Physicochemical properties of glyphosate.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3082",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Evapotranspiration - An Overview",title:"Evapotranspiration",subtitle:"An Overview",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Evapotranspiration - An Overview contains recent advances in the physics of evaporation and transpiration from a typical experimental site to large scale areas. It incorporates many years of authors experience with the latest research on the methods and the models used worldwide, engaging advanced technology and modern instrumentation. The reader benefits from the in-depth analysis and the diverse sites and settings, where the models, applications and methods are tested. Weather conditions, soil moisture, geology, climatic systems are examined for their role and influence on the theoretical and actual water demand by the atmosphere in the earth's ecosystem. This book not only provides students and scientists with the information to improve the procedures for estimating evapotranspiration, but will also help them to manage and evaluate the observed data.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1115-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5369-6",doi:"10.5772/3383",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"evapotranspiration-an-overview",numberOfPages:286,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"377ef031877b6f75a967a2b89a6c61b1",bookSignature:"Stavros G. Alexandris",publishedDate:"April 30th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3082.jpg",numberOfDownloads:28364,numberOfWosCitations:46,numberOfCrossrefCitations:22,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:53,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:121,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 24th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 15th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 11th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 10th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 3rd 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"150921",title:"Dr.",name:"Stavros",middleName:"G",surname:"Alexandris",slug:"stavros-alexandris",fullName:"Stavros Alexandris",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/150921/images/system/150921.jpg",biography:"Stavros Alexandris holds a PhD in Agricultural sciences from the Agricultural University of Athens, Greece. His research interests include evapotranspiration, crop water conservation, techniques and applications in Agrometeorology. He has more than six years of teaching experience and has published a number of scientific and technical papers. Since 1983, he has made an active contribution in many European research projects (Ecological impact of the air pollution in Attica region, Monitoring of the sea water intrusion in the groundwater aquifers of Argolis Plain, Rational application of irrigation and drainage under Greek conditions, Validity, limits and possible trends of coastal South Mediterranean traditional groundwater irrigated agriculture, MEDEFLU, LOLaqua, DMCSEE, COROADO). He is a member of the Geotechnical Chambers of Greece, Greek Society of Soil Science and Hellenic Meteorological Society. 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Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6732",title:"Desalination and Water Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eee2f03e0328f289e68fde28738c333f",slug:"desalination-and-water-treatment",bookSignature:"Murat Eyvaz and Ebubekir Yüksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6732.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5453",title:"Hydrology of Artificial and Controlled Experiments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9855d30d1a8707ed84d8f72e3ca0f187",slug:"hydrology-of-artificial-and-controlled-experiments",bookSignature:"Jiu-Fu Liu and Wei-Zu Gu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5453.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiu-Fu",surname:"Liu",slug:"jiu-fu-liu",fullName:"Jiu-Fu Liu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6836",title:"Groundwater",subtitle:"Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7cad088c49e61c898abc7d7511de42f6",slug:"groundwater-resource-characterisation-and-management-aspects",bookSignature:"Modreck Gomo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6836.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185450",title:"Dr.",name:"Modreck",surname:"Gomo",slug:"modreck-gomo",fullName:"Modreck Gomo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6973",title:"Advanced Evapotranspiration Methods and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c54751778dc2ff4a19cd84f1bf0c706",slug:"advanced-evapotranspiration-methods-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Bucur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6973.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50794",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Bucur",slug:"daniel-bucur",fullName:"Daniel Bucur"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"67216",slug:"corrigendum-to-open-abdomen-the-surgeons-challenge",title:"Corrigendum to: Open Abdomen: The Surgeons’ Challenge",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67216.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67216",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67216",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67216",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67216",chapter:{id:"64137",slug:"open-abdomen-the-surgeons-challenge",signatures:"Juan José Santivañez Palominos, Vergara Arturo and Cadena Manuel",dateSubmitted:"May 7th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 10th 2019",book:{id:"7046",title:"Wound Healing",subtitle:"Current Perspectives",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - Current Perspectives",slug:"wound-healing-current-perspectives",publishedDate:"May 10th 2019",bookSignature:"Kamil Hakan Dogan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7046.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30612",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamil Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Dogan",slug:"kamil-hakan-dogan",fullName:"Kamil Hakan Dogan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"257817",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Cadena",fullName:"Manuel Cadena",slug:"manuel-cadena",email:"manuelcade@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"64137",slug:"open-abdomen-the-surgeons-challenge",signatures:"Juan José Santivañez Palominos, Vergara Arturo and Cadena Manuel",dateSubmitted:"May 7th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 10th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 10th 2019",book:{id:"7046",title:"Wound Healing",subtitle:"Current Perspectives",fullTitle:"Wound Healing - 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From Bench to Bedside",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tNephrolithiasis (also known as Urolithiasis) is a complex disorder with a significant interplay between genetic and environmental influences in aetiology. Over the past century, significant work has been performed to understand the aetiology and pathogenesis of nephrolithiasis.
\r\n\r\n\tHowever, it has not been translated into clinically relevant preventive strategies. The rising incidence of nephrolithiasis and its link with metabolic syndrome is an interesting phenomenon. Recently, significant work has been done in this regard as well. Over the past few decades, we have also witnessed a significant change in the diagnostic and follow-up of nephrolithiasis using imaging. Whereas ultrasound and IVU were the mainstays in the past decade, CT has now taken over. CT has very high sensitivity and specificity in the diagnosis of nephrolithiasis but is associated with significant radiation exposure. Modifications and improvements in ultrasound technology with the introduction of contrast-enhanced and duplex ultrasound are significant advancements. The past three decades have also witnessed the rise and fall of shock wave lithotripsy. In recent years, advancements in endourology with miniaturization of instruments and better stone fragmentation modalities have made endourology the predominant mode of treatment for most upper and lower urinary tract stones. Stones can be present in certain challenging situations due to anatomical variations, pregnancy, urinary diversions, etc. In addition, various medical conditions like cystinuria, use of anticoagulants, etc. can make endourology difficult.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to collect the recent research in the area and provide a comprehensive overview of some of the contemporary developments.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-112-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-111-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-113-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"2ea5ea58b6f360fd378153fe35413100",bookSignature:"Prof. M Hammad Ather",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11731.jpg",keywords:"Nephrolithiasis, Urolithiasis Etiology, Imaging, Stone Management, Endourology, Metaphylaxis, Stone Analysis, Metabolic Workup, Dietary Influence, Metabolic Syndrome, Urinary Diversion, Staghorn Stone",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 30th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 13th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. M Hammad Ather is an international advisory board member of the EAU Section of Urolithiasis (EULIS) and a national representative of the Asia-Pacific Society of Uro-oncology (UAA). He is also the Vice-Chairman of the U-Merge (Urology in Emerging Countries), and a member of several other societies including Societe Internationale de Urologie and Endourological Society, USA.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"88868",title:"Prof.",name:"M Hammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ather",slug:"m-hammad-ather",fullName:"M Hammad Ather",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/88868/images/system/88868.jpg",biography:"Prof. M Hammad Ather is a consulting urological surgeon, and professor and head of Urology at the Aga Khan University, Karachi. He is an editorial board member of many international urological journals, and author of over 110 articles in international peer reviewed journals and 10 book chapters. He is also an adviser and reviewer for over two dozen international urological journals, and for dissertations at various universities nationally and the National University of Singapore. Dr. Ather was trained in Karachi and London, and has many fellowship attachments in Europe at Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Katholique Universiteit Leuven, and University College London. He has also served as the General secretary of Pakistan Association of Urological surgeons (PAUS). He is an international advisory board member of the EULIS (EAU) and national representative of Asia-Pacific society of uro-oncology (UAA). Currently, he is the Vice chairman of the U Merge (Urology in emerging countries). His research interests include topics related to urolithiasis, bladder, and advanced prostate cancer.",institutionString:"Aga Khan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Aga Khan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5516",title:"Bladder Cancer",subtitle:"Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fa255c022acc85f2bd2c12ce4cd9a67b",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",bookSignature:"M. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71559",title:"Current Approaches to Pesticide Use and Glyphosate-Resistant Weeds in Brazilian Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91872",slug:"current-approaches-to-pesticide-use-and-glyphosate-resistant-weeds-in-brazilian-agriculture",body:'\nThe domestication of plants over a long time came with several challenges to maintain their sustainability. It is known that cultivated crops would suffer attacks from pests and diseases, causing great yield losses with the ever-present possibility of hunger for the population, mainly due to the lack of resources and knowledge. Even today with advances in technologies to control invaders, food losses due to pests and diseases range from 10 to 90%, with an average of 35–40%, for all potential crops of food and fiber [1]. Pesticides are chemical products that contribute to agricultural production processes, mainly large scale, as agents of chemical, physical, and biological processes [2]. In the south of Brazil, the monoculture of soybeans, wheat, and rice was associated with the mandatory use of pesticides for those who intended to use government rural credit. Today, pesticides are disseminated in conventional agriculture, as a short-term solution for pest and disease infestation [3].
\nBrazil is one of the largest agricultural producers in the world and the second country that exports these products, playing an important role in the local economy. To maintain such production, this sector intensively uses transgenic seeds and chemical inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides. Brazil is the largest consumer of pesticides in the world, with an extensive area of planting [4]. The consumption of herbicides in Brazil was about 540,000 tons of formulated (commercial) products in 2017 [5]. Glyphosate is the most widely used pesticide in Brazil, with 173,150.75 tons of acid equivalent marketed in 2017 [6]. One of the main consequences of weed resistance to herbicides is the increase in weed control costs, which is hardly addressed in scientific publications, but of great importance for the productive sector.
\nGlyphosate (
It is of paramount importance to understand the behavior of the herbicide in the plants. Therefore, the absorption of glyphosate takes place in the aerial part of the plants, having a maximum absorption 96 h after application, translocated by simplasto with photoassimilates of the leaves for meristematic tissue reaching the target site. In water it presents a weak acid behavior and presents four variable dissociation constants (pKa between 2.6 and 10.3), in which it presents cell absorption facilitated by phosphate carriers that are in the cell membranes [8].
\nGlyphosate is the most widely used pesticide in the world due mainly to the large number of genetically modified crops resistant to this product [9]. However, with the increase in the number of agricultural areas with transgenic crops (glyphosate-resistant), mainly soybean, cotton, and corn, together with the high use and incorrect application of this herbicide, new cases of resistant weeds appear [8]. In the world, 47 species of glyphosate-resistant weeds are already reported, and 9 of them are in Brazil [10]. Figure 1 presents the number of weed species resistant to various herbicides of different resistance mechanisms reported worldwide.
\nNumber of weed species resistant to various herbicides of different resistance mechanisms reported worldwide. Source: Heap [
Acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitor herbicides have the highest number of resistant species (162 species) (Figure 1). 4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) inhibitor herbicides have the smallest number of resistant species (two species). Figure 2 shows that the United States is the country with the most cases of unique resistance. Brazil has 51 cases of herbicide-resistant weeds already recorded.
\nIncreased cases of resistant weeds reported in various countries and Europe. Source: Heap [
\nFigure 3 presents the amount of herbicide-resistant weed species within weed families. The family that has the most cases of herbicide resistance is the Poaceae family with 82 registered cases. The Caryophyllaceae family presents fewer cases of resistant weed species (six species).
\nNumber of herbicide-resistant weed species per weed family. Source: Heap [
\nFigure 4 presents the amount of weed species that have simple resistance to each herbicide. Atrazine presents the largest number of weed species with simple resistance, with 66 species registered. For glyphosate there are reported 43 species of weed resistance, the second being herbicide with the highest number reported.
\nNumber of weed species with simple resistance to herbicides. Source: Heap [
The mechanisms that generate resistance to herbicides in weeds can be separated into the following: (i) related to the site of action (target-site resistance, TSR) and/or (ii) not related to the site of action (nontarget-site resistance, NTSR) [9]. Mutation of the gene encoding enzyme EPSPS and amplification of this gene are examples of TSR mechanism, while reduced absorption, differential translocation, high metabolism, and glyphosate sequestration by the vacuoles are examples of NTSR mechanism [11]. Thus, it is necessary to know about the mechanisms of weed resistance to herbicides to perform good management practices for the prevention of the occurrence of new resistant biotypes in other areas and, mainly, for the determination of preventive management programs to the selection of resistant biotypes and also for the determination of the practices of weed control already selected [9].
\nThe aim of the authors in this chapter was to present pesticide use and general characteristics of glyphosate- and herbicide-resistant weeds in Brazil.
\nThe agricultural production in Brazil plays an important role in the Brazilian economy, thanks to which this country is one of the world’s leading producers of agricultural commodities. To keep up with production, this sector uses intensively transgenic seeds and chemical inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides—chemical or biological substances used to protect crops against the introduction and spread of pests such as insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses, mites, nematodes, and weeds [4, 12]. Regarding the function of pesticides, they all have the same common action, which is to block the vital metabolic processes of the organisms in which they are toxic.
\nCurrently, the total amount of pesticide commercialized in Brazil is US$10,522 billion per year, 14% less than 2014 (Figure 5), or 21% in a global market estimated to be worth US$50 billion. In a country with a high pest index due to tropical climate, the farmers’ challenge is to reduce pesticide application (which is nowadays the main pest management), as well as to reduce the cost of production and the associated risks to human health and natural resources.
\nTotal commercialization of pesticides in Brazil from 2014 to 2018. Source: SINDIVEG [
Among the several alternatives for pest control in crops, the chemical method is still the most widely used, due to its practicality, efficiency, and speed. However, if pests are not controlled, they can drastically reduce the crop productivity. Among the pesticide classes, herbicides (selective and nonselective) used for weed control and also applied for crop desiccation represent 33% of consumption in the country, followed by insecticides (29%) and fungicides (28%) (Figure 6).
\nCommercialization of classes of pesticides used in Brazil. Source: SINDIVEG [
Due to the high total amount of pesticides used, some agricultural crops deserve attention, not because these products are intensively applied per unit of cultivated area but because these crops occupy large areas in Brazil. Half of the pesticides commercialized in the country are used in soybean crop, followed by the main crops such as sugarcane (12%), corn (11%), and cotton (9%) (Figure 7).
\nCommercialization of pesticides used by crops in Brazil. Non-food crops: reforestation, pasture, floriculture, and tobacco. Fruits: citrus, apple, grape, melon and watermelon, banana, and others. Vegetables: potatoes, tomatoes, onions, garlic, and others. Grains: wheat, oats, rye, barley, and peanuts. Others: stored grains and others. Source: SINDIVEG [
Pesticide use differs in the various regions of the country, where intensive and traditional agricultural (not use chemical product intensively) activities are mixed. Located in Midwest, the Mato Grosso state is the one that uses the most pesticides (24%) in the country, and the second is São Paulo state, located in Southeast (Figure 8). The consumption of pesticides in the Midwest increased in the 1970s and 1980s due to the occupation of the Cerrados and the cultivation of soybean, cotton, corn, and sugarcane continues to increase in this region. The South region represents 26% of pesticide consumption, while in the Northeast region, it is only 9%.
\nCommercialization of pesticides for use in agriculture by Brazilian states. Source: SINDIVEG [
Empty pesticide packaging, unlike any plastic packaging, cannot be reused for domestic uses. This is because the products are aggressive, i.e., harmful to human and animal health, and can cause contamination if reused. And due to the toxicity of pesticides, their handling requires extreme care, attention, and personal protective equipment, and empty containers cannot be disposed in the dumping ground due to the aforementioned eminent risks. Therefore, all pesticides that are marketed in Brazil have empty packaging collected by the National Institute for Empty Packaging Processing (inpEV), which is responsible for the final destination of this material.
\nCurrently, the most efficient method used for weed control is the use of herbicides, mainly in large areas of cultivation, for which its rapid action added more viable costs. Among the herbicides used, glyphosate is the most marketed worldwide in more than 119 countries with about 150 trademarks for this product [14]. Figure 9 presents the commercialized quantities of glyphosate and its channels in Brazil.
\nAnnual distribution of the quantity, in tons, of glyphosate in Brazil, from 2014 to 2017. Source: IBAMA [
According to the ABRASCO [16], 110 products with glyphosate alone have been sold in Brazil, in 29 different companies, and 173,150.75 tons sold in 2017, the amount being 3 times more than the second most commercialized herbicide, the 2,4-D. This considerable increase in sales was due to the production of corn and cotton after the development of transgenic soybeans, from 40,000 tons of products marketed to 300,000 per year in Brazil. In 2013, Asian countries, especially China and India, were the ones that consumed glyphosate-based products the most. At the same time, the United States accounted for more than 25% of all glyphosates marketed. The estimate is that in 2020, the demand for this herbicide is worldwide, which exceeds one ton [17].
\nThe discovery of glyphosate occurred in 1950, and this acid was an interesting complexion agent, a pH reducer, a detergent, and several other applications [18]. The glyphosate molecule was invented by the Cilag/Ciba industry in Switzerland, during the process of selection of chelating compounds for paints. In the mid-1960s, some scientists at Stauffer discovered other chelating properties of glyphosate. However, only in the early 1970s did Monsanto scientists discover the herbicide properties of glyphosate. Two decades after it began to be marketed, there were more than 90 commercial products with this active equivalent [19]. Today, glyphosate is widely used and has become the most marketed herbicide in the world.
\nDue to its lack of selectivity, the use of glyphosate was initially limited to preplanting, directed jet, pre-harvest, and postemergence of weeds. With the introduction of glyphosate-resistant crops in the mid-1990s, it is now used for weed control in resistant crops without concerns about crop damage. Currently, glyphosate-resistant crops are grown in several countries, with great adoption in the United States, Canada, Argentina, and Brazil. The wide adoption of glyphosate-resistant crops has caused changes in weed species in these crops and resulted in the evolution of resistant weeds [20].
\nGlyphosate is a nonselective herbicide (affecting all “natural” or non-transgenic plants), which has a broad spectrum, is systemic, and is applied in postemergence, belonging to the glycine-derived chemical group that has been widely used in the world in the last four decades [20].
\nThe mechanism of action of glyphosate is the inhibition of the enzyme EPSPS and, consequently, the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids, tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine [18, 20], and precursors of compounds such as lignins, flavonoids, and benzoic acids [21]. This leads to several metabolic disorders, inhibiting the biosynthesis of proteins and secondary products and generating a significant increase in the concentration of shikimate, a common precursor in the metabolic route of the three amino acids (Figure 10) [22]. Glyphosate inhibits the enzyme EPSPS by competing with the phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) substrate, preventing shikimate from being transformed into chorismate. The synthesis of the enzyme EPSPS occurs in the cytoplasm, which is transported to the chloroplast where it operates; glyphosate binds to it by glutamic acid carboxylic (glutamine) at position 418 of the amino acid sequence. The final action of the herbicide is not explained by the reduction of amino acids and the accumulation of shikimate. It is believed that the deregulation of the shikimic acid route causes the loss of carbons available for other cellular reactions in the plant, once 20% of plant carbon is used in this metabolic route, because tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine are forerunners of most aromatic compounds in plants. Glyphosate causes the reduction of phytoalexin synthesis. There is an increased concentration in toxic levels of nitrate, ethylene, kinetic acid, and other compounds that accelerate plant death [22].
\nGlyphosate acts by inhibiting the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase in the shikimate pathway, blocking the production of tryptophan, phenylalanine, or tyrosine. Source: Adapted from Helander et al. [
The dose of glyphosate used depends on the species that will be controlled and can range from 0.18 to 2.16 kg a.e. ha−1. After application of this herbicide, a period of 4–6 h without rain is necessary to increase the efficiency. After being treated with this herbicide, the plants die between 7 and 14 days. For absorption to be facilitated, it should be used in low flow and larger drops. The yellowing of meristems is a symptom in plants that can lead to necrosis and then to death in days or weeks [21].
\nGlyphosate presents the molecular formula C3H8NO5P (molecular weight = 169.1 g mol−1) [24]. This herbicide can be formulated as isopropylamine salt, ammonium salt, or trimethylsulfonic salt [25] (sulfate) [19]. The chemical glyphosate group is a replaced glycine. The glyphosate structure is presented in Figure 11.
\nChemical structure of glyphosate.
Under environmental conditions, both glyphosate and its salts are crystalline solids, which have high solubility in water (12 g L−1 to 25°C, for glyphosate) and are practically insoluble in common organic solvents such as acetone and ethanol. Glyphosate melts at 189.5°C and has an apparent density of 0.5 g cm−3 and presents significant water solubility in the presence of light, including at temperatures above 60°C [24]. Table 1 shows the physicochemical properties of glyphosate.
\nProperties | \nValues | \n
---|---|
Chemical name (IUPAC) | \n\n | \n
Common name | \nGlyphosate | \n
CAS number | \n1071-83-6 | \n
Molecular formula | \nC3H8NO5P | \n
Molecular weight | \n169 g mol−1\n | \n
Class | \nHerbicide | \n
Group | \nReplaced glycine | \n
Melting point | \n189.5°C | \n
Boiling point | \nDecomposes before boiling | \n
Degradation point | \n200°C | \n
Vapor pressure (PV) | \n1.31 × 10−5 Pa (25°C, acid) | \n
Henry’s law constant to 25°C (H) | \n2.10 × 10−07 (Pa m3 mol−1) | \n
Solubility in water (Sw) | \n10.5 g L−1 (20°C) | \n
Acid partition coefficient (pKa) | \n2.34 (at 25°C) | \n
Octanol-water coefficient (Kow) | \n6.31 × 10−4 (pH 7, 20°C) | \n
Sorption coefficient (Kd) | \n209.4 mg L−1\n | \n
Half-life time degradation in soil (DT50) | \n15 days | \n
As shown in Table 1, glyphosate has high Sw and pKa values with acid character and a low Kow value, indicating that glyphosate has a great hydrophilic tendency, which decreases soil sorption. However, glyphosate quickly binds to positive soil charges (mainly in clays) such as in soils abundant in iron and aluminum oxides. This indicates high values of sorption coefficient normalized by soil organic carbon (OC) (Koc) than other herbicides, limiting their leaching in the soil profile [27].
\nThe pKa values found in the literature for glyphosate are pKa1, 0.8; pKa2, 2.16; pKa3, 5.46; and pKa4, 10.14. These dissociation constants indicate the degree of dissociation of the herbicide as a function of pH [24]. This shows the relationship between the amount of matter that exists after a certain reagent has been consumed and the amount of material that exists initially.
\nAt pH values below 0.8, most glyphosate is found in a protonation on the amine site. In a pH of 0.8, being the value of the first constant, 50% of the molecules present this protonation and the other 50% with a dissociation in the phosphate group. From this value up to pH of 2.2, the molecular formula is predominant, with a dissociation (▬PO2H▬) and a protonation (▬NH2\n+▬), and in a pH of 2.2, 50% of the compound will have dissociation despite maintaining protonation in the amine group. Among the pH values of 2.2 and 5.4, the predominant form of the herbicide is with two dissociations, thus having 50% of the molecules with three pH dissociations of 5.5. In a pH ranging from 5.5 to 10.2, there are three and four dissociations of glyphosate. Above pH = 11, the glyphosate is fully dissociated [24].
\nAmino acids and their derivatives present a zwitterionic behavior, that is, in its structure the carboxylic acid has a more acidic characteristics than the ammonium group. In glyphosate, phosphate and carboxylic groups have a greater acidic characteristics than the ammonium group. Cikalo et al. [28] observed the zwitterionic behavior of glyphosate when describing its dissociation. Thus, in the first dissociation of glyphosate, it would lose hydrogen linked to oxygen and only in the last dissociation that hydrogen linked to nitrogen.
\nThe occurrence of weed resistance to herbicides is a natural and inheritable capacity of certain biotypes within a given population to develop and reproduce after being exposed to herbicide doses that would be lethal to a normal population of the same species. This resistance is from an evolutionary process, occurring naturally at low frequency, and the selection pressure exerted by repetitive application of some herbicide or different types of herbicides that have the same mechanism of action increases the number of resistant individuals in the population. Herbicide resistance is identified when, generally, 30% of the plants are resistant [29].
\nSeveral weed species are inherently more resistant to glyphosate than others. A biotype of glyphosate resistance that occurred naturally was the
Biotypes that have glyphosate resistance have been selected in crops such as corn, soybeans, and various orchards. In Brazil, glyphosate-resistant biotypes of
Due to the increase in the adoption of glyphosate-resistant crops, there was a great difficulty in selecting the herbicide to be used in weed populations in the past decade. The alternating herbicides that have different modes of action or herbicides mixed in tanks are recommended in resistance management programs; however, this is often ignored by farmers, because the cost to control weeds only with glyphosate is much cheaper.
\nIt is recommended that a rotation be made between cultivating glyphosate-resistant crops and nonresistant crops, so that the development of glyphosate resistance in weeds is delayed. However, the correct use of glyphosate with other herbicides, a survey of the weed population, extension of the area, and economy of producers are important factors in the management of weeds in glyphosate-resistant crops [20].
\n\nFigure 12 shows all the species of glyphosate-resistant weeds worldwide. The first case of reported resistance was in 1996 of the species
Glyphosate-resistant weeds worldwide. Source: Heap [
Among the pesticides, glyphosate is widely used in Brazil and in the world to control weeds in various crops. However, its use should be performed consciously, since there is no significant increase in the amount of weeds resistant to this herbicide. Despite its great use in the country, it presents few reports of resistant weeds than another mode of action of herbicides, such as acetolactate synthase and photosystem II (PSII) inhibitors.
\nKnowledge of glyphosate characteristics, weed biology, resistance mechanisms, and the production system used that favors the emergence of herbicide-resistant weed biotypes is important to appropriately manage and prevent or delay new cases of resistant weeds in the field.
\nCrops with glyphosate-resistant transgenic technologies will continue to be important in the future for weed management, and resistant biotypes will continue to be selected. Thus, good agricultural practices are indispensable, and more innovations in technologies are necessary for the future. Therefore, adopting a long-term weed management perspective and integration system for all agricultural practices is of paramount importance to farmers.
\nThermoelectric materials can use the Seebeck and Peltier effects to directly convert heat and electricity into each other [1, 2, 3], providing a simple and environmentally friendly solution for the direct conversion of heat to electricity, and is expected to play an important role in meeting future energy challenges effect. Thermoelectric equipment can not only directly convert the heat from the sun, radioisotopes, automobiles, industrial sectors and even the human body into electrical energy, but can also implement solid-state heat pumps based on electric drive for distributed refrigeration. In recent years, the application of thermoelectricity has become more and more widespread. The equipment based on thermoelectric materials has the advantages of miniaturization, quiet operation and no emission of greenhouse gases. The development of higher performance thermoelectric materials and their performance optimization have become more important.
The dimensionless thermoelectric figure of merit (
As the basic science of thermoelectric matures, the research of thermoelectric materials has also begun to develop rapidly. Among the materials reported with high thermoelectric properties, the
(a) Schematic diagram of electronic density of states of three-dimensional bulk, two-dimensional quantum scale, one-dimensional nanoribbons, and zero-dimensional quantum dots; (b) the relationship between quantum-scale
The synergistic interaction between charge, lattice, and spin-orbit coupling is a necessary factor to further optimize thermoelectric performance (Figure 2). In the past three decades, people have discovered a variety of possible mechanisms that may affect transport performance: resonance energy levels, modulation doping, band convergence, classical and quantum size effects, anharmonicity, and spin-related effect, such as Rashba effect, spin Seebeck effect and topological state, etc., have been verified in various materials such as V2-VI3 compounds, V-VI group compounds, semi-Heusler alloys, diamond-like structure compounds and silicides. Among them, Rashba spin-orbit coupling and controllable anharmonicity may be the key to the development of next-generation thermoelectric materials.
Thermoelectric parameters can be affected by a combination of dimensions, charge, lattice, and spin-orbit coupling. Among them, the synergy among Seebeck coefficient
Note that in the quantum size effect caused by the reduction of dimensionality, a key idea for optimizing the power factor
(a) Rashba SOC leads to the spin splitting of the band structure; (b) the density of states diagram corresponding to figure (a) (near the bottom of the conduction band); (c) the energy levels E1, E2, E3 reflect different spiral bands with spin texture on the Fermi surface. The red arrow represents spin up and the blue arrow represents spin down; (d) the Seebeck coefficient of Rashba spin split system and spin degenerate system varies with electron concentration
In addition, the giant Rashba spin splitting in a two-dimensional BiSb monolayer can increase the
Actually, the Rashba effect has attracted considerable attention in the fields of spintronics, ferroelectrics, and superconducting electronics [13, 14], Rashba spin-split generally originated from the SOC and inversion asymmetry, the SOC gives rise to a perturbing operator equal to λ
As we known, thermoelectric materials are commonly composed of heavy elements with strong SOC [19]. In view of this, the spin-enabled mechanisms including the Rashba effect [20] and the spin Seebeck effect [21] offer new channels to manipulate and further optimize thermoelectric properties [22]. However, the spin Seebeck effect is currently limited at cryogenic temperatures. By contrast, the Rashba effect is promising to facilitate performance enhancement in broad thermoelectric materials. It was reported that Rashba spin splitting yielded a unique constant DOS near the
Recent classical strategies of quantum confinement effect [27], resonant level [28], band convergence [29], liquid-like ions [30], entropy engineering [31], anharmonicity [32], and modulation doping [33] have enhanced
Although the Rashba effect has great potential in enhancing thermoelectric performance, the influence of Rashba spin-orbit coupling on various thermoelectric parameters, thermoelectric optimization rule and the exact mechanism are still to be explored to a large extent. In particular, the thermoelectric performance and the underlying mechanism of Rashba-type thermoelectric materials need further research, or how to introduce Rashba spin splitting into current excellent thermoelectric materials is also of great significance to the optimization of thermoelectricity.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"