Basal gestation parameters in pregnant animal models.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6273",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Thrombocytopenia",title:"Thrombocytopenia",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The book "Thrombocytopenia" certainly raises some important issues in its pathogenesis and management. The authors have done a lot of hard work to write state-of-the-art chapters. Each and every chapter is peer-reviewed, evidence-based, and remarkably excellent. Some of the causes of thrombocytopenia are well explained in textbooks, but the topics included in this book are not usually so well described. The chapters are written in such a manner so as to stimulate and keep the reader well-informed. Such an approach is certainly beneficial when aiming to motivate discussion, interaction, innovation, and research. Chapters like "Interferon-Induced Thrombotic Microangiopathy" have been included with the aim to help in understanding the immune pathogenesis of thrombocytopenia. Others have also been selected to keep an eye on the future.',isbn:"978-953-51-3876-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3875-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4078-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69080",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"thrombocytopenia",numberOfPages:104,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"182f67f8c83b1d8897447f05207feae9",bookSignature:"Pankaj Abrol",publishedDate:"March 7th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6273.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8214,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:21,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 29th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 20th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 14th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 15th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"90782",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",middleName:null,surname:"Abrol",slug:"pankaj-abrol",fullName:"Pankaj Abrol",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90782/images/system/90782.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Pankaj Abrol, a distinguished Pediatric Hematologist Oncologist, is Professor and Head of the Department of Pediatrics in SGT Medical College Hospital and Research Institute, Gurgaon, India. Erstwhile Senior Professor at PGIMS Rohtak, he established the Pediatric Cancer Unit and was also in charge of Thalassemia & Hemophilia Day care centers. Dr. Pankaj Abrol is the national resource person for Thalassemia, Hemophilia and Pediatric Oncology. He has many research publications published in national and international journals and has written many chapters in textbooks. He has also been awarded a fellowship (FIAP) by Indian Academy of Pediatrics for extraordinary work. Dr. Abrol is member of national and international bodies like IAP, ICON & SIOP. He has worked closely with associations such as India Pediatric Oncology Initiative and has provided free chemotherapy to his oncology patients by working closely with some voluntary organizations.",institutionString:"SGT Medical College Hospital & Research Institute",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"183",title:"Hematology",slug:"hematology"}],chapters:[{id:"59182",title:"Introductory Chapter: Thrombocytopenia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74118",slug:"introductory-chapter-thrombocytopenia",totalDownloads:1080,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Pankaj Abrol",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59182",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59182",authors:[{id:"90782",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",surname:"Abrol",slug:"pankaj-abrol",fullName:"Pankaj Abrol"}],corrections:null},{id:"58887",title:"A View of Platelets in Dengue",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73084",slug:"a-view-of-platelets-in-dengue",totalDownloads:2014,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Platelets were mainly associated with coagulation and hemostasis; however, other biological effects have been attributed to platelets, including angiogenesis, extracellular matrix synthesis, inflammation, and immune response. Dengue virus infection causes 200 million cases of severe flu-like illness annually, escalating to life-threatening hemorrhagic fever or shock syndrome. Some hypotheses are postulated for immunopathogenesis of dengue, including antibody enhancement theory, T-cell activation of cross-reactive memory, and original antigenic sin. All hypotheses, to some extent, induce an overproduction or a skewed profile of cytokine release, giving rise to the term cytokine storm/cytokine tsunami. Although thrombocytopenia is typical of both mild and severe diseases, the mechanism triggering platelet reduction is incompletely understood. In dengue, platelets are one of the major cell populations affected by direct and/or indirect mechanisms of infection. It is common to observe both thrombocytopenia and platelet dysfunction in dengue, both strongly related to the clinical outcome. Thus, platelets are frequently affected in dengue, either for alteration of their own functionality, for “silent transport” of virus, or as an anti-viral immune cell. In this way, we describe some of functional aspects of platelets on dengue, observing circulating mediators, intraplatelet proteins contents, morphology, activation markers, and ability to interact with dengue virus.",signatures:"Tamiris Azamor da Costa Barros and Luzia Maria de-Oliveira-Pinto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58887",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58887",authors:[{id:"211017",title:"Dr.",name:"Luzia",surname:"De-Oliveira-Pinto",slug:"luzia-de-oliveira-pinto",fullName:"Luzia De-Oliveira-Pinto"},{id:"235263",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamiris",surname:"Azamor",slug:"tamiris-azamor",fullName:"Tamiris Azamor"}],corrections:null},{id:"59102",title:"Not Only Heparin but Also Antibody Induces Thrombocytopenia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73576",slug:"not-only-heparin-but-also-antibody-induces-thrombocytopenia",totalDownloads:1158,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last two decades, heparin was widely used as an anticoagulant. Besides numerous advantages of heparin, some patients with heparin administration suffer from a side effect, the so-called heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), which can result in thromboses such as deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, occlusion of a limb artery, acute myocardial infarct, stroke, and a systemic reaction or skin necrosis. The basic on HIT complication have been investigated and led to clinical insights. Recent studies provided detail mechanisms among binding partners in HIT; especially, it has been shown that not only heparin but also a subset of antibody induce thrombocytopenia. In this chapter, insights into both heparin- and antibody-induced thrombocytopenia will be discussed and the novel mechanism of the autoimmune HIT caused by a subset of antibodies will be introduced.",signatures:"Thi-Huong Nguyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59102",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59102",authors:[{id:"217383",title:"Dr.",name:"Thi Huong",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"thi-huong-nguyen",fullName:"Thi Huong Nguyen"}],corrections:null},{id:"58164",title:"Antiphospholipid Syndrome and Thrombocytopenia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72509",slug:"antiphospholipid-syndrome-and-thrombocytopenia",totalDownloads:1590,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Antiphospholipid syndrome is characterised by arterial and venous thromboembolic events and pregnancy morbidity (mainly, recurrent foetal losses), in the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies. Diagnosis is based on the presence of at least one laboratory and at least one clinical manifestation of antiphospholipid syndrome. There are also so-called “non-criteria” clinical features, and thrombocytopenia is one of the most important among them. Thrombocytopenia has been reported with a prevalence between 30 and 46% among patients with antiphospholipid syndrome. The pathogenesis of thrombocytopenia related to antiphospholipid antibodies is not absolutely clear. Binding of antiphospholipid antibodies to platelets and the promotion of platelet activation and aggregation thus thrombus formation must be an important mechanism as well as the immune-mediated clearance of platelets. Thrombocytopenia in antiphospholipid syndrome is usually mild and does not require clinical intervention. The presence of thrombocytopenia in patients with antiphospholipid syndrome is typically associated not with haemorrhagic complications, rather it can trigger thrombotic events. Other causes of thrombocytopenia, such as TTP, SLE, MDS, and ITP should be excluded. As thrombocytopenia is usually mild and it predicts later thrombosis, patients may be given platelet aggregation inhibitors and/or anticoagulant therapy. Anti-thrombotic treatment should be stopped only in case of severe thrombocytopenia.",signatures:"Klara Gadó and Gyula Domján",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58164",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58164",authors:[{id:"69128",title:"Dr.",name:"Klara",surname:"Gadó",slug:"klara-gado",fullName:"Klara Gadó"}],corrections:null},{id:"59426",title:"Interferon-Induced Thrombotic Microangiopathy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74226",slug:"interferon-induced-thrombotic-microangiopathy",totalDownloads:1083,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Interferon (IFN) is an effective therapy for multiple disorders. An infrequently reported side effect is thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA): thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). We published the first comprehensive review analyzing this association with the following observations: (1) there was a higher incidence of IFN-induced TMA in myeloproliferative disorders (chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)) than that in nonmalignant disorders (multiple sclerosis (MS), chronic hepatitis C virus infection (HCV)); (2) mean age at diagnosis was 47 years; (3) there was rare association with hairy cell leukemia (HCL), Sezary syndrome (one case each) and no cases reported for polycythemia vera (PV); (4) sex distribution was balanced (exception of higher prevalence in females for MS); (5) TMA was insidious in onset with long incubation periods (average treatment duration 40.4 months); (6) comparative analysis of mean time (months) to onset of TMA ensuing cumulative IFN exposure was: MS 68.6 vs. CML 35.5 vs. HCV 30.4; (7) confirmed TTP (low ADAMTS 13 levels) was associated with the presence of an inhibitor; (8) outcome analysis revealed complete remission in 27 (40%), persistent chronic kidney disease in 28 (42%) and fatality in 12 patients (18%); (9) corticosteroids, plasma exchange (PEX) and rituximab are effective therapies.",signatures:"Ajay Kundra, Mirela Andrei and Jen Chin Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59426",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59426",authors:[{id:"211188",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen Chin",surname:"Wang",slug:"jen-chin-wang",fullName:"Jen Chin Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"58285",title:"Thrombocytopenia in Liver Transplant",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72510",slug:"thrombocytopenia-in-liver-transplant",totalDownloads:1290,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Thrombocytopenia is a common complication of both chronic liver disease and liver transplantation (LT). The mechanism of thrombocytopenia is multifactorial implicating not only sequestration in the spleen, or in the graft, reduction in the mean platelet survival but also decreased platelet production due to low synthesis of thrombopoietin (TPO) or direct toxicity to the bone marrow. Platelets play a dualistic role in liver transplant, both beneficial and detrimental. The beneficial role of platelets is due to platelet-derived serotonin that is involved in liver regeneration. During surgery for liver transplant, in addition to the preoperative causes for thrombocytopenia, we have other mechanisms that will contribute to further deterioration of the platelets count and function: hemodilution, immunological reactions, and sequestration in the newly transplanted graft. This might result in a life-threatening level of thrombocytes. The concern is when we should treat thrombocytopenia because despite life-saving benefits, transfusion has also been related to complications and platelet transfusion has been identified as an independent risk factor for postoperative complications. Risks related to platelet concentrate administration are allergic reactions, alloimmunization, bacterial sepsis, and transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI). Administration of platelets is not indicated if there is no bleeding or immediate bleeding risk. New emerging therapies like thrombopoietin-receptor agonist will furthermore limit the administration of blood products.",signatures:"Gabriela Droc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58285",authors:[{id:"218297",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Droc",slug:"gabriela-droc",fullName:"Gabriela Droc"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7086",title:"Hemophilia",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c281207a3bce680f1a7efbb87ff791c",slug:"hemophilia-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Pankaj Abrol",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7086.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"90782",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",surname:"Abrol",slug:"pankaj-abrol",fullName:"Pankaj Abrol"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7181",title:"Erythrocyte",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"267d215004c995048557176978208b15",slug:"erythrocyte",bookSignature:"Anil Tombak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7181.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202814",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anil",surname:"Tombak",slug:"anil-tombak",fullName:"Anil Tombak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6634",title:"Homeostasis",subtitle:"An Integrated Vision",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3731dfa513781db054545963a4394938",slug:"homeostasis-an-integrated-vision",bookSignature:"Fernanda Lasakosvitsch and Sergio Dos Anjos Garnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6634.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"117630",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",surname:"Lasakosvitsch Castanho",slug:"fernanda-lasakosvitsch-castanho",fullName:"Fernanda Lasakosvitsch Castanho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7845",title:"Platelets",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d33b20516d6ff3a5b7446a882109ba26",slug:"platelets",bookSignature:"Steve W. 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\r\n\tLiDAR is a non-contact measurement used to acquire three-dimensional (3D) topographic information on visible surfaces of objects. Nowadays, LiDAR usage is not only limited to surveying as it was originally developed but also rapidly offers a lot of applications from civil engineering, urban modeling, mapping, automobile, and agriculture. Although a recent development of LiDAR technology allows capturing a large area in a short time with high accuracy, identifying scanning parameters or trajectories is still based on the rule of the thumb. Datapoint clouds from a single scan are highly accurate but combining the point clouds from multiple scans is still an issue. Although a lot of methods based on geometric analysis and machine learning have been developed for the recognition, classification, and extraction of objects from the point clouds, robust and efficient methods are still adopted for various types of laser scanning point clouds and data quality is still questioned. Moreover, converting raw point clouds to 3D geometric models still requires intensive labor work. As such, generating 3D digital models and extracting semantic information from the point clouds is one of the important keys to generating digital twins, but the automatic process is still a high challenge. The cost, time, and quality of the 3D model can be a barrier to this process. This book aims to investigate the state of the art in using LiDAR technologies in a role to create digital twins.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-804-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-803-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-805-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"1a71ec59de076cdb37d854e4bb72fbd0",bookSignature:"Dr. Linh Truong - Hong and Dr. Anh Thu Anh Phan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11949.jpg",keywords:"Terrestrial Laser Scanner, Mobile Laser Scanner, Handheld Scanner, Drone-LiDAR, Machine Learning, Semantic Information, Scan-to-BIM, Geometric Representation, Geometric Modeling, 3D Mesh, Digital Twins, Change Detection",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 29th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Linh Truong-Hong is a Marie Curie Fellowship at Optical and Laser Remote Sensing Group. His research interests are to develop integrated frameworks to deploy LiDAR and Photogrammetry in 3D objection reconstruction and change detection for infrastructure inspection and assessment, construction management, and smart city. Dr. Truong-Hong has published more than 60 scientific papers (with a total citation of +1300) and filed 2 patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Anh Thu Phan got a Master’s degree in 2014 from the Nagaoka University of Technology where she studied rice growth monitoring using laser scanning techniques and obtained a Ph.D. degree at the same University in 2017. Since then, she has been a full-time lecturer at the Department of Geomatics Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, the Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam. 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His research interests are to develop integrated frameworks to deploy LiDAR and Photogrammetry in 3D objection reconstruction and change detection for infrastructure inspection and assessment, construction management, and a smart city. Dr. Truong-Hong has published more than 60 scientific papers (with a total citation +1300) and filed 2 patents. His research activity has been recognized through 6 peer-reviewed international awards. 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Before enrolling in the Master's program at the Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan, in September 2012 with a full academic scholarship, she spent two years working at Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology – VNU as an assistant lecturer. She got a Master’s degree in 2014 from Nagaoka University of Technology. There, she studied rice growth monitoring using laser scanning techniques and obtained a Ph.D. degree at the same University in 2017. Since then she has been a full-time lecturer at the Department of Geomatics Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, the Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam. 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Gestation is typical for mammals, where an embryo/fetus develops in the uterus.
Research in the pregnant human is problematic and may pose significant ethical restrictions as the well-being of the mother and her unborn baby is critically important. Thus, the use of animal models provides a way to gain insight into the improved understanding of the human pregnancy. Animal models remain essential to understand the fundamental mechanisms underlying the onset of obstetric diseases, and to discover improved methods for prevention, diagnosis and treatment. However, the translatability between animals and humans should be carefully considered. In obstetric research, several factors may contribute in the selection of the most appropriate animal model, concerning the mother, fetus and placenta. In addition, the timing of the study during the gestation needs to be considered, as pregnancy is a dynamic process.
The aim of this chapter is to review the advantages and limitations of relevant animals, including mouse, rat, chinchilla, guinea pig, sheep and pig models, and their use in studying fetal growth disorders (intrauterine growth restriction, IUGR), preeclampsia and diabetes in pregnancy. Furthermore, available imaging modalities for studying pregnant animals including fetal and placental characteristics are presented. Finally, ethical and welfare considerations are described, as well as how physiological effects of pregnancy pose special requirements to the management of feeding, handling, care and anesthesia.
Knowledge of the different characteristics of the animal and its gestation is a prerequisite in order to select the most suitable animal model, interpret experimental findings and reach appropriate translational conclusions. In obstetric research, in particular, it is necessary to consider fetal/neonatal characteristics and the physiological changes during the gestation period. Several species have been used to study the normal pregnancy and related pathological conditions [1]. First, the human gestation is described for comparison.
The human gestation is about 280 days and is divided into three trimesters, each of which is marked by specific fetal developments and embryonic changes. The first trimester is from gestation week (GW) 1–12, including the conception, second trimester is GW 13–28 and third trimester is GW 29–40. In other mammals, the gestation is defined as the time between conception/fertilization and birth, which for comparison is 266 days in humans. A single fetus is carried in 97–98% of all human pregnancies. The human newborn is extremely dependent on the mother and has immature motoric skills which traditionally placed the neurodevelopment of the human newborn as
The placenta is the interface between the maternal and fetal circulation, facilitating an exchange of oxygen, nutrients, waste products and other molecules, for example, certain drugs. The fetal trophoblast cells form the external component of the placenta, the
Schematic presentation of different placenta barriers as seen in a microscope. (A) Hemomonochorial placenta barrier as seen in, for example, human, guinea pigs and chinchillas. Only one layer of syncytiotrophoblasts separates the maternal blood space from the fetal capillaries. (B) Hemodichorial placentabarrier as seen in the rabbit. One layer of syncytiotrophoblasts and one layer of cytotrophoblasts separate the maternal blood space from the fetal capillaries. (C) Hemotrichorial placenta barrier as seen in, for example, mice and rats. Three layers of trophoblast cells separate the maternal blood space from the fetal capillaries. (D) Epitheliochorial placenta barrier as seen in, for example, sheep. One layer of uterine epithelium cells and one layer of trophoblast cells separate maternal and fetal capillaries. Furthermore, in all three cases, maternal and fetal blood is separated by connective tissue and basal laminae.
A short gestation time (or rapid reproduction) is sometimes considered an advantage to obtain a high experimental productivity or for economic reasons. However, if repeated procedures are required during the gestation time, a longer gestation period is usually preferred. A longer interval between the experiments allows for longer restitution and thereby, reduces the induced stress response in the animals. In addition, surgical manipulation might be difficult to employ in animals with a short gestation. During a long gestation time, the response of environmental or physiological influences on the fetal development could also become more pronounced.
Occurrence of a single fetus in uterus is obviously preferred for individual fetal monitoring. A small number of fetuses will often correlate with bigger fetal size [6]. A bigger fetus makes it possible to receive a higher spatial resolution and sensitivity using non-invasive diagnostic tools, for example, clinical magnetic resonance imaging (clinical MRI) and computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT). Furthermore, surgical procedures are easier to perform. However, larger litter sizes provide a higher sampling size per gestation, and thus, the number of animals used can be reduced in accordance with the “3 R’s” (see Section 9).
Many differences exist in relation to placentation in the different animal models, such as the development and changes of the placenta during the time of gestation, blood flow, transfer of oxygen, nutrients and waste products, metabolic, endocrine and immunologic function [4].
In relation to drug transfer, it seems obvious to use animal models to study the passage across placenta and potential teratogenic or toxic effects, but unfortunately the transplacental transfer and the placental metabolic demand vary greatly among species [7]. Drugs may transfer across placenta by passive transport, active transport or facilitated transport, whereas lipid-soluble molecules with a small molecular size can cross the placenta by passive diffusion. In that regards, the guinea pig seems as a more human translatable model compared to, for example, the sheep, because the guinea pig has a thin
Table 1 shows the average gestation length, number of fetuses, maternal weight, neonate weight and the placental barrier type in human and relevant species.
Basal gestation parameters of the laboratory animals | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Animal species | Gestation length (days) | Number of fetuses | Maternal pre-pregnancy weight (g) | Neonate weight (g) | Placenta barrier type |
Human | 266 | 1 | 5900 | 3183 | Hemomonochorial villous |
Mouse | 20 | 5–6 | 19 | 1 | Hemotrichorial labyrinth |
Rat | 22 | 9 | 283 | 6 | Hemotrichorial labyrinth |
Guinea pig | 67 | 3–4 | 728 | 80 | Hemomonochorial labyrinth |
Chinchilla | 113 | 1–2 | 480 | 40 | Hemomonochorial labyrinth |
Rabbit | 30 | 5 | 1591 | 39 | Hemodichorial labyrinth |
Sheep | 153 | 1–2 | 39.100 | 2376 | Epitheliochorial |
Pig | 115 | 5–14* | 84.000* | 400–1900a | Epitheliochorial |
Mice and rats are the most used species in research. Practical advantages include relatively low costs, an easy maintenance and a long tradition in scientific research. Mice have an important advantage in many genetic manipulated models along with inbreed strains. The mouse has a short gestation period of around 20 days, and it carries a litter size of 5–6, which allows for quick data collection. The placenta is of the
Rats have a long tradition as research models because the intrinsic properties, like the physiology and macro- and microanatomy, are well-known [9]. Rats pose some of the same advantages and disadvantages as mice; a short gestation period (around 22 days), large litter size (around 9 fetuses) and placental structure of a
The guinea pig has a gestation length of around 67 days and gives birth to 3–4 precocious offspring with a well-developed nervous system at birth [2]. These characteristics make newborn guinea pigs suitable for research in fetal development. The placenta barrier is
The chinchilla is not a traditional animal model in obstetric and fetal medicine. The chinchilla has mainly been used to study diseases of the ear due to similarities with human anatomy and function [11]. However, several characteristics of the gestation make the chinchilla a suitable model to imitate human pregnancy. Like the guinea pig, the chinchilla gives birth to 1–2 precocious offspring and has a
The rabbit is known for its rapid reproduction with a short gestation of only 30 days and a litter size of around five cubs. Because coitus induces the ovulation, it is possible to time the gestation and obtain a precise age of the fetuses, which is of practical experimental advantage. In particular, the rabbit has been used to study reproduction and early embryogenesis [14]. The larger size of rabbits compared to rodents facilitates various diagnostic techniques, such as ultrasound imaging, allowing structural information about the fetal size and hemodynamic characteristics [15], and even fetal and placental vasculature and hemodynamics can be studied by Doppler ultrasonography [16]. The rabbit has a
The sheep has a gestation length of 153 days and gives birth to 1–2 neurodevelopmentally matured lambs with about the same weight as a human newborn [17]. Therefore, the sheep is a translatable model for investigating fetal physiology. However, the placenta structure is very distinct from the human placenta. The placenta barrier is of the
The anatomical and physiological similarities to humans make the pig an excellent animal model in, for example, research of metabolic, cardiovascular, infectious diseases, xenotransplantation and neurological disorders. Surgical and anesthetic procedures are well established in the pig [18], and the genome is today fully sequenced in parallel with the existence of an important homology between the human and pig genome [19]. However, regarding the gestation, the pig has some important differences from the human pregnancy. The pig, like sheep, has an
Intrauterine growth restriction or retardation (IUGR) occurs when a fetus does not reach its genetic growth potential, mostly due to placental insufficiency with limited offer of oxygen and energy; caused by multiple factors, that is, smoking, preeclampsia or multiple pregnancy. IUGR affects up to 8% of all human pregnancies and may lead to serious complications in the newborn. Similarly, IUGR also initiates late-onset diseases, such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The most commonly used IUGR animal model is the rat, but pigs, guinea pigs, mice, rabbits and sheep have also been studied for this purpose (Table 2). Six different methods have been reported to obtain an IUGR animal model: (1) diet-induced IUGR, (2) heat-induced IUGR, (3) IUGR induced by artery ligation, (4) hypoxia-induced IUGR, (5) embolization-induced IUGR and (6) glucocorticoid-induced IUGR. The most frequently used methods are the diet and ligation approach.
Diet-induced IUGR has mainly been performed using either calorie restriction or low-protein diet. Calorie restriction is often provided via a 50% restriction diet as notably programs insulin resistance and hypertension [23]. This approach has been adopted by López-Tello, demonstrating a diet-induced IUGR rabbit model, where animals were offered 50% of daily global nutrition, allowing investigations of the early changes in fetoplacental hemodynamics [24]. Interestingly, they found that neonates from this group were significantly smaller than those in the control group, which were offered food
Low-protein diet in fetal programming features different compositions of macronutrients. The Southampton diet (SH) and the Hope farm diet (HF) is often used in fetal programming (Table 3). The main difference between these two diets is the amount of starch, simple sugars (sucrose and glucose) and lipids (corn oil and soy oil) vary, whereas SH has high starch content (42–51%), corn oil (10%) and sucrose (21–24%) and HF has low starch (8%), soy oil (4.3%) and glucose (53–67%). They also differ in their impact on the offspring; the SH has shown to program hypertension whereas HF programs insulin resistance [26].
Animals | Methods | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diet induced | Artery ligation | Heat induced | Embolization | Hypoxia | Glucocorticoid | |
Rats | [83] | [84] | [31] | [85] | ||
Mice | [86] | [27] | [30] | |||
Guinea pigs | [87] | [28] | ||||
Rabbits | [24] | [88] | ||||
Sheep | [25] | [32] | [33] | [89] | [90] | |
Pigs | [91] |
IUGR models (number refers to reference list).
Different low-protein diets used for fetal programming.
IUGR induced by artery ligation is frequently used in animal research. Ligation intends to reduce blood flow and thereby oxygen and nutrition to the fetus. This approach has been introduced in relevant animals (Table 4). Notice that all the listed animals have bicornated uteruses while humans have a simple pyramid-shaped uterus [1]. These animals have two large horns and each have their own blood supply, allowing animal to act as both control (one horn) and case (another horn). Ligation is performed on the uterine vessel and can be performed either unilaterally (on only one of the horns) or bilaterally.
Animals | Methods | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Artery ligation | NO reduction | RAS-related models | Immunological | Transgenic models | |
Rats | [37] | [40] | [92] | [47] | |
Mice | [42] | [43] | [48] | [50] | |
Guinea pigs | [93] | [94] | |||
Rabbits | [95] | ||||
Sheep | [96] | ||||
Pigs | [97] |
Preeclampsia models (number refers to reference list).
The timing and the site of ligation is of important matter in the ligation-induced IUGR model. Ligating at the distal portion of the uterine vessel implies a complete blockage of the iliac artery and the uterine blood supply is then solely dependent on the ovarian artery. Conversely, when ligating at the central portion of the uterine vessel, the blood supply comes from both the ovarian and iliac artery, resulting in a less affected uterine blood delivery. Janot et al. demonstrated that ligating on the central portion of the uterine vessel was necessary to maintain a viable pregnancy, by establishing IUGR models in mice with ligation at either positions [27]. Mice ligated at the distal portion had a 100% abortion rate and a 50% mortality rate. In contrast, mice ligated at the central portion had an abortion rate of 75% (but still inducing a characteristic IUGR profile) and no maternal mortality. Herrera et al. used an ameroid occlusion to ligate the uterine artery bilateral in guinea pigs at day 35 of gestation [28] (Figure 2A). The occlusion led to an increased placental vascular resistance associated with a decreased fetal and placental weight, and the study also showed asymmetrical growth of the fetal organs.
Ameroid occludder placement (reproduced from ref. [
Hypoxia has been shown to affect the size of the offspring pathologically and functionally [29]. Hypoperfusion of placenta increases the amount of reactive oxygen species, causing oxidative stress and a reduced vasodilation. Ligation, as described earlier, also causes hypoperfusion of placenta creating hypoxia, but in this section hypoxia will be refered to as reduced environmental oxygen saturation. Rueda-Clausen et al. studied the impact of hypoxia on IUGR and preeclampsia in mice [30]. Mice were mated and randomly assigned to either cases or controls. Cases were placed in a sealed chamber for 3 days with an oxygen concentration of 10.5% ± 0.3% (normal oxygen content is 20% in atmospheric air) and then placed in clean cages. This prolonged lack of oxygen significantly induced IUGR, but the pub survival was down to approximatly 10%. Tapanaien et al. found that rat dams having an oxygen concentration of 13–14% induced IUGR with a birthweight of 24% lower than controls (20% oxygen), but without significant fetal death, suggesting that an oxygen concentrations of 13–14% may become beneficial for inducing of IUGR [31].
Galan et al. initiated a study by exposing five pregnant ewes to hyperthermic conditions for 80 days, initiated from the 40th gestation day [32]. The ewes were exposed to 40°C during the day and 35°C during the night. The study established an interesting IUGR model with some similarities with the human IUGR (asymmetrical growth, hypoxia and hypoglycaemia). Even though this method successfully induced IUGR, a more widespread use of this hyperthermic-based IUGR model could become difficult due to animal ethical restrictions, and this method has only been reported in sheep.
Duncan et al. induced IUGR by injecting microspheres of 15–30 μm into the umbilical-placental vascular bed from day 120 of gestation in a sheep model [33]. This procedure reduced the fetal oxygen saturation to 50%, resulting in significantly reduced growth and significant altered pH, SaO2 and pO2.
Exposure to glucocorticoid during pregnancy has long been known to be associated with a low birthweight and concomitant adult diseases. When investigating the effect of glucocorticoid, it is necessary to distinguish between natural cortisol and synthetic glucocorticoid. Previous studies have shown that dexamethasone induces hypertension in rodents whereas cortisone acetate and betamethasone do not [23]. Additionally, different species and sex may react differently to glucocorticoid exposure. When looking at long-gestation mammals, the timing of glucocorticoid exposure is essential. Exposure to glucocorticoid in the pregnant ewe in the early gestation has shown to induce hypertension in adulthood of the offspring, whereas exposure late in gestation promoted insulin resistance rather than hypertension in the offspring. Glucocorticoid exposure can be administered subcutaneously, through maternal drinking water or intraperitoneal injections [23].
Human preeclampsia is a multiorgan disorder with onset after the 20th week of gestation. The dignostic criteria includes a blood pressure that exceeds 140 mmHg (systolic) and 90 mmHg (diastolic) and simultaneous dection of proteinuria. The condition can lead to kidney failure, liver rupture, stroke, eclampsia with seizures and HELLP syndrome [34]. The definitive pathogenesis of preeclampsia is yet to be found but may be associated with oxidative stress, angiogenic factors, an immunological response between mother and placenta or superficial placentation [35]. Appropriate animal models of preeclampsia must meet the following criteria (Table 4): they should initiate hypertension, proteinuria and endothelial dysfunction, and furthermore, resolve after delivery of the placenta [34]. Preeclampsia is presumably caused by reduced uterine blood flow due to abnormal trophoblastic invasion in spiral arteries. This has implicated the need of an animal model of reduced uterine perfusion pressure to study the mechanisms within preeclampsia. In 1940, one of the first studies describing this correlation was performed [36], demonstrating pregnancy-mediated hypertension in dogs following partial ligation of the infrarenal abdominal aorta. This ligation procedure has subsequently been performed in rabbits, monkeys, sheep, primates, guinea pigs and rabbits [37]. One of the best-described studies was performed in baboons [38], showing that hypertension occurred in parallel with renal changes due to uteroplacental ligation, supporting the view that hypoxia/ischemia participates in the potential mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Rodents are also reported as important ligation-induced models of preeclampsia. Preeclampsia in rats has been established by clipping around aorta, above the iliac arteries, and at both uterine arteries, at day 14 of gestation (Figure 2D), providing characteristic pathological conditions, including hypertension, proteinuria and renal impairment [37].
Another approach to stimulate the conditions of preeclampsia is to manipulate genes thought to influence the pathogenesis. NO production is reduced in preeclampsia [39], and several studies have been performed to mimic this pathogenesis [40],[41]. A study by Molnár et al. inhibited the NO synthase in pregnant rats [40], resulting in hypertension, proteinuria, thrombocytopenia and IUGR; all characteristic findings that were considered consistent with preeclampsia. However, one study in eNOS knockout mice showed, controversially, a decreased blood pressure [42].
Women with preeclampsia have general elevated levels of autoantibodies (AT1-AA) that bind and activate the angiotensin II type 1a receptor, mediating augmented blood pressure. To imitate this pathogenesis, Zhou et al. successfully injected purified AA1-AA into pregnant mice, resulting in hypertension, proteinuria, placental abnormalities, glomerular endotheliosis and small fetus size [43]. This study also showed that co-injection of losartan (AT1-antagonist) prevented these conditions. However, losartan in human pregnancies is contraindicated due to teratogenicity.
In pregnancy, VEGF plays an important role in angiogenesis, while placental growth factor (PIGF) plays an important role in placentation. Preeclampsia in women, however, shows elevated levels of sFlt-1, a VEGF receptor binding and inactivating both VEGF and PIGF. sFlt-1 has been introduced to both mice and rats by a adenoviral vector, demonstrating preeclampsia characteristics (increased BP, proteinuria and glomerular endotheliosis) [44, 45, 46] . A limitation of this method is that the reported results were not specific to pregnancy and were dose dependent [44].
A host of immunological mediators, thought to be a part of the pathogenesis in preeclampsia, have been studied in animal models, including TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor), IL-6 and anti-IL-10, and all mediators provoked elevated blood pressures [47] [45] [46]. A study by Zenclussen et al. injected T-helper-1-like-cells into mice, causing increased blood pressure, proteinuria and glomerular fibrosis [48]. This method is interesting as it exhibits the inflammatory pathway, but they are considered unlikely to participate in the primary events of preeclampsia.
It is well-known that a genetic predisposition exists in relation to preeclampsia [34]. Transgenic mice models can be generated to study the influence of relevant genes. The APOL1 gene encodes apolipoprotein L1, and variants of the gene (APOL1-G1 and -G2) are associated with kidney disease [49]. As the gene is only found in humans and some primates, transgenic mice models were developed to study the gene variants
There are several other ways to induce preeclampsia, including adriamycin-induced, chatechol-O-methyltransferase-deficient and BPH/5 mice strain. However, these methods have only been used in mice and will not be discussed further [51].
Diabetes in pregnancy is divided in two groups, pre-gestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). In PGDM, the pregnant woman suffers from diabetes acquired prior to onset of pregnancy. PGDM is subdivided in type 1 (insulin deficiency) or type 2 (insulin resistance). Type 1 diabetes (DM1) is caused by an autoimmune reaction against the insulin producing pancreatic β cells [52]. DM1 is often diagnosed in early childhood, and DM1 patients will require exogenous insulin. Type 2 diabetes (DM2) is the most common, less severe type of diabetes. In DM2, the skeletal muscle and adipose tissue are insensitive to insulin, and the β cells fail to compensate.
In normal pregnancy, maternal tissues become progressively insensitive to insulin. This effect is likely caused by hormones from the placenta. In order to maintain a euglycemic state, the woman must increase her insulin secretion by 200–250%. About 3–10% of the pregnant population is unable to produce an adequate insulin response to compensate this insulin resistance and they develop GDM. The choice of animal model should depend on the type of diabetic pregnancy that the research aim to study. Diabetes can be induced pre-gestationally or gestationally as either an insulin-resistant or insulin-deficient model and the following methods can be used to induce PGDM or GDM in animals: (1) surgical induced (partial pancreatectomy), (2) chemical induced (streptozotocin or alloxan), (3) diet induced and (4) genetic models.
Partial pancreatectomy is provided by removal of up to 95% of pancreas prior to mating, leading to onset of PGDM with concomitant insulin deficiency [53]. This model was introduced in female rats in 1970 [54], but the model is hampered by several factors: surgical complexity, high post-surgical mortality, a long time between surgery and development of diabetes (2–3 months) and sequelae like digestive problems from the missing exocrine pancreas. However, partial pancreatectomy in sheep fetuses in late gestation has been used to study fetal insulin and glucose metabolism
A widely used method for induction of experimental diabetes is chemical destruction of pancreatic β cells, resulting in insulin deficiency. This approach resembles a DM1 model, but it has been used to mimic GDM. Streptozotocin and alloxan are the most used drugs, especially in rats and mice. The amount of time required to induce diabetes and the phenotype (mild to server diabetes) depend on factors such as animal species, strain, dose and mode of administration (sc, iv, ip or im) [56]. In rats, streptozotocin has shown to cause ovarian dysfunction [57], and untreated diabetes generally results in subfertility. For these reasons, streptozotocin is often administered on the day of mating in order not to interfere with a successful mating and where the risks of direct toxic effects on the embryo are little [56].
Obesity is a well-known risk factor for DM2 and GDM [58]. Feeding with high-fat diets and/or high concentrations of sucrose and fructose induces insulin resistance, and this approach is used to create animal models of DM2 and GDM in rats, mice and sheep (Table 5) [56] [59]. This method is cheap and accessible, but relatively more time-consuming than chemical induction. Holemans et al. fed female rats with a diabetogenic diet 4 weeks prior to mating and during gestation [59]. They found that diabetes was not present prior to mating, but was confirmed at gestation day 20, resembling a GDM model. Liang et al. used a similar protocol in mice, but diabetes was developed pre-gestational in this study [60]. In sheep, a 60 days of diabetogenic diet before mating resulted in insulin resistance and increased fetal adipose tissue and β cell mass in mid-gestation (gestation day 75) [61]. Another way to study hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia and the impact on the fetus is by continuous iv glucose infusion during gestation [62]. However, this method is considered too simple and lacks the complexity of a diabetic pregnancy.
Several genetic mice models of diabetic pregnancy exist. Genetic engineering and inbreeding are unfortunately impossible in several species [56]. The “non-obese diabetic” mice and “bio breeding” rats are inbreed strains spontaneously developing DM1. They are used to study fertility and fetal complications in DM1 diabetic pregnancy [53]. The “db/db” mouse is a classic DM2 model with a mutation in the leptin receptor gene (ObR) resulting in excessive appetite and hence obesity [63] [56]. These mice are infertile, but the heterozygote “db/+” mouse are fertile and develops insulin resistance during gestation, and they are therefore providing a model of GDM [64]. Newborns of “db/+” mice show complications related to GDM like macrosomia regardless of fetal genotype. An important factor is that the diabetic phenotype of the “db/+” mouse is not present prior to gestation, making this model more transferable to GDM than many other models [56].
With genetic models of diabetic pregnancy, it is important to remember the genetic predisposition to diabetes in the fetus. Embryo transfer can be used to study the influence of maternal diabetes separately from the fetal genotype [65]. Many genes affecting β cell function in pregnancy can be mutated in mice to induce a diabetic phenotype [56].
Ultrasound imaging is widely used in small animal practice for the evaluation of the pregnancy and determination of number of fetuses, and it is also used to monitor abnormal pregnancies, such as poorly fetal development for gestational age and to identify pregnancies in which there is embryonic resorption or fetal abortion. In the placenta, ultrasound-based Doppler is the first-line technique for the evaluation of uteroplacental blood flow. The Doppler technology is based on analysis of the change in frequency or intensity of ultrasound waves when they are reflected by a moving target such as erythrocytes. Ultrasound exposure is considered harmless; and in fact, animal experiments subjected to fetal ultrasound imaging in various mammalian species showed no pathological effects for the embryo, no congenital malformations or adverse neurobehavioral effects [66]. The technique is often combined with simultaneous administration of a sonographic contrast agent, resulting in an enhanced gray scale or color Doppler signal, facilitating visualization of microvascular structures down to the microvascular perfusion. The mean diameter of micro-bubbles ranges from 2 to 10 μm, less than that of a red blood cell but sufficiently large to be trapped within the vascular space [67]. Thus, ultrasound imaging allows discrimination between fetal and maternal circulatory systems by imaging the intervillous space alone, and it could be used to diagnose the abnormalities of placental blood flow [68] (Figure 3A).
Placental blood flow mapping with discrimination of fetal and maternal circulation using ultrafast ultrasound Doppler in the rabbit model. With this technique, the pulsatility of each placental vessel is analyzed. Discrimination between maternal and fetal blood flows is performed using advanced analysis (A). Evaluation of placental blood flow with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the rabbit model before (B) and after (C) injection of contrast product. Blood oxygen level-dependent MRI showing an axial view of the fetus with the fetal liver selected as the region of interest (D). (A–C are reprinted from ref. [
MRI is another non-invasive method for diagnostic information. MRI uses the body’s natural magnetic properties to produce detailed images from any part of the body. For imaging purposes, the hydrogen nucleus is used because of its abundance in water and fat. What makes MRI so powerful is the exquisite soft tissue and anatomic details. MRI has been increasingly used for detailed visualization of the fetus
Similar to the ultrasound-based contrast-enhanced method, an excellent soft tissue image contrast can be obtained by MRI contrast agents; usually a paramagnetic (gadolinium) molecule that alters the intrinsic T1-relaxation times of various soft tissues where the contrast agent accumulates. For example, Mourier et al. have evaluated placental blood flow with MRI in a rabbit model before and after injection of a paramagnetic contrast agent [68] (Figure 3B–C). Animal studies have shown that small-size gadolinium agents cross the placenta and are extracted by the fetal kidneys into the amniotic fluid [70] [71]. Mikkelsen et al [12] revealed a high signal of [1-13C]-pyruvate and its derivative [1-13C]-lactate in the chinchilla placenta using hyperpolarized MRI; a non-harmful imaging modality using non-ionizing endogenous substrates for interrogating accumulation and metabolic pathways. In parallel, Friesen-Waldner et al. examined noninvasively the fetoplacental metabolism and transport of pyruvate in guinea pigs using the same technique [72]. The relation between maternal oxygen challenge and fetal oxygenation has recently become possible to study using the blood oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) MRI sequence; a non-invasive technique for evaluating organ tissue oxygenation that requires no contrast exposure (Figure 3D). Studies in sheep fetuses have shown that changes in cotyledon and fetal BOLD MRI signals are closely related to changes in fetal oxygenation estimated by fetal arterial hemoglobin saturation [73]. MRI has also shown promises in the fetal heart. As example, Yamamura et al. have demonstrated the applicability of MRI for future evaluation of fetuses with complex congenital heart defects [74].
Moreover, more sophisticated MRI sequences, such as diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI), MR spectroscopy and diffusion tensor imaging allow for visualization of inherent structural, metabolic, cellular and microvascular characteristics. While these techniques have potential applications in fetal imaging, the familiarity with fetal MRI is still limited within researchers working with animal pregnancies.
From an ethical viewpoint, animal experiments involving pregnant animals do not differ from other types of animal experimentation, but the ethical aspects of using fetuses for experiments should be considered. The 3Rs should be considered in all other types of animal experimentation [75], including the options for replacement, which is the first R. One obvious alternative option is to use the placenta from women who have just given birth [76]. The maternal and the fetal circulations are re-established with a pump system, and this option has been used to study the passage of chemical substances from mother to fetus [77]. In addition to the fact that this alternative can replace the use of live animals, it also has the advantage of avoiding problems related to species differences in the maternal-fetal barrier. However, it can only represent transport in the last part of the third trimester. The second R, reduction, should not only include the number of mothers, but also the number of fetuses. The studies should be conducted so that no more experimental animals are used than is necessary to obtain statistically safe results [75]. The third R, refinement, should importantly include the accommodation, feeding and care of the experimental animals based on the specific requirements of the pregnant animals.
The physiology of pregnancy can create stress problems in animals which therefore pose special requirements for their handling, care and anesthesia. Most studies on this topic have been performed in ewes, but the same changes are expected in other species. When the size of the fetus increases, more energy and blood must flow to the uterus, and therefore maternal blood volume, cardiac output and contractility approach their maximum [78]. Additionally, the lungs should be able to deliver an increased amount of oxygen while the uterus presses on the diaphragm so that the thoracic cavity volume is decreased. As a result, respiratory rate increases, but at the same time the risk of hypoxia increases even during short-term apnea. The expanding uterus further delays gastric emptying and decreases the esophageal sphincter tone, which increases the risk of regurgitation and aspiration pneumonia during anesthesia. Special conditions apply to sheep and other ruminants, as the last part of the gestation period is characterized by very little space in the abdominal cavity, which may limit the volume of the fermenting compartment so that feed intake is limited. Furthermore, pregnancy may also prolong plasma half-lives of anesthetics and other drugs, and the high level of progesterone will have a sedative effect, and therefore anesthesia doses must be reduced to prevent overdosing [79]. The fasting period prior to anesthesia should be minimized to prevent metabolic disturbances.
Many females will have a temporary loss of appetite in the first part of the pregnancy, and an increased appetite later. In general, the nutrition requirements are the same as for non-pregnant females. However, in the last part of the gestation period, the fetus growth will increase dramatically, and so will the nutrition requirements for the mother [80]. For the species with largest litters and heaviest fetuses, the need for energy will increase most. Pregnant rodents should typically be fed with a special breeding mix, which has a slightly higher content of proteins, vitamins and minerals. They are typical feed
Pregnancy poses special requirements for the handling of experimental animals. Generally, pregnant animals tolerate less stress than non-pregnant animals, and should be transported as little as possible during the first and last part of the pregnancy. At the beginning of pregnancy, the implantation process of ovarian eggs is sensitive to stress, and ultimately in pregnancy, the mothers are physiologically stressed and therefore have a low threshold of stress tolerance. Mice and rats are bred in monogamous (one male and one female) or polygamous mating systems (one male and two to six females). In guinea pigs, the polygamous mating system can be practiced with 1 male to 10 females. In polygamous systems, the females are removed from the male before they give birth. For pigs, the gilts will go into estrus after contact with a boar, and after mating, the pregnant sows are group housed. The sheep differs by being seasonally polyestrous. Ewes are typically paired in autumn so that they lamb in the spring. If the animals should give birth, they must have access to pre-birth material during the last days of gestation.
The anesthesia risk is higher in the pregnant than in non-pregnant animals due to physiological alterations described above [79]. In general, anesthetics can cross the blood-brain barrier and will usually cross placenta. Therefore, in some species, local anesthesia, such as epidural anesthesia, is preferred due to their minimal systemic effects; this applies especially to cows, sheep and other ruminants where general anesthesia furthermore can lead to tympanitis. In most other species, it is necessary to use general anesthesia. The choice of anesthetics depends on the animal species, but drugs generally have to be selected for their minimum effects on cardiac output, renal blood flow and fetus physiology [79]. Drugs with major depression effects on the fetus should be avoided. Inhalation drugs can be used, but as the degree of neonatal depression depends on the maternal anesthesia depth, higher doses should be avoided. Furthermore, they can induce decreased uterine blood flow and fetal acidosis. Both sevoflurane, isoflurane and nitrous oxide are safe to use. Caution should be taken when using opioids as these are only slowly eliminated in the fetus. Xylazine and other alpha-2-agonists are also problematic as they have major depression effects on the fetus. During cesarean section, anticholinergic drugs should be given for inhibition of vagal tone during uterus traction, and ketamine can be used in combination with other drugs, such as thiopental, as long as ketamine is administrated in low doses. Propofol induces a rapid anesthetic phase and is rapidly cleared from the neonates blood circulation [79].
Because there is no animal model equal to the human situation, caution should be taken to extrapolate the results to human diseases. As one animal model may have advantages in one study, it may have disadvantages in others. The careful choice of model is therefore crucial. Mice and rats are currently the most used animal models to study pregnancy, including pregnancy-related diseases like IUGR, preeclampsia and diabetic pregnancy. However, larger animal models, like the guinea pig or sheep, have advantages making them more translational to human pregnancy. Introduction of new diagnostic techniques has facilitated (non-invasive) imaging of physiological, hemodynamic and metabolic measures, even in the smallest animal models. In parallel, the increasingly better management of feeding, handling, care and anesthesia of the pregnant animals reduce physiologically stress. These factors contribute to an increasingly translatability to the human pregnancy. The use of animal models provides a way to gain insight into the improved understanding of the human pregnancy, and there are today available pregnancy-related animal models that facilitate experimental studies that cannot be made in humans.
This necessity of controller design modeling for proportional integral and derivative (PID) gain tuning against the external disturbances with constrained internal parameter variation of the permanent magnet direct current (PMDC) motor based on an optimization technique of H-infinity is highly recommended. Here, PID controller with auto tuning of gains are used to match the goals in H infinity framework. Different performance goals for tracking are preset as design objectives. The speed control of PMDC-motor has so far attracted the attention of the researchers in recent times and many approaches and improvements have been proposed for PMDC motor drives. PMDC motors are used in electrical equipment, computer peripherals, and manipulators because of their precise speed control capabilities. C-PID controllers have been in use since several years for different applications such as motor-control. The classical tuning methods of PID controller, as well as response method of Zeigler-Nichols frequency considers the system in the mode of oscillation to analyze the tuning procedure [1]. Since the manual tuning of PID controller is not user friendly, as it tends to be a tedious process though being simple in structure.
We know that PID controller fails to address instant tracking / regulation to get robustness against disturbance rejection. The majority of the time, industrial controllers are not properly tuned. Traditionally, motor control applications have better performed in control execution for specific working conditions. Controller parameters can be tuned for exact working conditions with an underlying assumption that the conditions are ordered and defined. Basically, working conditions according to the framework that are prone to variations leads to undesirable results if the variations are not accurately introduced. As these controllers do not guarantees the robustness to inner and outer disturbances, the outer disturbances and the system parameter variations have huge impact on performance and degradation in the applications of motor control.
Researchers in literature have presented many Robust Control techniques for motor control applications. Methods like back-stepping algorithms, fuzzy and neural based control systems, model predictive control and sliding mode control (SMC) are available in literature. The SMC based methodology stimulates the chattering phenomenon due to switching function of the inherent discontinuity. In Eker [2], the authors have demonstrated SMC for various applications of PMDC motor control. In Mamani et al. [3] and Corradini et al. [4], semi-SMC, adaptive SMC and boundary layer control (BLC) have been introduced as the development to classical style of Controlling the SMC and reducing chattering impact. Until now, most of the heuristic engineering methods have been developed to achieve optimal tuning of PID.
PID control with GA optimization based for the DC motor is implemented in Pal et al. [5] and can be stimulated by the aid of normal development methods. These methods have proven that the goal functions have degraded [6].
The PSO (Parasitic Swarm Optimization) is considered as the method of ideal structure to control of BLDC motor by PID control in Nasri et al. [7]. The major advantages being ease of implementation and computational complexity, which facilitates meeting constraints for some of the parameters apart from exhibiting fast convergence.
Position and speed control applications have been implemented using H-infinity-based control [8] providing better robustness in performance against disturbances, making this as an attractive alternative. To develop the Robust Controller, the NN based H-infinity controller was presented in Premkumar et al. [9] that introduces the DC motor H-infinity controller and has addressed parameter uncertainties.
In this chapter, SC application of PMDC-motor is addressed with variations in outer load disturbances and internal variations of the system parameters. Controller is also opted as C-PID and equivalent robustness characteristics are established using the H-infinity development procedures. The optimization effort is to get simultaneous fast-tracking response with better disturbance rejection.
Using supply current, motor speed and supply voltage relationship, we have the PMDC motor mathematical model as:
Here,
The representation of SS (state space) matrix of similar set of the equations is given by:
The overall transfer function for the speed and input voltage, is expressed as:
The transfer function of PMDC motor model is considered for a specified output speed and input voltage provided. The unknown motor parameters are prone to the variations due to aging of motor and its wear and tear. The controller must be built to offer resilience for each motor parameter within acceptable variation limits. The parameters of nominal motor are chosen from the standard motor of Maxon-RE35. The variation limits and motors parameters are given in Table 1. The proposed controller design for disturbance rejection in this work is based on the presumption that the PMDC motor internal parameter variations are within tolerable limits as specified for Maxon-RE35. The proposed Robust Controller design is discussed in subsequent section.
Parameter | Nominal value | Variation (tolerable limit) |
---|---|---|
0.00063 H | 41% | |
2.07 Ohm | 40% | |
Viscous-friction ( | 0.000049 Nms rad−1 | 51% |
EMF constant ( | 0.053 Vs rad−1 | [0.013 to 0.1] |
Armature-constant ( | 0.053 NmA−1 | [0.012 to 0.1] |
The parameters of motor and their acceptable limits of variation.
The proposed controller design model should meet the desired specifications within bounds of internal parameter variations. Figure below shows the variation in the gain of PMDC plant against variations of internal parameters. Similar variations are represented in the domain of frequency via bode plot, that are shown in Figures 1 and 2. Henceforth, PID controller is designed to address variation in the model and provide desired specifications for closed loop performance.
The variations in PMDC gain of motor plant for uncertain and nominal internal parameter variations.
Bode plot of plant model subjected to the internal parameter variations.
This chapter discusses the target specifications for better disturbance rejection and simultaneously set the point tracking. Here, we assume that the control bandwidth, exhibits increasing slope at the crossover frequency compared to disturbance rejection, allowing better gain within the bandwidth. The higher slope is described as lesser phase margin resulting in acceptable overshoot in response to set point. In order to match competing requirements of the tracking rejection and disturbance, the PID controller with 2-DOF (Degree of Freedom) is used as transfer function.
2-DOF (Degree of Freedom) PID controllers contain weighing coefficients associated with derivative and proportional terms. These weighing coefficients facilitate effective disturbance rejection restraining maximization of the over-shoot under optimal conditions. The PID controller of 2-DOF works better in moderating the changes arising in the reference signal or control-signal.
The close loop control system is considered as shown in Figure 3. Here, the external disturbances such as load variations on motor shafts and its torque variations are added that influences on the motor parametric variations.
Block diagram with external disturbances (load variations).
The 2-DOF for controller can be tuned by utilizing the approach of H infinity optimization. The open loop gain being a critical indicator of feedback loop behavior, gain of open loop should be more than one in control bandwidth to confirm better DR (Disturbance Rejection) and it must be lower than one outer of control bandwidth to confirm insensitivity to measurement noise of unmodelled dynamics. The ideal performance terms can be displayed regarding execution objectives. To accomplish a decent disturbance rejection and tracking, three execution objectives/limitations are forced on the tuning of controller gain (see discussion in previous section), which is as follows:
“Tracking” – used to identify the RT (response time) to step input
“ML (Minimum loop) gain” – used to recognize loop gain before the frequency of crossover.
“ML (Maximum loop) gain” – used to to identify the control bandwidth at higher frequencies.
The CGs (Controller-gains) must be tuned with constraint i.e., function cost, connected with every specification subjected to minimization in H-infinity framework.
The frequency domain specification for monitoring between output and input is described in this performance target. This frequency domain constraint indicates the most extreme relative error as a FF (frequency function). The ME (maximum error) is given by:
where,
The scalar function
where,
The minimal gain on the open loop frequency response at specified frequencies is limited by this performance goal. The frequency dependent minimum gain constraint in turn gives the inverse sensitivity function of minimum gain limit. The min constraint gain characterizes the capacity of scalar function
where,
This execution goal aims at highest gain of open loop at the determined frequencies in the given framework. The Max-LG can be characterized as the frequency domain element. This type of constraint restrains upper limit on the corresponding sensitivity. The maximum loop gain determines the scalar function
where,
The three performance goals for the H-infinity minimization such as tracking, maximum LG and minimum LG. The limits/range for these goals is expected as represented in Figures 4–6 as:
Tracking better than 2 sec
Min-LG: to be higher below 0.5 rad/s.
Max-LG: to be less beyond 4 rad/s and the roll off with at least 20db/decade.
Performance goal 1: The response for desired tracking.
Performance goal 2: The desired min-LG.
Performance goal 3: The desired max-LG.
The motor model transfer function as described in Eq. (5) along with the constraints from Eqs. (6)–(10) is simulated using MATLAB Simulink.
To model the uncertainty of plant parameters, the specified motor parameters can be used as variables. The PID controller of 2-DOF is characterized to have tunable gains. The analysis point is where disturbance torques are calculated and disturbance sensitiveness is determined. The performance goals as examined in Section 5 are selected and H∞ minimization of the scalar function relating to the described performance goals is evolved in this work. This results in optimal tuning of controller gains and is tabulated as shown in Table 2.
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
0.034 | |
28.447 | |
−0.942 | |
0.341 |
The resulting tuned parameters of 2-DOF PID from simulation for optimization.
The outcomes are presented in the following figures.
The Figure 7 represents response of TE (tracking error) of the tuned function of closed loop transfer function. This plot represents the tracking error that is accomplished over all ranges of frequencies below the specified margin. Correspondingly, the max-LG and achieved min-loop v/s ideal values are plotted in Figures 8 and 9.
The performance goal 1: Desired v/s achieved.
The performance goal 2: Desired v/s achieved.
The performance goal 3: Desired v/s achieved.
Figure 8 shows the achieved transient duration of proposed model is much less that desired transient duration. Figures 10 and 11 demonstrates tracking performance of the proposed model for any arbitrary input. In all cases, the set point of tracking can be accomplished well within the prescribed 2 seconds limitations in system response. From these plots, we infer that simulation of the proposed model guarantees motor internal parameters to remain within tolerable limits of variations for any applied arbitrary external disturbances. Further, the proposed model is tested for simulation with 30 different randomly chosen external disturbances.
The performance of tracking with 2-DOF PID controller.
The performance of speed control to the pulse command (tracking better than the 2 sec).
It is significant to note that achieved performances are far superior to the focused objectives. Additionally, H∞ advancement of targeted goals outperforms over expected performance. Out of several performance goals specified for PMDC motors, our work presents simulation results for only three objectives. However, other goals remain to be explored.
Figure 12 represents the disturbance rejection achieved for two different values of proportional and derivative coefficients. The response for randomly chosen load disturbances (30 arbitrary signals) with implicit effect on internal parameters is presented in Figure 13. It can be observed that the response for the proposed robust model for controller is well within the accepted bounds. It is worth to observe that the disturbances attenuate well below the prescribed limit of 2 sec.
Disturbance rejection with the controller of 2-DOF PID.
The response to 30 random disturbances with implicit parameter variations.
This work introduces the MO-optimization (Multi Objective) with three performance goals in the structure of H∞ for tuning parameters of PID controller for PMDC motor. The two simultaneous competing needs of disturbance rejection along with input tracking are achieved with Robust Controller design with 2-DOF over disturbance rejection using H∞ framework. Hence, it is established that the PID controller can be tuned, and corresponding gains can be achieved for a specified constraints/performance capability. Further, H∞ provides a better and acceptable framework for optimization.
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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Although typical biological treatments of water offer some advantages such as low cost and operability, many investigations referring to the removal of pesticides have suggested that in many cases they have low effectiveness due to the limited biodegradability of many agrochemicals. In recent years, research for new techniques for water detoxification to avoid these disadvantages has led to processes that involve light, which are called advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Among the different semiconductor (SC) materials tested as potential photocatalysts, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most popular because of its photochemical stability, commercial availability, non-toxic nature and low cost, high photoactivity, ease of preparation in the laboratory, possibility of doping with metals and non-metals and coating on solid support. 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A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"56162",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry: Problems and Solutions",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",totalDownloads:5273,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Phosphoric acid (PA) is an important industrial chemical used as an intermediate in the fertilizer industry, for metal surface treatment in the metallurgical industry and as an additive in the food industry. The PA industry is spread out worldwide in Europe, Asia and America, including countries that operate phosphate rock (PR) mines and produce PA, phosphatic fertilizers and phosphate-based products.",book:{id:"5595",slug:"phosphoric-acid-industry-problems-and-solutions",title:"Phosphoric Acid Industry",fullTitle:"Phosphoric Acid Industry - Problems and Solutions"},signatures:"Benjamín Valdez Salas, Michael Schorr Wiener and Juan Ricardo\nSalinas Martinez",authors:[{id:"16436",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Schorr",slug:"michael-schorr",fullName:"Michael Schorr"}]},{id:"62941",title:"Inorganic Coordination Chemistry: Where We Stand in Cancer Treatment?",slug:"inorganic-coordination-chemistry-where-we-stand-in-cancer-treatment-",totalDownloads:2160,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Metals have unique characteristics such as variable coordination modes, redox activity, and reactivity being indispensable for several biochemical processes in cells. Due to their reactivity, their concentration is tightly regulated inside the cells, and abnormal concentrations are associated with many disorders, such as cancer. As such metal complexes turned out to be very attractive as potential anticancer agents. The discovery of cisplatin was a crucial moment, which prompted the interest in Pt(II) and other metal complexes as potential anticancer agents. This chapter highlights the state of the art on metal complexes in cancer therapy, highlighting their uptake mechanisms, biological targets, toxicity, and drug resistance. Finally, based on the importance of selective target of cancer cells, drug delivery systems will also be discussed.",book:{id:"7549",slug:"basic-concepts-viewed-from-frontier-in-inorganic-coordination-chemistry",title:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry",fullTitle:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry"},signatures:"Pedro Pedrosa, Andreia Carvalho, Pedro V. Baptista and Alexandra R. Fernandes",authors:[{id:"253664",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra R",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",slug:"alexandra-r-fernandes",fullName:"Alexandra R Fernandes"}]},{id:"57464",title:"General Aspects of the Cobalt Chemistry",slug:"general-aspects-of-the-cobalt-chemistry",totalDownloads:2305,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter aims to collect and summarize the chemical properties of cobalt and some new cobalt compounds. It deals with the progress of cobalt chemistry. Cobalt has been substantial in both chemical reactions and within many compounds. Some of them are heterocyclic reactions, cobalt-based catalyst and cobalamin. Also, it discusses variety of applications of cobalt in a wide range of areas and toxicity of cobalt. The studies carried out in this area so far have enabled and will be continued to be responsible for producing unknown and difficult reactions. This survey of the recent literature illustrates the fact that many different approaches on cobalt and new cobalt compounds are being used in many different areas.",book:{id:"6133",slug:"cobalt",title:"Cobalt",fullTitle:"Cobalt"},signatures:"Yasemin Yildiz",authors:[{id:"208129",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Yıldız",slug:"yasemin-yildiz",fullName:"Yasemin Yıldız"}]},{id:"55301",title:"Recent Overview on the Abatement of Pesticide Residues in Water by Photocatalytic Treatment Using TiO2",slug:"recent-overview-on-the-abatement-of-pesticide-residues-in-water-by-photocatalytic-treatment-using-ti",totalDownloads:1994,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The water bodies’ pollution with phytosanitary products can pose a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems and drinking water resources. The usual appearance of pesticides in surface water, waste water and groundwater has driven the search for proper methods to remove persistent pesticides. Although typical biological treatments of water offer some advantages such as low cost and operability, many investigations referring to the removal of pesticides have suggested that in many cases they have low effectiveness due to the limited biodegradability of many agrochemicals. In recent years, research for new techniques for water detoxification to avoid these disadvantages has led to processes that involve light, which are called advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Among the different semiconductor (SC) materials tested as potential photocatalysts, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most popular because of its photochemical stability, commercial availability, non-toxic nature and low cost, high photoactivity, ease of preparation in the laboratory, possibility of doping with metals and non-metals and coating on solid support. Thus, in the present review, we provide an overview of the recent research being developed to photodegrade pesticide residues in water using TiO2 as photocatalyst.",book:{id:"6407",slug:"application-of-titanium-dioxide",title:"Application of Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Application of Titanium Dioxide"},signatures:"Nuria Vela, Gabriel Pérez-Lucas, José Fenoll and Simón Navarro",authors:[{id:"202983",title:"Dr.",name:"Simón",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro",slug:"simon-navarro",fullName:"Simón Navarro"},{id:"202988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Vela",slug:"nuria-vela",fullName:"Nuria Vela"},{id:"202989",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Fenoll",slug:"jose-fenoll",fullName:"José Fenoll"},{id:"206059",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Lucas",slug:"gabriel-perez-lucas",fullName:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"83",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11415,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:59,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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