelter than the wild animals. The same result has been found in the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella); in the frame of restocking programs using hatchery-reared individuals, it is important to test the anti-predator behaviour. This behaviour was compared with that of wild-caught animals. The two groups exhibited a clear anti-predator behaviour; however, the hatchery-reared individuals showed lower aggregation and spent time in the risky areas and most of them were predated [48]. These variations between domesticated and wild strains in the display of the anti-predator behaviour are well documented in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Comparisons between wild and hatchery population between clonal lines of rainbow trout derived from either wild and hatchery-reared populations identified several genes associated with behavioural variations between lines [49]. These genetic variations underlying anti-predator behaviours may be used in conservation programs for monitoring alleles of loci affecting predation in natural populations.
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As behaviour is a phenotype corresponding to the plasticity of the responses of animal to the set of environmental conditions, it is interesting to understand how development can affect the behaviour of different genotypes. Now, the existence of transgenic species offers a good tool to study this problem. By comparing wild-type siblings and transgenic individuals, Sundström et al. [50] found that wild and transgenic animals behave in the manner under natural like conditions; but until now, there are not a sufficient number of studies to conclude that genetically modified organisms are not affected by the complexity of natural conditions.
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5. Social behaviour
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Social behaviour is particularly developed in fishes, such as shoal [51], which is a part of the social life and is present in more than 25,000 species [52]. Shoal is important and ensures protection against a potential predator (a particular prey is undetectable in the group), but also it increases the foraging efficiency (the amount of food per individual is higher in groups than for solitary fishes whatever their diet). Shoal—defined as a group of individuals [51]—may be influenced by environmental factors, and domestication is one of these factors; reared conditions modify the fish environment. It limits the available space for fishes that could have for consequences a non-response of the fishes to environmental stimuli [53]; in reared conditions, food is distributed ad libitum, and such situation modifies the foraging behaviour limiting the exploration of the environment [54] and the predator avoidance [12, 32, 55]. In domesticated fishes, there is less variability of the age and size of the individuals, and so, the relations between fishes are modified and the results are counterbalanced; in some studies, they show that there is an increase of the aggressiveness between individuals [56, 57], and in other studies, they find that the aggressiveness is higher in domesticated populations [55, 58]. Growth in rearing situations is influenced by intra-specific competition [59, 60].
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One of the most important components of the social relations between individuals is the agonistic behaviour. Comparisons between wild and reared fishes show that new agonistic behaviours do not appear due to domestication [61]; agonistic behaviours are the same for both wild-reared individuals. In general, agonistic behaviours appear for the competition for resources: prediction is that agonistic behaviours must be less numerous when the quantity of resources increases. Domestication introduces the selection of individuals with a rapid growth; the consequences on the level of agonistic behaviours between individuals inside the groups are very dependent of the situation. Globally, it has been demonstrated that an effect on agonistic behaviours exists [62]. Agonistic behaviour can increase for domesticated fishes [58, 63, 64] or decrease [56] or be stable [57]. For example, the brown trout sea-ranched individuals have a higher growth rate and have no difference of activity with wild animals, but intensity of agonistic behaviours was higher in wild individuals [65]. These results could be interpreted as a consequence of the rearing conditions; in wild populations, agonistic behaviour has a function for space sharing, food accessibility [66], foraging efficiency and predator avoidance [67, 68]. So selection in rearing conditions leads to the individuals that have the most rapid growth but with particular behavioural traits (i.e. the most aggressive fishes); it is a known phenomenon, analysed as phenotypic selection (or economic selection by culturists) [69]. This implies that fishes are selected on their size and growth rate, and the dominance effect, which could be the result of competitive relationships, disappears if we introduce the size as variable [23]. But the dominance depends on the environment; this could be linked to the residence effect, which exists in wild fishes and not in reared ones [70]. In any case, competitive behaviours are the same; they vary in quality and intensity between wild and reared fishes [71]; for example, the high density for reared fishes in tanks could induce less territoriality and so a lower aggressiveness during dyadic confrontations [70, 72]. Competition and dominance have been tested in the salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and the results showed that wild fishes were more aggressive than fishes from the first generation (F1) reared in aquaculture [73]. In general, the consequence of dominance is better growth rates for the dominant individuals whatever their origin (wild or reared). More recently, a relationship was found on the influence of domestication on brain size and aggressive behavioural changes. A study on rainbow trout lines highlighted that some behaviours such as ‘freeze’ and ‘escape’ are associated with a high level of domestication instead of ‘display’ and ‘yawn’ behaviours, which are linked to wild lines [74]. Moreover, these authors found that the total brain size and olfactory volume were associated with domestication.
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An important consequence of the level of aggressiveness between individuals is the existence of cannibalism [75]. It could appear either within the same cohort or between different cohorts. Cannibalism is a natural phenomenon, which is for regulating natural populations in many fish species. In cultured fishes, cannibalism has a negative effect on the populations; some individuals switch from food given by humans to the attacks and consumption of conspecifics.
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6. Reproduction
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There is very few data on the influence of domestication or different lineages on the reproductive behaviour of fishes? This is the consequence that the reproductive behaviour in reared fishes received very little interest. It is the consequence that humans biased reproduction in reared fish populations; in fact, it is always handed by humans, and there is neither mate choice nor normal reproductive behavioural sequence. So, comparisons of reproductive behaviours between wild and reared fishes are based on behavioural differences between reared fishes that returned to natural environment and wild animals.
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Studies focused on the choice of the spawn area; reared animals had more difficulties to find the good place to spawn with environmental features [76]. But the results are not so clear. Reared fishes may arrive earlier on the spawning zones than wild animals [77]. Fishes show different strategies with regard to their origin (wild or reared) [30, 78].
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Most of the studies on the influence of domestication on the reproductive behaviour are done on salmonids because this is the group of species with the highest pressure for restocking the natural populations with hatchery-reared individuals, so it is absolutely necessary to evaluate their reproductive performances under natural environment. Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) produced by hatcheries have lower fitness in the wild than naturally produced salmon, but the factors underlying this difference remain an active area of research [71]. Neff et al. [79] used genetic parentage analysis of juveniles produced by experimentally mixed groups of wild and hatchery coho salmon to quantify male paternity. In all contexts, wild animals showed a higher paternity rate than hatchery-reared individuals.
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7. Personality
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The concept of behavioural syndrome (synonyms = personality, temperament, behavioural differences) is defined as a collection of behavioural traits, which are constant over time and environmental situations [80]. It does not mean that these traits do not evolve with time for example, but that the combination of them is constant. This concept has been widely used in fishes. These behavioural syndromes may be dependent from the environmental situations (i.e. high or low density) and have different performances (i.e. boldness or shyness are the most efficient). This concept has been used for cultured fishes (Salmonidae) in order to select the most advantageous behavioural traits for the rearing of fishes in captivity. The human selection on economic criteria (size, growth) may be biased and this selection leads to keep the individuals that have the highest boldness (as in Salmonidae). But these results are not so clear, and in some cases, the selection of the individuals, which have the highest boldness, leads also to the selection of the most aggressive animals, i.e. salmon reared in farm for many generations are more aggressive and bold than individuals hatched in farm but from wild parents [72, 81]. Now, it is possible by comparing wild and domesticated strains, to show the existence of QTL for personality trait such as boldness. By testing the boldness of Zebra fish (Danio rerio), Wright et al. [54] showed that there are strong behavioural differences between a wild-derived strain of fish and a laboratory strain AB. Based on anti-predator behaviour, their results indicated a QTL for boldness on chromosomes 9 and 16 and suggest another genomic region that influences anti-predator behaviour on chromosome 21. So, these results confirm the possibility of QTL mapping of behavioural traits in zebra fish and the consequences of selection during domestication.
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These behavioural differences between captive of reared fish and their wild conspecifics could be used in the frame recovery programmes for threatened and endangered species. By comparing the boldness and prey acquisition behaviours of wild bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) and reared ones, Brignon et al. [82] showed that wild fish and captive reared fish from complex habitats exhibited a greater level of boldness and prey acquisition ability, than fish reared in conventional captive environments. These results suggested that rearing fish in more complex captive environments could create a more wild-like phenotype than conventional rearing practices.
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In this frame of animal personality, or coping style, an important effect of the domestication is the reduction of emotional reactivity or responsiveness to a fear-evoking stimulus [83]; the emotional reactivity of wild fishes is better than those of reared individuals [84]. The emotional reactivity of an animal is necessary for provoking a flight response when there is a potential danger; it could be linked to a survival response. It seems that after domestication, fishes lost very rapidly, in only one generation, the stress response. This change in behaviour is probably directly linked to physiological changes: in the rainbow trout, two different lineages were selected on the basis of their rate of cortisol as responsiveness to stress. Individuals, which showed a low rate of cortisol, had a lower response to stress; they developed a better foraging behaviour but had a bad response to a potential danger. These individuals were well adapted to the environmental conditions of fish farms, but not the natural environment [85]. This is a general problem; the selection by humans of particular lineages of fishes based on their potentiality of growth and development has an influence on other life traits especially on behavioural traits. In the sea bass, the repetitive application of stress elements (pursuit of the fishes with a net, luminous changes, application of predator lure) modifies the foraging habits of wild fishes but also of reared ones. This could be interpreted as a habituation to the situation, which becomes less stressful [86].
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8. Learning-cognition
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If the domestication process leads to a change in behavioural traits, empirical evidence for a difference in cognitive performance, however, is scarce. In the framework of animal personalities, differences in behaviour may arise during ontogeny through learning and bolder, and more aggressive animals (usually, the wild form) should learn faster. Such examples exist in vertebrates especially in mammals; by comparing wild cavies and domestic guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) in behavioural tests. Domestic guinea pigs were less bold and aggressive than their wild congeners, but learnt an association faster [87]. Such studies exist also in fish but are scare, and now, results are not clearly established, leading an important field of research. For example, Klefoth et al. [88] tested two common genotypes of common carp, Cyprinus carpio L., differing in degree of domestication (a highly domesticated mirror carp and a less domesticated scaled carp) exposed to fishing. Domesticated mirror carp were more vulnerable to angling gear than scaled carp in both environments; these results were related to a bolder-foraging behaviour for the latter. Independently of genotype, fish become more difficult to catch, indicating learned hook avoidance, based on the boldness, so scaled carp get an advantage with a lower vulnerability to fishing. The study of Rodewald et al. [89] showed that after their release in natural environment, hatchery-reared salmon had a lower foraging rate than wild individuals. They showed that this difference was the consequence of higher abilities of learning the new environment and especially the presence of potential prey by the wild fish. Such studies should be initiated before the reintroduction of hatchery stock in the natural habitat, to ensure the success of the operation.
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9. Conclusion
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‘Domestication is that process by which a population of animals becomes adapted to man and to captive environment by genetic changes occurring over generation and environmentally-induced developmental events recurring in each generation [90]’. It affects all functions of the organisms and, in particular, behaviour. There are behavioural differences between wild and reared fishes (see Table 1), but these differences are more quantitative than qualitative; no new behaviours appear with domestication.
Summary of the different results found for this review. The behavioural traits were divided in behavioural acts and their responses to domestication process in fish were briefly described. Wild referred to animals coming from wild strains and hatchery for fish larvae reared under farm or laboratory conditions.
\n
The selection of individuals for economic reasons leads to the selection of fishes on morphological or developmental traits (growth, size). These traits are directly linked to other biological traits (i.e. behaviour) and their selection may lead to select fishes, which present some behaviours affecting the life in groups of high density and so the development of each individual (increase in aggressive and agonistic interactions between individuals, higher levels of cannibalism). One solution to prevent that is to identify as soon as possible in the fish development the behavioural profiles of the individuals under different domestication levels [91]. These studies lead to better knowledge of the fish larvae, which are difficult to test given their high sensitivity to environmental conditions.
\n
In this review, we saw that all behavioural traits may be impacted by domestication even after only one generation. For some traits, the results are clear and follow the same trend; the response to a predator is affected by domestication whatever the domesticated species and the reared environment. But in some cases, it is more difficult to find a common trend: foraging is affected but it depends on the type of food, and on the feeding conditions. It is the same for aggressiveness in the hatchery-reared individuals; it could decrease in that way we can put a high number of predators together if we give them a sufficient amount of food, but on the other hand, the high fish density in tank can produce a high level of aggressiveness between individuals leading to cannibalism event if the food is abundant. It is also true for other behavioural traits such as personality or cognitive capabilities; until now, there is a lack of studies on the influence of domestication on these behavioural traits and it is not possible to conclude. What we know is that the human selection on morphological or physiological traits of some individuals (even through a genetic program) has a direct influence on behavioural traits.
\n
This has two implications: first, it is necessary to study behavioural traits in the case of domestication of new species in order to determine the best environmental conditions of rearing, and second, these behavioural trait modifications must be into account when release of domesticated animals into natural habitats is considered. For these two points, we have to keep in mind that the consequences of behavioural selection traits through domestication correspond to the selection of a particular behavioural trait belonging to the natural behavioural range of the species under rearing environmental conditions; this might lead to a new species, the other behavioural traits of the species range disappearing. It is known under a genetic-environment process by which the epigenetic landscape is modified by the environment constraints influencing directly the genetic program [92, 93].
\n
\n\n',keywords:"behavioural traits, hatchery-reared fish, wild fish, performances, behavioural responses",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62101.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62101.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62101",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62101",totalDownloads:543,totalViews:67,totalCrossrefCites:3,dateSubmitted:"June 13th 2017",dateReviewed:"May 16th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Domestication is a process by which humans select some phenotypes of wild animal species (i.e., morphological traits or growth), but as all traits are linked, the selection of a particular one has consequences on others. In that context, behavioural traits may be affected by human selection. In this chapter, through classical behavioural traits, such as swimming capacities, foraging, social interactions, or reproduction, and also personality or cognitive abilities, what domestication modifies in fish behavioural traits is shown. The information is taken only from studies that make a clear comparison between domesticated and wild animals; the major difficulty was that the domesticated status was not clearly determined. Whatever the behavioural trait considered, domestication affects some of them even after only one generation. These data deserve to be taken into consideration when humans try, not only to domesticate new species but also to release domesticated species into their natural habitats. In this last case, alteration of behavioural traits could make the fish incapable to adapt to their new wild environment and alter their foraging or reproductive performances. Moreover, fish behaviour in farm is currently recognised as an essential component of the welfare and all behavioural modifications must be considered.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62101",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62101",signatures:"Alain Pasquet",book:{id:"6053",title:"Animal Domestication",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Domestication",slug:"animal-domestication",publishedDate:"July 17th 2019",bookSignature:"Fabrice Teletchea",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6053.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190135",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",middleName:null,surname:"Teletchea",slug:"fabrice-teletchea",fullName:"Fabrice Teletchea"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Swimming behaviour",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Foraging behaviour",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Predator avoidance behaviour",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Social behaviour",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Reproduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Personality",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Learning-cognition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Theodorou K, Couvet D. Familial versus mass selection in small populations. Genetics Selection Evolution. 2003;35:425\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Hamblin MT, Buckler E, Jannink JL. Populations genetics of genomics-based crop improvement methods. Trends in Genetics. 2011;27(3):98-106\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Begout Anras ML, Lagardère JP. Domestication et comportement chez les poissons téléostéens. INRA Productions Animales. Vol. 17. 2004. pp. 211-215\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Huntingford FA. Implications of domestication and rearing conditions for the behaviour of cultivated fishes. Journal of Fish Biology. 2004;65:122-142. 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Evaluation of behavioral changes induced by a first step of domestication or selection for growth in the European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax): A self-feeding approach under repeated acute stress. Aquaculture. 2010;306:211-217\n'},{id:"B87",body:'Brust V, Guenther A. Domestication effects on behavioural traits and learning performance: Comparing wild cavies to Guinea pigs. Animal Cognition. 2015;18(1):99-109\n'},{id:"B88",body:'Klefoth T, Pieterek T, Arlinghaus R. Impacts of domestication on angling vulnerability of common carp, Cyprinus carpio: The role of learning, foraging behaviour and food preferences. Fisheries Management and Ecology. 2013;20:174-186. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2400.2012.00865.x89\n'},{id:"B89",body:'Rodewald P, Hyvarinen P, Hirvonen H. Wild origin and enrichment environment promote foraging rate and learning to forage on natural prey of captive reared Atlantic salmon parr. Ecology of Freshwater Fish. 2011;20:569-579\n'},{id:"B90",body:'Price EO. Behavioral development in animals undergoing domestication. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 1999;65:245-271\n'},{id:"B91",body:'Teletchea F, Fontaine P. Levels of domestication in fish: Implications for the sustainable future of aquaculture. Fish and Fisheries. 2014;15(2):181-195. DOI: 10.1111/faf.12006\n'},{id:"B92",body:'Waddington CH. The Strategy of the Genes; a Discussion of Some Aspects of Theoretical Biology. London: Allen & Unwin; 1957\n'},{id:"B93",body:'Golberg AD, Allis CD, Bernstein E. Epigenetics: A landscape takes scape. Cell. 2007;128(23):635-638\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Alain Pasquet",address:"alain.pasquet@univ-lorraine.fr",affiliation:'
Domestication in Inland Aquaculture, UR AFPA—INRA, University of Lorraine, Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France
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BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
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