Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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1. Introduction
Induction motors are one of the most widely used electrical machines. These motors play a very important role in the present industrial life. Therefore, the need to insure a continuous and safety operation for this motors, involves preventive maintenance programs with fault detection techniques. In general, condition monitoring schemes have concentrated on sensing specific failure modes. Electrical faults such as winding and rotor faults are responsible for an important percentage of total motor failures (Hadremi, 2000) (Bonnett et al., 2008). Preventive maintenance of three-phase induction motors also plays a very important role in the industrial life (Thorsen et al., 1995). This procedure requires monitoring their operation for detection of abnormal electrical and mechanical conditions that indicate, or may lead to, a failure of the system. In fact, in the last years monitoring induction motors becomes very important in order to reduce maintenance costs and prevent unscheduled downtimes. Therefore, there has been a substantial amount of research to provide new condition monitoring techniques for ac induction motors (Kliman et al., 1992) (Thomson, 1999). Several strategies have been proposed to access operation conditions of induction motors (Kliman et al., 1988) (Tavner et al., 1987) (Nandi et al. 1999) (Toliyat et al., 1985) (Riley et al., 1999) (Dister et al., 1998) (Henao et al. 2003) (Li 2006). However, the input stator currents represent the most widely used signal in identifying machine faults (Çolak et al., 2005) (Benbouzid, 2000) (Bayindir et al., 2007). There are several main reasons for this: most of the machine unbalances would reflect into the current waveform, the current is feasible and inexpensive to monitor and the monitoring technique is non-invasive. One of the most significant methods based on the analysis of the machine line currents is the motor current signature analysis (MCSA) (Schoen et al., 1995) (Çalis et al., 2008) (Thomson et al., 2001) (Bellini et al., 2001) (Pires et al., 2009). This method is based on the motor line current monitoring and consequent inspection of its deviations in the frequency domain. Another approach based on the analysis of the machine line currents is the Park’s vector approach (Cardoso et al., 1995). This method is based on the identification of the stator current Concordia patterns, requiring the user to have some degree of expertise in order to distinguish a normal operation condition from a potential failure. A common fact to all of these techniques is that the user must have some degree of expertise in order to distinguish a normal operation condition from a potential failure mode. Therefore, fully automatic pattern recognition methods are required to identify induction motor stator fault. Thus some artificial intelligence tools have been introduced (Nejjari et al., 2000) (Zidani et al., 2003) (Haji et al., 2001) (Ondel et al., 2006) (Martins et al., 2007). However, many of these tools require a prior identification of the system, and only then they are able to identify some faulty situation. On the other hand, the presence of noise along with the nonlinear behaviour of the machine can make this task very difficult.
Under this context, this paper proposes new procedures for the detection of a three-phase induction motor stator fault. These procedures are based on the image identification of the stator current Concordia patterns, and will allow the identification of turn faults in the stator winding as well as its correspondent severity. The identification of the faulty phase is another important feature of the proposed algorithm.
2. Pattern recognition approach
The analysis of the three-phase induction motor can be simplified using the Clark- Concordia transformation (1). C=23[1012−123212−12−3212]
This transformation allows reducing a three-phase system into an equivalent two-phase system (with a zero-sequence component). In three phase induction motors the connection to the mains does not usually use the neutral, implying that the mains current has no homopolar component. Under this situation the three-phase induction motor αβ line currents are then given by (2).
{iα=23ia−16ib−16iciβ=12ib−12icE1
Considering ideal conditions for the motor and an unbalanced voltage supply, (3) can be obtained.
{iα=62Isinωtiβ=22Isin(ωt−π2)E2
Figure 1 shows the structure of the stator currents acquisition, where they are transformed into two-phase equivalents using the Clark-Concordia transformation.
Figure 1.
Structure of the stator currents aquisition.
The obtained Clark-Concordia transformation results in a circular or an elliptic pattern, as can be seen in Figure 2. A healthy three-phase induction motor generates a circle (the radius of circle depends on load, being bigger for higher loads and vice versa). A fault in a stator
Figure 2.
Current Concordia vector pattern 0 - healthy motor, 1 - turn fault in the stator winding phase a, 2 - turn fault in the stator winding phase b 3 - turn fault in the stator winding phase c.
winding implies a distortion in the circle, assuming an elliptic pattern whose major axis orientation is associated to the faulty phase. This elliptic pattern changes according to the fault severity. For more severe faults the eccentricity of the ellipse increases.
The main idea is to implement a fully automatic pattern recognition process, which recognizes the presence of a fault, identifies the faulty phase and, furthermore, reports a severity index for that fault. The proposed algorithms deal with the diagnosis of stator winding faults by means of pattern recognition methods, based only on the acquisition of two input currents. The described algorithms will extract features of the obtained current patterns, in an automatic pattern recognition process that automatically discern the behaviour of the motor (faulty or healthy). This will allow the identification of turn faults in the stator winding and its correspondent severity.
3. Image processing based system
In order to implement a pattern recognition based fault detection, a feature-based recognition of the current stator pattern, independent of their shape, size and orientation must be obtained. Finding efficient invariants features is the key to solve this problem. Particular attention is paid to statistic moments and visual-based features obtained in the image processing system.
The proposed image-processing algorithm is divided in three stages: the image composition, the boundary representation and the feature extraction (Figure 3). The inputs for the image processing based system are the αβ stator currents. The feature extraction must identify the image characteristics that can be obtained from the image composition. It was possible to verify that the obtained images for a healthy or a faulty motor are different. These differences are obtained by the feature extraction block.
Figure 3.
Structure of the image processing based system.
3.1. Image composition
In the image composition stage, the αβ stator currents are first represented as an image in order to be used in the pattern recognition method. In this way, each sample αβ current value will be considered as a pixel belonging to the object contour with the coordinates (ix, iy) given by (4) and (5). {ix=round((iα−offset_x)k)iy=round((iβ−offset_y)k)
Where
{offset_x=min(iα)−1offset_y=min(iβ)−1E3
Consider an object with each pixel (ix, iy) as a gray level I(xi, yi). A binary image can be considered as a particular case of a grey image with I(x,y)=1 for pixels that belong to an object, and I(x,y)=0 for pixels that belong to the background. Figure 4 shows the αβ stator currents represented in the image plan after the image composition process.
Figure 4.
Image plan for the three phase induction motor αβ line currents.
3.2. Boudary representation
To implement the pattern recognition method, after the image composition it is necessary to determine the shape of the region.
To represent the boundary of the region and at the same time obtain some properties that help feature extraction the chain code algorithm is used (Ballard et al., 1982). This algorithm leads to an efficient calculation of the region area and his contour perimeter. However, the right and left upper points (tr_p, tl_p) of the region must also be obtained (Figure 5). These two points corresponds to the first and last pixels present on the first line of the region.
Figure 5.
Image plan for the three phase induction motor αβ line currents.
4. Features extraction methodologies
The last stage of the image-processing algorithm is the features extraction. There are several feactures extraction methodologies. Here are presented two effective algorithms that can be used for the induction motor fault detection: Visual features and statistic based moments methods.
4.1. Visual features
The feature extraction stage uses the area of the object and the contour perimeter to compute the index of compactness. To obtain the distance between the xc coordinate of the gravity center of the region and the x coordinate of the mean upper point of the region it is necessary to compute the gravity center (xc, yc).
The index of compactness and the distance between the xc coordinate of the gravity center of the region and the x coordinate of the mean upper point of the region are the key features for the fault diagnosis procedure.
Assume that the pixels in the digital image are piecewise constant and the dimension of the bounded region image for each object is denoted by M×N, the visual features, area and perimeter, used to determine the I.O.C. can be obtained as (Amaral et al., 2001):
where Arcxyis the length of the arc along the object contour where x and y are connected neighbors. If the connectivity is type-4 thenArcxy=1, otherwiseArcxy=2.
The index of compactness is then given by:A(I)=∑x=1M∑y=1NI(x,y)\n\t\t\t\t\tP(I)=∑x,yArcxy
Physically, the index of compactness denotes the fraction of maximum area that can be encircling by the perimeter actually occupied by the object.
The coordinate xc of the gravity center is given by: xc=∑x=1M∑y=1NI(x,y).xA(I)
where the yc coordinate it is not necessary to compute.
The distance between the xc coordinate of the gravity center of the I region and the x coordinate of the mean upper point of the region is given by:
dist_xc_tlr(I)=xc−(tl_p+tr_p2)E4
where tl_p and tr_p are the x coordinates of the top-left and the top-right points of the region.
In Figure 6 it is represented the distance between the xc coordinate of the gravity center of the region and the x coordinate of the mean point between the top-left and top-right points of the region I.
Figure 6.
Distance used in the system classifier.
4.2. Statistic moments
Another possible approach to obtain efficient invariants features is based on the use of the statistic moments algorithm. This algorithm uses the regular and the central moments to obtain the features needed for the fault diagnosis (Amaral et al., 2007). The αβ stator currents are first represented onto an image in order to be used in the pattern recognition method. Again, each pixel belonging to the object contour represent each αβ sample current.
Considering an object with each pixel (xi,\n\t\t\t\t\tyi) as a gray level I (xi,\n\t\t\t\t\tyi). The (p+q) order of the regular moment is given by:
mpq=∑i=1MI(xi,yi)(xi)p(yi)qE5
where the sum is made over the image all M pixels.
The (p+q) order of the central moment is invariant to translation and is obtained considering the origin of the object at his gravity center (12).
μpq=∑i=1MI(xi,yi)(xi−x¯)p(yi−y¯)qE6
The (x¯,y¯) coordinates represent the gravity center of the object. These coordinates can be obtained using the regular moments of zero and first orders and are given by:
x¯=m10m00,y¯=m01m00E7
The features used in the system recognition are the main axis angle of the αβ currents pattern and it’s eccentricity. The main axis angle (Figure 7) and the eccentricity can be obtained using six regular moments such as:
These two features can be obtained more effective using only three and four central moments in the computation of the main axis angle and eccentricity, respectively. The relation between the regular and the central moments can be obtained by:
Using these relations, the main axis angle - θ - and the eccentricity - e - can be obtained using the following equations (Ballard et al., 1982):
θ=12tan−1(2μ11μ20−μ02)E11
e=(μ20−μ02)2+4μ11μ00E12
A binary image can be considered as a particular case of a grey image with I(x,y)=1 for pixels that belong to an object, and I(x,y)=0 for pixels that belong to the background. Using only the sum of all pixels that belong to a 2D object, the regular and central moments equations used to obtain the two features can now be obtained as:
mpq=∑x∑y(xi)p(yi)qE13
μpq=∑x∑y(xi−x¯)p(yi−y¯)qE14
5. Neuro-fuzzy classifier
Neural networks and statistical methods are particularly well adapted for data classification. However it is also possible to use a fuzzy system for the classification problem without replacing the aforementioned methods but as a different approach to achieve the same results, with the following advantages:
vague knowledge can be used;
the classifier is interpretable;
easy to implement, to use and to understand.
Since classifiers are usually derived from data, one method to obtain a fuzzy classifier is to use a neuro-fuzzy approach. The fuzzy classifier obtained by a learning procedure is called a neuro-fuzzy classifier but this “neuro-fuzzy” term strictly only applies to the creation or in the training phase. Afterwards, once the classifier is applied there only remains a fuzzy system for classification. This type of neuro-fuzzy system it is called a cooperative neurofuzzy system (Nauck et al., 1997).
The interpretation of the classifier is often illustrated by representing it in a neural network structure. Figure 8 shows the structure of the neuro-fuzzy inference system used in data classification. This figure represents the structure example of a four-layered neuro-fuzzy system with two inputs and one output. This connectionist structure effectively performs the fuzzy inferencing with some minor restrictions. In a generalized architecture for the proposed approach, there can be n nodes in first layer (input layer) and m nodes in the second layer (pattern layer) corresponding to the input and rule numbers, respectively. The number of nodes in the third layer (summation layer) depends on the number of output nodes. As it happens in the Generalised Regression Neural Network (G.R.N.N.) configuration, the number of nodes in the third layer is equal to the nodes of the output layer plus one node (Specht, D. F., 1991), (Chen, C. H., 1996), (Tsoukalas et al., 1997). Observing Figure 8, if the output layer has one output node then the third layer must have two nodes.
Each layer has a specific functionality that contributes to the equivalence of the fuzzy inference system.
The input layer consists in the input of the data values derived from the input features. The output of each node is the degree to which the given input satisfies the linguistic label associated to the correspondent node.
Figure 8.
Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system.
The pattern layer represents the rule set of the fuzzy inference system. The number of nodes in this layer it is the same as the number of rules in the fuzzy inference system. Each node, called rule node, is a special type of radial basis function processor and represents a rule where the output of each basis function unit Ti\n\t\t\t\t(xj) is given by equation (21).
E15
Ti(xj)=∏j=1nLXj(i)(xj)E16
LXj(i)(x)is the membership function of jth fuzzy set in the ith rule antecedent. Each membership function has four parameters and it can have different shapes and be asymmetric (Amaral et al., 2002b).
The summation layer has two different types of processing units: the summation and the division units. The function of the summation unit is essentially the same as the function of the output units in the radial basis function network. The division unit only sums the weighted activations of the pattern units without using any activation function. The number of the summation units is always the same as the number of the G.R.N.N. output units.
Each node in the output layer consists in a simple division of the signal coming from the summation unit by the signal coming from the division unit, as defined by equation (22).
up=∑i=1mTi(xj)fpi(xj)∑i=1mTi(xj)E17
p denotes the number of output nodes in the output layer.
If the fuzzy inference system has one output then the linear function fpi (xj ) of the firstorder Sugeno rule can be described by the following equation:
f1i(xj)=b1i0+b1i1x1+…+b1inxnE18
The number of layers of the adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system and the function of each node in the four layers are also similar to the G.R.N.N.. Thus it was constructed an adaptive network that it is functionally equivalent to a type-3 fuzzy inference system (Takagi & Sugeno fuzzy if-then rules).
In the learning of the fuzzy inference system two learning algorithms are applied. An iterative grid partition algorithm tunes the four parameters of each antecedent membership function (Amaral et al., 2002a). The first three parameters correspond to the left, the center and the right position of each membership function and the fourth parameter to its shape. The parameters of local model f1i (x\n\t\t\t\tj) are learned by Least Square Error (L.S.E.).
6. Results
In order to obtain experimental results it was used and induction motor with the following characteristics: 1kW, 220/380V, 50Hz. The machine load is provided by means of an electromagnetic brake and the stator currents are acquired through a personal computer data acquisition board (Figure 9). After the acquisition of the stator currents, these currents are transformed into a 2D object using the αβ transformation.
Figure 9.
Experimental prototype for the proposed fault detection system.
6.1. Simulation results based on visual features
In order to verify the proposed algorithm, the fault diagnostic system was first simulated in the Matlab environment. The induction motor was initially simulated without any fault. In this case the corresponding αβ vector pattern is a circle centered at the origin of the coordinates. Other simulations were considered. Initially, several tests were done in which the severity of the fault was rather small, then new tests were conducted in which the severity of the fault was higher. Table I presents the obtained results for the two features. When the induction motor has no fault the index of compactness is, approximately, 0.0726. Figure 10 presents the current vector pattern for the healthy motor, which does not present any eccentricity. For a small induction motor fault, the index of compactness decreases to 0.0720, denoting that the αβ pattern exhibits some eccentricity (Figure 11). As can be seen by the results presented in Table I the distance between the xc coordinate of the region gravity center and the mean point between the top-left and top-right points of the region (DIST_XC_TLR), is different for each phase fault, denoting this distance value the faulty phase. As long the fault becomes more severe, the I.O.C decreases and the DIST_XC_TLR increase its absolute value. In Figure 12 a severe phase fault is presented.
Table 1.
Simulation results
Figure 10.
Simulation result in the αβ current vector pattern for the healthy motor.
Figure 11.
αβ current vector pattern for the motor with a small fault – simulation result.
Figure 12.
Simulation result in the αβ current pattern for the motor with a severe fault.
6.2. Experimental results based on visual features
The induction motor was initially operated without any fault. In this case the corresponding αβ vector pattern it is practically a circle centered at the origin of the coordinates, as presented in Figure 13. This pattern slightly differs from a perfect circle pattern because the supply voltage is not a perfectly unbalanced sinusoidal system (Zidani et al., 2003). Due to this problem, the I.O.C and the DIST_XC_TLR when the induction motor presents no fault are 0.0739 and –2.45, respectively.
Figure 13.
Experimental result in the αβ current Park’s vector pattern for the healthy motor.
Figure 14 presents the corresponding αβ vector representation, under an induction motor stator-winding fault. As expected, within faulty operation there is a distortion in the circle, assuming an elliptic pattern whose major axis orientation is associated to the faulty phase. In this case the I.O.C and the DIST_XC_TLR are 0.0705 and -3.95, respectively. The obtained negative distance value, indicate that the fault occurred in phase b.
Figure 14.
Experimental result in the αβ current Park’s vector pattern for the motor with a small stator fault.
6.3. Simulation results based on statistic moments
In order to verify the proposed method, the system shown in Figure 9 was first simulated in the Matlab environment. The induction motor was initially simulated without any fault. In this case the corresponding αβ vector pattern is a circle centered at the origin of the coordinates. Other simulations were considered. First, several tests were done in which the severity of the fault was rather small. Then new tests were conducted in which the severity of the fault was higher. Table II shows the obtained results by the statistic moments. The statistic excentricity moment when the induction motor has no fault is 0.99 (Figure 10). This means that the αβ current pattern does not present any eccentricity. For a small induction motor fault (Figure 11), the statistic eccentricity moment decreases to 0.75, showing that the αβ pattern exhibits some eccentricity. As can be seen by the results presented in Table II the ellipse angle is different for each phase fault, denoting this angle the faulty phase. Also the statistic moment eccentricity increases as long the fault becomes more severe (Figure 12).
Table 2.
Simulation results
\n\t\t\t
6.4. Experimental results based on statistic moments
Initially the induction motor operated with no fault and the obtained αβ vector pattern differs slightly from a perfect circle. Due to this problem, the statistic eccentricity moment when the induction motor presents no fault is 0.92. When the induction motor was operated within faulty there is a distortion in the circle, assuming an elliptic pattern whose major axis orientation is associated to the faulty phase. In this case the statistic eccentricity moment is 0.78. The obtained angle value is 14.1 , denoting that the fault occurred in phase b.
7. Conclusions
In this chapter an image processing based classifier for detection and diagnosis of induction motor stator fault was presented. This system is based on the obtained stator currents and the correspondent Clark-Concordia transformation. This results in a circular or an elliptic pattern, of the Clark-Concordia stator currents. From the obtained current patterns it was used an image processing algorithm to identify if there is a motor fault. The image processing algorithm is divided in three stages: the image composition, the boundary representation and the feature extraction. For the the features extraction it was used two effective algorithms that can be used for the induction motor fault detection: Visual features and statistic based moments methods. The extract features of the the obtained current patterns allows to identify the turn faults in the stator winding and its correspondent severity. Several simulation and experimental results have been presented. From these results it was possible to verify that the proposed image based classifier can effectively be used for the diagnosis of induction motors.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/6677.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/6677.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/6677",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/6677",totalDownloads:3252,totalViews:303,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 1st 2009",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/6677",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/6677",book:{slug:"image-processing"},signatures:"T. G. Amaral, V. F. Pires, J. F. Martins, A. J. Pires and M. M. Crisóstomo",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Pattern recognition approach",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Image processing based system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Image composition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Boudary representation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Features extraction methodologies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. Visual features",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. Statistic moments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Neuro-fuzzy classifier",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.1. Simulation results based on visual features",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.2. Experimental results based on visual features",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.3. Simulation results based on statistic moments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.4. Experimental results based on statistic moments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AmaralT. G.CrisóstomoM. M.PiresV. F.AlmeidaA. T.\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Visual Motion Detection with Hand-Eye Manipulator Using Statistic Moments Classifiers and Fuzzy Logic Approach- Study, Application and Comparation. 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Escola Superior Tecnologia de Setúbal / Instituto Politécnico de SetúbalInstitute of Systems and Robotics / University of Coimbra, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"V. F. Pires",address:null,affiliation:'
Escola Superior Tecnologia de Setúbal / Instituto Politécnico de Setúbal, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"J. F. Martins",address:null,affiliation:'
CTS-UNINOVA and Departamento de Engenharia Electrotécnica Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia / Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"A. J. Pires",address:null,affiliation:'
CTS-UNINOVA and Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"M. M. Crisóstomo",address:null,affiliation:'
Institute of Systems and Robotics and DEECS/ University of Coimbra, Portugal
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1. Introduction
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Motion planning constitutes one of the primary stages in the control of autonomous systems. The autonomous systems can perform their planned tasks under several environmental conditions as per the designated motion planning algorithms in accordance certain performance criteria. The mentioned criteria may include minimum energy or minimum time consumption and shortest path length. For the motion planning purpose, several different algorithms are proposed by relevant researchers. These methods have certain advantages and disadvantages over the others [1, 2, 3, 4].
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As an alternative approach, guidance schemes can be used in motion planning. Those schemes involve an upper-level guidance algorithm and a lower-level control system. In fact, guidance and control loops can be introduced as officer and soldier, respectively. In other words, as the guidance algorithm behaves as the “master,” the control system takes the “slave” role in this scene [5].
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The guidance schemes are widely implemented to munitions. Guidance and control systems are designed in a compatible manner with munition dynamics so that the munitions including missiles and guided bombs can carry payloads towards specified target points as planned. The guidance part of the mentioned guidance and control system constitutes the kinematic relationships established as per the relative position between the munition and intended target point, while the control system is the closed-loop control system constructed based on the dynamic model of the munition under consideration in order to realize the guidance commands generated by the guidance part. In this extent, the guidance approach enrolls as a motion planning scheme for the munition [5].
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The type of the command yielded by the guidance system depends on the selected guidance law. Namely, as the output of the proportional navigation guidance law which constitutes the most widely used guidance law in guided munitions is the lateral component of the linear acceleration vector of the munition or change of the lateral angular component of the linear velocity vector in time as per the application, the command of the body pursuit guidance law becomes the components of the angle between the body longitudinal axis of the munition and the lateral axis of the Earth-fixed frame [5, 6].
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Guidance laws designated to move the guided munitions towards specified target points make their motion planning in a sense. Regarding this property, there seems no serious obstacle on their implementation on autonomous systems other than guided munition. In this study, the orientation of the sample autonomous mechatronic systems involving a robotic arm, tracked land vehicle, and quadrotor to predefined target points using the linear homing guidance (LHG) law and the relevant computer simulations is carried out. Here, these systems are chosen as very common systems encountered in the physical world. In the considered cases, the LHG law is an angle-based approach, and it takes the flight path angle components of the systems into consideration. Also, the selection of the mentioned mechatronic systems allows evaluating the convenience of the proposed approach in the planar and spatial engagement situations. Moreover, single- and two-stage control systems are utilized in accordance with the LHG law.
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Guidance-based motion planning schemes are developed for certain robotic arm configurations [7]. In this scene, the indicated strategy allows the operators to run the moving belt of the robotic arm-belt assembly line within a mounting line in a more continuous and faster manner than the usual methods. Moreover, it may become to suppress or at least minimize the drawbacks of the conventional approaches by regarding the guidance-based motion planning method. Namely, although many conventional methods require the belt assembly to halt at intermediate placing instants, the guidance-based approach makes possible to place the objects under consideration onto the belt while it remains running during operation [8].
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Different from wheeled vehicles, tracked land vehicles are directed as per a sliding motion which depends on the rotation of the vehicle about an instantaneous rotation center. In other words, they can be oriented to left or right by rotating about their instantaneous rotation center in the convenient sense. Regarding the motion of these vehicles on soil surfaces especially, the motion planning becomes harder. As a remedy to this inconvenience, the guidance-based path planning approach is proposed in the present study [8].
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As the third application, the motion planning of a quadrotor which is intended to carry a payload from a stationary initial point to a prescribed moving land platform at a moderate distance for either military or civil purpose is investigated. Here, the payload can be munition, food, or first aid material. Since the moving platform specified as the target is assumed to be far away from the initial point, it is desired for the quadrotor to catch it within the shortest time duration possible and consume the energy at a minimum level [8, 9].
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In the computer simulations in which the planar motion of the robotic arm and tracked land vehicle and the spatial motion of the quadrotor are taken into consideration, it is assumed that the targets are moving along specified trajectories. Here, regarding the motion characteristics of the autonomous systems dealt with, the robotic arm operates on the horizontal plane, and the vertical displacement of the tracked land vehicle is in a negligible level compared to its longitudinal and lateral motion on the ground plane. Thus, the motion profiles are described on a plane for both the systems. Unlike them, the quadrotor flies in the sky towards all three directions. This fact leads to handle its dynamic behavior in a three-dimensional space. Having completed the computer simulations, it is observed that all three systems can be carried to the intended target points by LHG law [8].
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As a motion planning strategy, guidance approach can be applied to service robots which are utilized to accomplish certain motion profiles apart from the industrial systems. In this way, it is intended to perform hazardous, tedious, and time-consuming tasks in a more efficient and accurate manner in daily use. The mentioned category for service robots, actually, involves not only articulated robot manipulators but also moving and flying autonomous structures as well.
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2. Description of the systems
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2.1 Description of the robotic arm
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The schematic views of the robotic arm and mounting line, i.e., trajectory, containing the slot on which the component grasped by the gripper of the arm is placed is given in Figure 1.
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Figure 1.
System consisting of a robotic arm and moving mounting line [8].
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The system whose schematic view is presented in Figure 1 consists of a two-degree-of-freedom robotic arm and moving mounting line. Here, the object to be put on the slot on the mounting line by the gripper of the robotic arm is taken in spherical geometry, and thus its orientation is ignored. This way, the degree of freedom of the carried object is reduced to two. In other words, it becomes possible to define the instantaneous planar location of the object by regarding the lateral and vertical position components of a point, i.e., point P, on the object. So, a robotic arm is required with minimum degree of freedom of two in order for the object with two degrees of freedom to be carried upon a specified point on the plane without any control deficiency. The definitions made in Figure 1 are listed as follows [8]:
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x and y: lateral and vertical axes of the Earth-fixed frame symbolized by F0.\n
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\n\n\n\n\nu\n→\n\n1\n\n0\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nu\n→\n\n2\n\n0\n\n\n\n: unit vectors denoting the x- and y-axis of F0.\n
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O and A: joints of the robotic arm.
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a1 and a2: lengths of the first and second links of the arm.
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θ1 and θ2: first and second joint angles of the robotic arm.
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P: point defined on the gripper of the robotic arm.
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xP and yP: lateral and vertical position components of point P.
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S: midpoint of the slot on the mounting platform.
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Si: form changing points of the mounting line (i = 1, 2, 3, and 4).
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vS: speed of the slot on the mounting line.
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xS and yS: lateral and vertical position components of point S.
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ρ: turn radius of the mounting line.
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ψ: rotation angle on the circular tip parts of the mounting line.
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L: total length of the mounting line.
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d: perpendicular distance between the connection point of the robotic arm to the ground and the point of the mounting line closest to that connection point.
where, as \n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n=\n\n\n\n\nθ\n1\n\n\n\nθ\n2\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n and \n\n\nT\n¯\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n1\n\n\n\n\nT\n2\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n, \n\n\nM\n̂\n\n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nH\n̂\n\n\n\n\nθ\n¯\n\ṅ\n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n\n which denote the inertia matrix and compound friction and Coriolis effect matrix, respectively, are defined as \n\n\nM\n̂\n\n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\nm\n11\n\n\n\n\nm\n12\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm\n12\n\n\n\n\nm\n22\n\n\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nH\n̂\n\n\n\n\nθ\n¯\n\ṅ\n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\nh\n11\n\n\n\n\nh\n12\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh\n21\n\n\n\n\nh\n22\n\n\n\n\n\n\n with \n\n\nm\n11\n\n=\n\nm\n1\n\n\n\nd\n1\n2\n\n+\n\nm\n2\n\n\n\n\n\na\n1\n2\n\n+\n\nd\n2\n2\n\n+\n2\n\n\na\n1\n\n\n\nd\n2\n\n\ncos\n\n\nθ\n2\n\n\n\n\n+\n\nI\n\nc\n1\n\n\n+\n\nI\n\nc\n2\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nm\n12\n\n=\n\nm\n2\n\n\n\nd\n2\n\n\n\n\n\nd\n2\n\n+\n\na\n1\n\n\ncos\n\n\nθ\n2\n\n\n\n\n+\n\nI\n\nc\n2\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nm\n22\n\n=\n\nm\n2\n\n\n\nd\n2\n2\n\n+\n\nI\n\nc\n2\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nh\n11\n\n=\n\nb\n1\n\n−\n2\n\n\nm\n2\n\n\n\na\n1\n\n\n\nd\n2\n\n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n2\n\n\nsin\n\n\nθ\n2\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nh\n12\n\n=\n\nb\n2\n\n−\n\nm\n2\n\n\n\na\n1\n\n\n\nd\n2\n\n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n2\n\n\nsin\n\n\nθ\n2\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nh\n21\n\n=\n\nm\n2\n\n\n\na\n1\n\n\n\nd\n2\n\n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n1\n\n\nsin\n\n\nθ\n2\n\n\n\n, and \n\n\nh\n22\n\n=\n\nb\n2\n\n\n [8].
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In the shorthand definitions above, m1, m2, Ic1, and Ic2 denote the masses of the first and second links of the manipulator and the moments of inertia of these links with respect to their mass centers indicated by C1 and C2, respectively. Also, b1 and b2 represent the viscous friction coefficients at the first and second joints as well as the definitions of \n\n\nd\n1\n\n=\n\n\nO\n\n\nC\n1\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nd\n2\n\n=\n\n\nA\n\n\nC\n2\n\n\n\n\n [8].
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2.2 Description of the tracked land vehicle
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As the second system examined, the schematic description of the tracked land vehicle is shown in Figure 2. The explanations of the quantities labeled in Figure 2 are given as follows [8]:
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Figure 2.
Notable kinematic parameters of the tracked land vehicle and forces acting on the vehicle [8].
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O, G, and C: origin of F0\n, mass canter of the tracked vehicle, and instantaneous rotation center of the vehicle.
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\n\n\n\n\nu\n→\n\ni\n\n0\n\n\n\n: unit vectors of F0.\n
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\n\n\n\n\nu\n→\n\ni\n\nb\n\n\n\n: unit vectors of the tracked land vehicle frame, i.e., Fb.\n
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x and y: position components of point G on F0.\n
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ψ: orientation angle of the vehicle on the vertical plane.
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\n\n\n\n\nr\n→\n\n\nG\n/\nO\n\n\n\n: relative position of point G with respect to point O.
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\n\n\n\n\nr\n→\n\n\nG\n/\nC\n\n\n\n: relative position of point G with respect to point C.
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xC and yC: position components point C in Fb.\n
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a, b, c, d, and v: dimensional parameters of the vehicle.
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m: mass of the tracked land vehicle.
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\n\n\n\nW\n→\n\n\n: weight vector of the tracked land vehicle.
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\n\n\n\n\nW\n→\n\nL\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nW\n→\n\nR\n\n\n: weighting forces on the left and right tracks.
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\n\n\n\n\nR\n→\n\nXL\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nR\n→\n\nXR\n\n\n: longitudinal friction components acting on the left and right tracks.
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\n\n\n\n\nF\n→\n\nL\n\n\nand \n\n\n\nF\n→\n\nR\n\n\n: actuation forces acting on the left and right tracks.
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ρxL and ρxR: lateral friction force density acting on the left and right tracks.
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For the tracked land vehicle, as ux, uy, and uz denote the inputs and bx, by, and bψ indicate the gravity and frictional force components, governing differential equations can be written in the following manner [8]:
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\n\n\nx\n¨\n\n=\n\nu\nx\n\n−\n\nb\nx\n\n\nE2
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\n\n\ny\n¨\n\n=\n\nu\ny\n\n−\n\nb\ny\n\n\nE3
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\n\n\nψ\n¨\n\n=\n\nu\nψ\n\n+\n\nb\nψ\n\n\nE4
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where \n\n\nu\nx\n\n=\n\nu\nF\n\n\ncos\n\nψ\n\n\n, \n\n\nu\ny\n\n=\n\nu\nF\n\n\nsin\n\nψ\n\n\n, \n\n\nu\nF\n\n=\n\n\n\nT\nL\n\n+\n\nT\nR\n\n\n\n/\n\n\nm\n\n\nr\nS\n\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nu\nψ\n\n=\na\n\n\n\n\nT\nR\n\n−\n\nT\nL\n\n\n\n/\n\n\n2\n\n\nI\nz\n\n\n\nr\nS\n\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nb\nx\n\n=\n\nσ\n\nx\ṅ\n\n\n\n\nμ\nx\n\n\ng\n\ncos\n\nψ\n\n\n, \n\n\nb\ny\n\n=\n\nσ\n\nx\ṅ\n\n\n\n\nμ\nx\n\n\ng\n\nsin\n\nψ\n\n\n, and \n\n\nb\nψ\n\n=\n\n\n\nσ\n\nψ\ṅ\n\n\n\nm\n\ng\n\n\nb\n\n\nI\nz\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb\n\n\nσ\n\nx\ṅ\n\n\n\n\n\nv\n−\n\na\n2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nμ\nx\n\n\nμ\ny\n\n\n\n+\n\nx\nC\n\n\n\n\nc\n−\nd\n\n\n−\n\n\n\n\nc\n2\n\n+\n\nd\n2\n\n\n\n2\n\n\n\n\n.
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Regarding these definitions, TL and TR stand for the actuation torques exerted by the power transmission gears on the left and right tracks; rS and Iz represent the radius of its actuation gear and moment of inertia of the vehicle about the rotation axis indicated by the unit vector \n\n\n\nu\n→\n\n3\n\nb\n\n\n\n; and eventually μx and μy stand for the static friction coefficients between the tracks of the vehicle and surface on the lateral planes. Here, the symbols \n\n\nσ\n\nx\ṅ\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nσ\n\nψ\ṅ\n\n\n\n are introduced as \n\n\nσ\n\nx\ṅ\n\n\n=\nsgn\n\n\n\nx\ṅ\n\n\ncos\n\nψ\n\n+\n\ny\ṅ\n\n\nsin\n\nψ\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nσ\n\nψ\ṅ\n\n\n=\nsgn\n\n\nψ\ṅ\n\n\n\n where sgn(·) shows the signum function [8].
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2.3 Description of the quadrotor
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The schematic view of the quadrotor, the third system under consideration, and engagement geometry between the quadrotor and moving land platform are presented in Figures 3 and 4, respectively [8].
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Figure 3.
Schematic view of the quadrotor [8].
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Figure 4.
Engagement geometry for the quadrotor [8].
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As indicated in Figure 3, the front and rear rotors expressed as numbers 1 and 3, respectively, have rotations in positive sense around the axis represented by unit vector \n\n\n\nu\n→\n\n3\n\nb\n\n\n\n of the body-fixed frame of the quadrotor, i.e., Fb\n, whose origin is attached at point C and whose axes are shown by unit vectors \n\n\n\nu\n→\n\ni\n\nb\n\n\n\n (i = 1, 2, and 3), while the left and right rotors, i.e., numbers 2 and 4 rotors, rotate in negative sense [8].
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In Figure 3, L and Ωj (j = 1, 2, 3, and 4) stand for the distance between the center of rotation of each motor and point C and angular speed of the electromechanical actuator, i.e., electrical servomotor, used to move the propeller j, respectively. In addition to those parameters, the symbols in Figure 3 can be listed as follows [8]:
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T: target point on the moving platform for the quadrotor.
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Ti: points at which the shape of the trajectory of the moving platform changes (i = 0, 1, and 2).
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vT: linear speed of point T on the moving platform.
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ρ: radius of curvature of the trajectory of the moving platform.
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ψ: rotation angle of the rounded tip portions of the trajectory of the moving platform.
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H: total length of the trajectory of the moving platform.
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D: perpendicular distance between the origin of F0\n, i.e., point O, and the midline of the section of the trajectory of the moving platform closest to this point.
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Considering the related kinematic and dynamic parameters of the quadrotor system, the dynamic model of the quadrotor can be set as follows using the relevant kinematic and dynamic parameters with angular position parameters of ϕ, θ, and ψ and translational position parameters of x, y, and z [8]:
where \n\n\nc\nϕ\n\n=\nL\n\n\nK\nϕ\n\n/\n\nJ\nx\n\n\n, \n\n\nJ\nψθ\n\n=\n\n\n\nJ\ny\n\n−\n\nJ\nz\n\n\n\n/\n\nJ\nx\n\n\n, \n\n\nJ\nθ\n\n=\n\nJ\nv\n\n/\n\nJ\nx\n\n\n, \n\n\nΩ\ne\n\n=\n\nΩ\n1\n\n−\n\nΩ\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n3\n\n−\n\nΩ\n4\n\n\n, \n\n\nu\nϕ\n\n=\nL\n\nb\n\n\n\n\nΩ\n2\n2\n\n−\n\nΩ\n4\n2\n\n\n\n/\n\nJ\nx\n\n\n, \n\n\nc\nθ\n\n=\nL\n\n\nK\nθ\n\n/\n\nJ\ny\n\n\n, \n\n\nJ\n\nψ\n\nϕ\n\n\n=\n\n\n\nJ\nz\n\n−\n\nJ\nx\n\n\n\n/\n\nJ\ny\n\n\n, \n\n\nJ\nϕ\n\n=\n\nJ\nv\n\n/\n\nJ\ny\n\n\n, \n\n\nu\nθ\n\n=\nL\n\nb\n\n\n\n\nΩ\n1\n2\n\n−\n\nΩ\n3\n2\n\n\n\n/\n\nJ\ny\n\n\n, \n\n\nc\nψ\n\n=\n\nK\nψ\n\n/\n\nJ\nz\n\n\n, \n\n\nJ\n\nθ\n\nϕ\n\n\n=\n\n\n\nJ\nx\n\n−\n\nJ\ny\n\n\n\n/\n\nJ\nz\n\n\n, \n\n\nu\nψ\n\n=\nd\n\n\n\n−\n\nΩ\n1\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n2\n2\n\n−\n\nΩ\n3\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n4\n2\n\n\n\n/\n\nJ\nz\n\n\n, \n\n\nc\nx\n\n=\n\nK\nx\n\n/\nm\n\n, \n\n\nu\nx\n\n=\nb\n\n\n\n\nΩ\n1\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n2\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n3\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n4\n2\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc\n\nψ\n\n\ns\n\nθ\n\n\nc\n\nϕ\n\n+\ns\n\nψ\n\n\ns\n\nϕ\n\n\n\n/\nm\n\n, \n\n\nc\ny\n\n=\n\nK\ny\n\n/\nm\n\n, \n\n\nu\ny\n\n=\nb\n\n\n\n\nΩ\n1\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n2\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n3\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n4\n2\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns\n\nψ\n\n\ns\n\nθ\n\n\nc\n\nϕ\n\n−\nc\n\nψ\n\n\ns\n\nϕ\n\n\n\n/\nm\n\n, \n\n\nc\nz\n\n=\n\nK\nz\n\n/\nm\n\n, and \n\n\nu\nz\n\n=\nb\n\n\n\n\nΩ\n1\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n2\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n3\n2\n\n+\n\nΩ\n4\n2\n\n\n\n\nc\n\nθ\n\n\nc\n\nϕ\n\n/\nm\n\n.
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In the definitions above, Jx, Jy, and Jz show the moment of inertia components of the quadrotor around the axes defined by unit vectors \n\n\n\nu\n→\n\n1\n\nb\n\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nu\n→\n\n2\n\nb\n\n\n\n, and \n\n\n\nu\n→\n\n3\n\nb\n\n\n\n, respectively. Jv represents the moment of inertia of each rotor about its axis of rotation, d indicates the drag factor, and Kϕ, Kθ, Kψ, Kx, Ky, and Kz stand for the aerodynamic moment and force components acting on the system in the roll, pitch, and yaw planes and along the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical planes, respectively. Furthermore, b indicates thrust factor of the motors [8].
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3. Control systems
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Since the guidance commands generated by the LHG law which is considered to make the motion planning of the autonomous systems so as to bring them to the specified point on the target trajectories are in terms of the linear velocity components of the mass centers of those systems, the main control variables of the systems are selected to be velocity components [8]. Also, for the sake of maintaining the stability of the systems, the gain matrices of the relevant control systems are continuously updated throughout the planned motion using the state information of target acquired by certain means like a camera.
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3.1 Robotic arm control system
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Because the guidance signals produced by the LHG law are in terms of the angle between the velocity vector of point P and lateral axis, the control variable of the robotic arm control system is chosen to be the joint speeds, i.e., \n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n1\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n2\n\n\n [6]. Since the main objective is the speed control of point P, the control system based on the joint speeds corresponds to an indirect control scheme. Regarding the difficulty in the measurement of the instantaneous speed values of point P along with the fact that joint angles and their rates can easily be acquired by means of the sensors put on the joints, the use of such an indirect control algorithm seems to be proper. In this sense, the linear position and velocity components of point P can be calculated using the measured joint positions and speeds via the loop closure equations, and consequently the trajectory of point P on the horizontal plane can be determined as a function of time [8].
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Here, as \n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n\n1\nd\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n\n2\nd\n\n\n\n indicate the reference joint speeds and \n\n\n\n\nθ\n¯\n\ṅ\n\nd\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n\n1\nd\n\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n\n2\nd\n\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n stands for the column matrix corresponds to these quantities, the error between the desired, i.e., reference, and actual joint speeds, i.e., \n\n\ne\n¯\n\n\n, can be set as follows [8]:
The relevant control rule can be written according to the computed torque method with the addition of the integral action to nullify the steady-state errors by regarding the error definition in Eq. (11) as follows [10]:
Here, as “T” represents the matrix transpose, \n\n\nT\n¯\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n1\n\n\n\n\nT\n2\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n demonstrates the torque column matrix for joint torques T1 and T2. Also, \n\n\nM\n̂\n\n=\n\nM\n̂\n\n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nH\n̂\n\n=\n\nH\n̂\n\n\n\n\nθ\n¯\n\ṅ\n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n\ndenote the inertia and centrifugal effect matrices, while \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\np\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\ni\n\n\n correspond to the proportional and integral gain matrices, respectively. As implied, the resulting control system becomes in PI (proportional plus integral) form [8].
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The differential equation corresponding to the error dynamics of the control system for the robotic arm are obtained using Eqs. (11) and (12) in the following fashion:
As ωci and ζci denote the desired bandwidth and damping ratio of link i (i = 1 and 2), the error dynamics can be written for a second-order ideal system with two degrees of freedom as follows [10]:
where \n\n\nD\n̂\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n2\n\n\nζ\n\nc\n1\n\n\n\n\nω\n\nc\n1\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n2\n\n\nζ\n\nc\n2\n\n\n\n\nω\n\nc\n2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nW\n̂\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\nω\n\nc\n1\n\n2\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\nω\n\nc\n2\n\n2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n.
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Consequently, \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\np\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\ni\n\n\n are determined by equating Eq. (13) to Eq. (14) as follows [8]:
During the control of the tracked land vehicle for the angular variables, the angular position requirement for ψ should also be satisfied. For this purpose, a two-stage cascaded control scheme is constructed for the tracked land vehicle. In this algorithm, the outer loop is responsible of making linear velocity control in accordance with the guidance commands, while the inner loop makes the angular position control such that the orientation angle requirement arising during the linear velocity control is realized [8].
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Here, the expressions which will be considered for the design of the linear velocity control system which is termed as “the primary control system” can be arranged in the forthcoming state space form from Eqs. (2) and (3) as \n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\np\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx\ṅ\n\n\n\n\ny\ṅ\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nu\n¯\n\np\n\n\n, and \n\n\n\nb\n¯\n\np\n\n\n stand for the column matrices for the state variables, system inputs, and gravity effect, respectively [8]:
The control rule of the primary control system can be established using the computed torque control method according to the PI control action like the robotic arm control system so as to nullify the steady-state errors [8]:
In the above equation, \n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\npd\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\npp\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\npi\n\n\n, and \n\n\n\ne\n¯\n\np\n\n\n denote the column matrix for the desired inputs, gain matrix for the proportional control action, gain matrix for the integral control action, and column matrix for the error, respectively, for the primary control system. Here, \n\n\n\ne\n¯\n\np\n\n=\n\n\nx\n¯\n\npd\n\n−\n\n\nx\n¯\n\np\n\n\n is introduced.
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Substituting Eq. (18) into Eq. (17) yields the next equation for the error dynamics of the primary control system [8]:
As ωpi and ζpi denote the desired bandwidth and damping ratio of link i (i = 1 and 2) for the primary control system, the error dynamics can be written for a second-order ideal system with two degrees of freedom as follows [8]:
where \n\n\n\nD\n̂\n\np\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n2\n\n\nζ\n\np\n1\n\n\n\n\nω\n\np\n1\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n2\n\n\nζ\n\np\n2\n\n\n\n\nω\n\np\n2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nW\n̂\n\np\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\nω\n\np\n1\n\n2\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\nω\n\np\n2\n\n2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n.
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Equating Eq. (19) to Eq. (20), the gain matrices are found for the primary control system as follows [8]:
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\n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\npp\n\n=\n\n\nD\n̂\n\np\n\n\nE21
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\n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\npi\n\n=\n\n\nW\n̂\n\np\n\n\nE22
\n
The control rule for the angular control system called “the secondary control system” can be set using the computed torque method according to the PD (proportional plus derivative) control action in the following fashion [8]:
In the above expression, bψ, ψd, Ksp, Ksd, and es represent the inertia gain for the vehicle, desired input variable for the secondary control system, gain of the proportional control action, gain of the derivative control action, and error, respectively. Also, \n\n\ne\ns\n\n=\n\nψ\nd\n\n−\nψ\n\n is introduced.
\n
Plugging Eq. (23) into Eq. (4), the error dynamics of the secondary control system is determined as follows [8]:
As ωs and ζs indicate the desired bandwidth and damping ratio for variable ψ for the secondary control system, the error dynamics can be written for a second-order ideal system with single degree of freedom as given below:
The same two-stage control system is designed for the quadrotor as that for the tracked land vehicle. For the primary control system, these expressions can be rearranged in the state space form by assigning the columns of the state variables and inputs of the system to be \n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\np\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx\ṅ\n\n\n\n\ny\ṅ\n\n\n\n\nz\ṅ\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nu\n¯\n\np\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu\nx\n\n\n\n\nu\ny\n\n\n\n\nu\nz\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n, respectively, as letter “T” indicates the transpose operation as follows [8]:
where \n\n\n\nC\n̂\n\np\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\nc\nx\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\nc\ny\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n0\n\n\n\nc\nz\n\n\n\n\n\n\n.
\n
The control law of the primary control system including an integral action can be designed as per the computed torque method with PI action in the following manner [8]:
In the expression above, \n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\npd\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\npp\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\npi\n\n\n, and \n\n\n\ne\n¯\n\np\n\n\n stand for the desired input column, proportional gain matrix, integral gain matrix, and error column for the primary control system, respectively, and the definition \n\n\n\ne\n¯\n\np\n\n=\n\n\nx\n¯\n\npd\n\n−\n\n\nx\n¯\n\np\n\n\n is given.
\n
Substituting Eq. (29) into Eq. (28), the error dynamics of the primary control system is obtained as follows [8]:
As ωpi and ζpi represent the desired bandwidth and damping ratio of the ith state variable (i = 1, 2, and 3) of the primary control system, respectively, the error dynamics of a second-order ideal system with three degrees of freedom can be described using the forthcoming expression [8]:
where \n\n\n\nD\n̂\n\np\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n2\n\n\nζ\n\np\n1\n\n\n\n\nω\n\np\n1\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n2\n\n\nζ\n\np\n2\n\n\n\n\nω\n\np\n2\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n0\n\n\n2\n\n\nζ\n\np\n3\n\n\n\n\nω\n\np\n3\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nW\n̂\n\np\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\nω\n\np\n1\n\n2\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\nω\n\np\n2\n\n2\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n0\n\n\n\nω\n\np\n3\n\n2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n.
\n
Matching Eqs. (30) and (31), the gain matrices appear for the primary control system as follows:
\n
\n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\npp\n\n=\n\n\nD\n̂\n\np\n\n\nE32
\n
\n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\npi\n\n=\n\n\nW\n̂\n\np\n\n\nE33
\n
As the corresponding columns of the state variables and inputs of the system are shown to be \n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\ns\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\nϕ\n\n\nθ\n\n\nψ\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nu\n¯\n\ns\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu\nϕ\n\n\n\n\nu\nθ\n\n\n\n\nu\nψ\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n, the matrix equality below is reached via Eqs. (5)–(7) for the orientation, or attitude, control system as the secondary control system [8]:
where \n\n\n\nb\n¯\n\ns\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\n−\n\nc\nϕ\n\n\n\nϕ\ṅ\n\n+\n\n\n\nJ\nψθ\n\n\n\nψ\ṅ\n\n+\n\nJ\nθ\n\n\n\nΩ\ne\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n\n\n\n−\n\nc\nθ\n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n+\n\n\n\nJ\nψϕ\n\n\n\nψ\ṅ\n\n−\n\nJ\nϕ\n\n\n\nΩ\ne\n\n\n\n\n\nϕ\ṅ\n\n\n\n−\n\nc\nψ\n\n\n\nψ\ṅ\n\n+\n\nJ\nθϕ\n\n\n\nθ\ṅ\n\n\n\nϕ\ṅ\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n.
\n
In a similar manner, the control law can be written according to the computed torque method with PD action for the secondary control system as follows [8]:
Here, \n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\nsd\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\nsp\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\nsd\n\n\n, and \n\n\n\ne\n¯\n\ns\n\n\n indicate the desired input column, proportional gain matrix, derivative gain matrix, and error column for the secondary control system, respectively. Also, the definition \n\n\n\ne\n¯\n\ns\n\n=\n\n\nx\n¯\n\nsd\n\n−\n\n\nx\n¯\n\ns\n\n\n is made for the error term.
\n
In the proposed entire control scheme, the desired values of ϕ and θ are calculated using ux, uy, and uz inputs along with the parameter uF by regarding the definitions within Eqs. (5)–(10). In other words, the reference inputs, or commands, to ϕ and θ are generated by the outer loop. On the other hand, the remaining angular position variable ψ is adjusted to be a constant value. That means its reference value is set as a fixed quantity. In this sense, the desired value of ψ is then specified to be zero as the decision on keeping the quadrotor with no angular motion in the yaw plane [11, 12].
\n
Inserting Eq. (35) into Eq. (34), the error dynamics of the secondary control system is obtained as
As ωsi and ζsi denote the desired bandwidth and damping ratio of the ith state variable (i = 1, 2, and 3) of the secondary control system, the error dynamics of a second-order ideal system with three degrees of freedom can be described using the following equation [8]:
where \n\n\n\nD\n̂\n\ns\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n2\n\n\nζ\n\ns\n1\n\n\n\n\nω\n\ns\n1\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n2\n\n\nζ\n\ns\n2\n\n\n\n\nω\n\ns\n2\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n0\n\n\n2\n\n\nζ\n\ns\n3\n\n\n\n\nω\n\ns\n3\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nW\n̂\n\ns\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\nω\n\ns\n1\n\n2\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\nω\n\ns\n2\n\n2\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n\n0\n\n\n\nω\n\ns\n3\n\n2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n.
\n
Equating Eqs. (47) and (48) to each other yields the gain matrices of the secondary control system as shown below [8]:
\n
\n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\nsp\n\n=\n\n\nW\n̂\n\ns\n\n\nE38
\n
\n\n\n\nK\n̂\n\nsd\n\n=\n\n\nD\n̂\n\ns\n\n\nE39
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Engagement geometry
\n
Since the motion of the moving land platform for the quadrotor, i.e., trajectory of the target point, is dealt with in the three-dimensional space, the lateral projection of the engagement geometry drawn for the quadrotor can be used for the engagements of the robotic arm and tracked land vehicle with their targets as well.
\n
The engagement geometry between the quadrotor and the moving land platform is described in the horizontal and vertical planes separately. Thus, the vertical engagement between point C, the mass center of the quadrotor, and point T on the moving platform can be depicted as seen in Figure 5. The lateral engagement geometry between points C and T can be similarly constructed using the same expressions [8].
\n
Figure 5.
Vertical engagement geometry between the mass center of the quadrotor and point defined on the moving platform [8].
\n
In Figure 5, vC, γq, rT/C, γt, and λp show the resultant speed of point C, orientation angle of vC from the horizontal plane, relative position of point T with respect to point C, orientation angle of vT from the horizontal axis, and orientation angle of rT/C from the horizontal axis. Here, the next equations are held for vC, γt, and λp [8]:
The final offset between points C and T at the end of the engagement, i.e., dmiss, is calculated using the next formula as tF indicates the termination time [8]:
Here, as xC, yC, and zC stand for the position components of point C and xT, yT, and zT stand for the position components of point T on F0\n, \n\nΔ\nx\n\n\nt\nF\n\n\n=\n\nx\nC\n\n\n\nt\nF\n\n\n−\n\nx\nT\n\n\n\nt\nF\n\n\n\n, \n\nΔ\ny\n\n\nt\nF\n\n\n=\n\ny\nC\n\n\n\nt\nF\n\n\n−\n\ny\nT\n\n\n\nt\nF\n\n\n\n, and \n\nΔ\nz\n\n\nt\nF\n\n\n=\n\nz\nC\n\n\n\nt\nF\n\n\n−\n\nz\nT\n\n\n\nt\nF\n\n\n\n.
\n
\n
\n
5. Guidance law
\n
In order for the considered point on the relevant system (point P for the robotic arm, point C for the tracked land vehicle, and point C for the quadrotor) to catch the desired point on the moving platform (point S for the robotic arm and point T for the tracked land vehicle and quadrotor), the guidance commands can be derived according to the LHG law for which the mechatronic system-target engagement geometry is depicted in Figure 6 [13].
\n
Figure 6.
Linear homing guidance law geometry [13].
\n
In Figure 6, M, T, and P stand for the mechatronic system, the target, and the predicted intercept point, respectively. Also, \n\n\n\nv\n→\n\nMactual\n\n\n shows the velocity vector of the mechatronic system at the beginning of the guidance. The velocity vector of the mechatronic system in order to be on the collision triangle is then indicated by \n\n\n\nv\n→\n\nMideal\n\n\n. Once \n\n\n\nv\n→\n\nMactual\n\n\n is turned into \n\n\n\nv\n→\n\nMideal\n\n\n, it means that the mechatronic system is on the collision triangle so as to collide the intended target at point P. In applying this method, unless the target has a velocity vector constant in both magnitude and direction, \n\n\n\nv\n→\n\nMideal\n\n\n should be updated continuously in order to guarantee the intercept [13].
\n
Regarding the LHG geometry expressed above verbally, the relevant guidance commands can be derived in terms of the orientation angles of vC from the lateral and vertical axes (\n\n\nη\nq\nc\n\n\n and \n\n\nγ\nq\nc\n\n\n) as follows [6, 8]:
where \n\nΔ\nx\n=\n\nx\nC\n\n−\n\nx\nT\n\n\n, \n\nΔ\ny\n=\n\ny\nC\n\n−\n\ny\nT\n\n\n, and \n\nΔ\nz\n=\n\nz\nC\n\n−\n\nz\nT\n\n\n.
\n
In Eqs. (45) and (46), the components of the linear velocity vector of point T whose amplitude is vT, i.e., vTx, vTy, and vTz, are defined in the following equations [6, 8]:
In the above equation, \n\nσ\n=\n\nv\nTx\n\n\nΔ\nx\n+\n\nv\nTy\n\n\nΔ\ny\n+\n\nv\nTz\n\n\nΔ\nz\n\n and\n\nΔ\n\nr\n2\n\n=\nΔ\n\nx\n2\n\n+\nΔ\n\ny\n2\n\n+\nΔ\n\nz\n2\n\n\n.
\n
In this work, it is assumed that the speed and orientation parameters of the moving target are obtained by processing the data acquired by the camera on the system under control. Since the control inputs of the designed control system are linear velocity components, the guidance commands given in Eqs. (45) and (46) should be expressed in terms of the linear velocity parameters for realization. This transformation can be done by writing the velocity vector of point C with amplitude vC in terms of its components on F0\n as follows [6, 8]:
The system trajectories acquired from the computer simulations performed in accordance with the numerical values given in Tables 1–3 for the robotic arm, tracked land vehicle, and quadrotor are submitted in Figures 7–10 along with the corresponding target motions. Having constructed the engagement geometry between the mechatronic system under consideration and target, the LHG law is applied for these situations. In the simulations, disturbance effects due to the nonlinear friction characteristic and noise on the sensors on the joints are assumed to randomly change within the intervals of ±10 N·m and ±1 × 10−3 rad for the robotic arm. Also, it is regarded that the angular and linear dynamics of the quadrotor are subjected to random disturbing moment and force with maximum amplitudes of 50 N·m and 100 N, respectively. The simulations of the tracked land vehicle are made on nominal operating conditions [8].
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameter
\n
Numerical value
\n
\n\n\n
\n
a1 and a2\n
\n
1.25 m
\n
\n
\n
d1 and d2\n
\n
0.625 m
\n
\n
\n
m1 and m2\n
\n
10 kg
\n
\n
\n
Ic1 and Ic2\n
\n
1.302 kg·m2\n
\n
\n
\n
b1 and b2\n
\n
0.001 N·m·s/rad
\n
\n
\n
ωc1 and ωc2\n
\n
10 Hz
\n
\n
\n
ζc1 and ζc2\n
\n
0.707
\n
\n
\n
L
\n
2 m
\n
\n
\n
ρ
\n
0.5 m
\n
\n
\n
d
\n
1.5 m
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Numerical values used in the simulations for the robotic arm [8].
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameter
\n
Numerical value
\n
\n\n\n
\n
a
\n
2.5 m
\n
\n
\n
b
\n
4 m
\n
\n
\n
v
\n
1.25 m
\n
\n
\n
m
\n
25,000 kg
\n
\n
\n
Iz\n
\n
60,000 kg·m2\n
\n
\n
\n
rs\n
\n
0.3 m
\n
\n
\n
μx and μy\n
\n
0.4
\n
\n
\n
ωp1 and ωp2\n
\n
10 Hz
\n
\n
\n
fs\n
\n
30 Hz
\n
\n
\n
ζp1, ζp2, and ζs\n
\n
0.707
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Numerical values used in the simulations for the tracked land vehicle [8].
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameter
\n
Numerical value
\n
\n\n\n
\n
L
\n
0.25 m
\n
\n
\n
b
\n
5 × 10−5 N·s2\n
\n
\n
\n
d
\n
1 × 10−6 N·m·s2\n
\n
\n
\n
m
\n
2 kg
\n
\n
\n
Ix and Iy\n
\n
0.2 kg·m2\n
\n
\n
\n
Iz\n
\n
0.3 kg·m2\n
\n
\n
\n
Jv\n
\n
1 × 10−3 kg·m2\n
\n
\n
\n
Kx, Ky, and Kz\n
\n
0.01 N·s/m
\n
\n
\n
Kϕ, Kθ, and Kψ\n
\n
0.012 N·s/m
\n
\n
\n
ωpi\n
\n
5 Hz
\n
\n
\n
ωsi\n
\n
15 Hz
\n
\n
\n
ζpi and ζsi\n
\n
0.707
\n
\n
\n
H
\n
50 m
\n
\n
\n
ρ
\n
15 m
\n
\n
\n
D
\n
50 m
\n
\n
\n
Solver step
\n
1 ms
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Numerical values used in the simulations for the quadrotor [8].
\n
Figure 7.
Engagement geometry of the robotic arm with the mounting line.
\n
Figure 8.
Engagement geometry of the tracked land vehicle with the constant speed target point.
\n
Figure 9.
Horizontal engagement geometry of the quadrotor with the platform.
\n
Figure 10.
Vertical engagement geometry of the quadrotor with the platform.
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusion
\n
As a result of the performed computer simulations, it is shown that the considered autonomous mechatronic systems, i.e., the robotic arm, tracked land vehicle, and quadrotor, can catch the specified target points by regarding the LHG law. Although only one engagement case is presented for each of the systems above, the same result is attained for different situations, too. In this scene, one of the most important considerations is the capacity of the actuators of the autonomous systems. Namely, if the maximum force or torque, hence maximum current, level of the actuators (electric motors) does not satisfy the requirements arising due to the planned motion profile, then the relevant system cannot track the target as planned. In general, it can be concluded that the motion planning of mechatronic systems including the service robots can be made against predefined target points by choosing a convenient guidance law.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"motion planning, guidance, guidance law, linear homing, autonomous system",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71614.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71614.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71614",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71614",totalDownloads:121,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 25th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 20th 2020",datePrePublished:"March 31st 2020",datePublished:"November 26th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Motion planning is a significant stage in the control of autonomous systems. As an alternative method, guidance approach is proposed for the motion planning of those systems. In guided munitions, guidance laws determine the success of the guidance systems designed to steer systems such as missiles and guided bombs towards predefined targets. The guidance laws designated according to determinative agents such as the firing position of the munition, target type, and operational requirements try to provide the munition with arriving at the target point even under the disturbing effects. In this study, the applicability of the guidance laws to autonomous systems is investigated in a manner similar to the approach for the guided munitions. For this purpose, the motion planning of the selected robotic arm, tracked land vehicle, and quadrotor is tried to be performed in order to move them to predefined target points. Having designed the control systems compatible to the selected guidance laws for the considered systems, the corresponding guidance scheme is constructed. Eventually, after conducting the relevant computer simulations, it is observed that the desired target chase can be made in a successive manner for all cases.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71614",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71614",signatures:"Bülent Özkan",book:{id:"9902",title:"Service Robotics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Service Robotics",slug:"service-robotics",publishedDate:"November 26th 2020",bookSignature:"Volkan Sezer, Sinan Öncü and Pınar Boyraz Baykas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9902.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268170",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"volkan-sezer",fullName:"Volkan Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"315942",title:"Dr.",name:"Bülent",middleName:null,surname:"Özkan",fullName:"Bülent Özkan",slug:"bulent-ozkan",email:"bozkan37@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Description of the systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Description of the robotic arm",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Description of the tracked land vehicle",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Description of the quadrotor",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Control systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Robotic arm control system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Tracked land vehicle control system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Quadrotor control system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Engagement geometry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Guidance law",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Computer simulations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nDebnath SSK, Omar R, Latip NBA. A review on energy efficient path planning algorithms for unmanned air vehicles. Computational Science and Technology, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.; 2019;481:523-532\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nMahmoud Zadeh S, Powers DMW, Bairam Zadeh R. State-of-the-art in UVs’ autonomous motion planning. Autonomy and Unmanned Vehicles, Cognitive Science and Technology. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.; 2019. pp. 31-40\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nDu X, Li X, Li D, Dai B. Path planning for autonomous vehicles in complicated environments. In: 2016 IEEE International Conference on Vehicular Electronics and Safety (ICVES); 2016. pp. 54-60\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nMinh VT, Pumwa J. Feasible path planning for autonomous vehicles. Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2014;2014:1-12\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nZarchan P. Tactical and Strategic Missile Guidance. 2nd ed. USA: Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics; 1994\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nÖzkan B, Özgören MK, Mahmutyazıcıoğlu G. Comparison of the acceleration- and angle-based guidance laws for a short-range air-to-air missile (in Turkish). In: TOK2008-Automatic Control National Meeting. İstanbul, Turkey: İstanbul Technical University; 2008\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nKunwar F, Benhabib B. Advanced predictive guidance navigation for mobile robots: A novel strategy for rendezvous in dynamic settings. International Journal on Smart Sensing and Intelligent Systems. 2008;1(4):858-890\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nÖzkan B. Investigation of the usefulness of the linear homing guidance law for the motion planning of mechatronic systems. In: 17th International Carpathian Control Conference (ICCC 2016), Tatranská Lomnica, Slovakia; 2016\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nTsay TS. Guidance and control laws for quadrotor UAV. WSEAS Transactions on Systems and Control. 2014;9(1):606-613\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nOgata K. Modern Control Engineering. 2nd ed. New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall International Editions; 1990\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nVoos H, Nourghassemi B. Nonlinear control of stabilized flight and landing for quadrotor UAVs. In: Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the European Institute for Applied Research (IAR’2009). Góra, Poland: Zielona; 2009\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nZhang D, Qi H, Wu X, Xie Y, Xu J. The quadrotor dynamic modeling and indoor target tracking control method. Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2014;2014:1-9\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nÖzkan B. Dynamic modeling, guidance, and control of homing missiles [PhD dissertation]. Ankara, Turkey: Middle East Technical University; 2005\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bülent Özkan",address:"bozkan37@gmail.com",affiliation:'
The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Defense Industries Research and Development Institute (TÜBİTAK SAGE), Turkey
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