\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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While the benefits of ion implantation are well recognized for many commercial endeavors, there have been recent developments in this field. Improvements in equipment, understanding of beam-solid interactions, applications to new materials, improved characterization techniques, and more recent developments to use implantation for nanostructure formation point to new directions for ion implantation and are presented in this book.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0634-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4292-8",doi:"10.5772/1881",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"ion-implantation",numberOfPages:450,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"b26dd84d6e82655fa8629dd119ad491e",bookSignature:"Mark Goorsky",publishedDate:"May 30th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1421.jpg",numberOfDownloads:41598,numberOfWosCitations:107,numberOfCrossrefCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:20,numberOfDimensionsCitations:55,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:31,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:185,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 14th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 13th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"20365",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Goorsky",slug:"mark-goorsky",fullName:"Mark Goorsky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/20365/images/3482_n.jpg",biography:"Mark Goorsky is a Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at UCLA and was chair of the department from 2004-2009. 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He leads activities for grade school and high school students through organizations such as the Society of Latino Engineers and Scientists, the American Indian Science and Engineering Society, and the National Society of Black Engineers. 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Public Perceptions of Values Associated with Wildfire Protection at the Wildland-Urban Interface: A Synthesis of National Findings",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68989.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68989",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68989",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68989",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68989",chapter:{id:"65057",slug:"public-perceptions-of-values-associated-with-wildfire-protection-at-the-wildland-urban-interface-a-s",signatures:"Jason Gordon, Adam S. 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Willcox, A.E. Luloff, James C. Finley and Donald G. Hodges",dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"264298",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Gordon",fullName:"Jason Gordon",slug:"jason-gordon",email:"jason.gordon@uga.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Georgia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11865",leadTitle:null,title:"Operator Theory - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tIn mathematics, operator theory is the study of linear operators on function spaces, beginning with differential operators and integral operators. The operators may be presented abstractly by their characteristics, such as bounded linear operators or closed operators and consideration may be given to nonlinear operators. The study, which depends heavily on the topology of function spaces, is a branch of functional analysis. If a collection of operators forms an algebra over a field, then it is an operator algebra. The description of operator algebras is part of operator theory. Single operator theory deals with the properties and classification of operators, considered one at a time. For example, the classification of normal operators in terms of their spectra falls into this category.
\r\n\r\n\tThe theory of operator algebras brings algebras of operators such as C*-algebras to the fore. Many operators that are studied are operators on Hilbert spaces of holomorphic functions, and the study of the operator is intimately linked to questions in function theory. For example, Beurling's theorem describes the invariant subspaces of the unilateral shift in terms of inner functions, which are bounded holomorphic functions on the unit disk with unimodular boundary values almost everywhere on the circle. Beurling interpreted the unilateral shift as multiplication by the independent variable on the Hardy space. The success in studying multiplication operators, and more generally Toeplitz operators (which are multiplication, followed by projection onto the Hardy space) has inspired the study of similar questions in other spaces, such as the Bergman space. Hence, operator theory has a connection with complex analysis. Additionally, this book will be intended to be an illustration of the use of operator theory when applied to solve specific problems in pure and applied mathematics, engineering, physics, or science in general.
\r\n\t
Thereby, the friccohesity explains negative and positive deviations quantitatively, solvent structure breaking and making mechanism of the solute molecules based on the effective solvent binding in a most structured manner. If on adding solute the cohesive forces of the solvents undergo drastic decrease, i.e., the hydrogen bonds of the similar molecules are broken to the larger extent by the solute, then the cohesive force of the solvent is weakened. The weakening has been credited to an effective engagement of the solvent within 10 to 40 KJ mol−1energy involvements. In this process, the solute molecules are able to dissolved in the bulk of the solvent, but when no solvent hydrogen bonding is broken then the solute is not dispersed or dissolved. For example, when oil is added in water, no cohesive forces of either is broken and no dispersion or dissolutions occurs. When cohesive forces are weakened or transformed into kinetic forces in binding or surrounding solute molecules, then the functionalization of cohesive forces into kinetic forces through frictional forces occurs. The solute molecules move in the bulk of the solvent despite structural resistance of the solvent molecules. Thereby, in this process the cohesive forces are mutually transformed into frictional forces, so the product of cohesive force and frictional forces is noted as friccohesity determined by pendant drop numbers where cohesive forces are demonstrated and the viscous flow times where the frictional forces are demonstrated. In these both measurements, the survismeter with similar dimension is used. It has been noticed that such situation is complicated in case of giant-like proteins, supramolecules such as calixarene, and smart molecules such as dendrimers where many local interacting sites exist; and rather than interaction with the outer surface of the molecule, they interact mutually within the molecules.
\nSuch intramolecular interacting activities initiation induces numerous intramolecular motions having several isotropic phases or several self-assemblies of sites with definite order of their motions [3–5]. Thereby, the molecule is active and involve in intramolecular entropy similar to intramolecular hydrogen bonding, and such state of the activities within a single molecule are noted as tentropy. Thus, the multiple molecular factors or forces working inside the molecule are defined as intramolecular multiple forces theory (IMMFT). The IMMFT enables generation of several energy states which are expressed when FTIR is recorded, because the FTIR is direct data which track the integrated motions of intrinsic energy states subtle as an interacting site. In the processes of tentropy and IMMFT, the friccohesity plays a controlling role because each interacting site has its own cohesive force which could be oscillating on the infinitesimal mode but maintain the cohesivity along with oscillation with definite reversible forces or the frictional forces. Several forces like van der Waals, Lenard Jones potential, London dispersive forces, Columbic forces have been operational at an infinitesimal scale. Therefore, the book is aimed to deal with such sciences developing new theories and new examples with detailed explanation and insight of the intramolecular activities. Several peculiar sciences of intramolecular and intermolecular forces leading to have an overall effect could be incorporated in the book so that the book is able to give a transparent, innovative, new and novel science of liquid mixtures to the readers. Currently, the significance of such sciences is enhanced because of the focus on individual molecules in interdisciplinary sciences. For example, why the expressions of the molecular forces in the form of meniscus are shown only on the air-liquid surfaces in case of the liquids, probably it indicates a state of the cohesive force in case of solvent or liquid mixtures. If an example of pure liquid solvent is considered, then the molecular force factors inside the liquid phase or the bulk phase are cancelled out as the similar molecules are in the bulk. There may also be a possibility that the interfacial forces are either cancelled out or optimized in bulk, but these forces are active at the surfaces only where there are interfaces of air and liquid. However, these expressions are the outcome of interfacial molecular arrangement of the molecular forces, and hence there seems to be a natural need to deal with or to study the molecular forces, taking their accurate account in bulk where the optimizing activities work and also at interfaces where partial optimization has taken place. Hence, the friccohesity has been considered along with tentropy and IMMFT authentic vibrant physicochemical parameters to depict a state of intramolecular as well as intermolecular forces.
\nThere are several examples where these parameters operate like vaporization though it is a surface phenomenon but very much affected by the internal arrangements of the atomic, electronic, electrostatic forces, responsible for resulting molecular force factors. Since the molecules in the bulk are under equally distributed energy function and equilibrium in terms of their binding force and no Brownian motion works, it becomes a kind of stationary waves till the parameters like temperature, pressure, additives are added. It could trigger forces like van der Waals, LDF (London dispersive forces based on redistribution of sigma bond electrons in alkyl chain), and Lennard Jones potential keep maintaining the equilibrium inside the bulk phase. Hence, it matters that how the molecules behave in the bulk due to their shared electron pair clouds, but on a surface such vacancy exists as the partial optimization occurs, and because of the interface structures the air phase cannot accommodate the vacant force factors at the interfaces. Since the force factors are nothing but the electron clouds that despite mixing or sharing do maintain their thin boundary or better to say that the electrons of one atom of molecules do not leave to another atom during the interaction except sharing electron clouds, but even certain pairs of the solvent molecules do not share their electrons also like oil and water on benzene and water so they form or constitute liquid-liquid interface or the soft boundaries or also the movable boundaries similar to the shape and size of the liquid state materials, contrary to the solid-state materials like ethylene (gas) and polyethylene (solid state). Also the solid iodine sublimates into gas form directly as of ammonium chloride. Thus, there is an urgent need to maintain the structural identity of the molecules, because later they have to perform functions like drugs, catalysts, hormones, enzymes, etc. Contrary to the surfaces phenomenon, the melting points, freezing points are deep processes taking place only in the bulk phase that starts from bottom whereas evaporation, surface tension, etc. occur on the surfaces where only the partial optimization works, but in case of MP (melting point), azeotropic, hydrated complexes and FP (freezing points) initiate from the bottom of the containers.
\nThus, it is seen that the highly polar molecules freeze at lower temperature but weakly polar at the higher temperature because of their kinetic energy as the weakly polar molecules do have weaker cohesive forces and keep colliding so to bring them to a solid form needs more and more cooling and so are solidified at very low temperature, such as nitrogen, which solidifies at less than −200°C. So, the N2 gas has weaker cohesive forces and stronger frictional or kinetic forces. For example, the water having 91.97 mN/m surface tension gets evaporated at100°C, but ethanol with 22.6 mN/m gets evaporated at 78°C. The water has dipolar structures with van der waals forces, but the ethanol also has hydrophobic shorter alkyl chain that does not allow much or stronger IMF in the bulk and its outcome is noticed or extended to the surface with 22.7 and 78 data. For making bulk phase most active heating, mechanical stirring or chemical additives are used so that the unequal distribution of the internal potential could be generated. Why is it so? Because the new chemical additives, on heating or mechanical pressure, destabilize the equal distribution of the molecular force factors (MFF) where they become haphazardly distributed or unaligned. It is noted that anisotropy state of the MFF make bulk phase active similar to the activities at ALI (air-liquid interfaces).
\nThus, an interesting science exists between the activities of the bulk and air phases because of the different structures at the surfaces, thus it becomes a most interesting thermodynamics, kinetics of reorientation of MFF, because of creating different molecular structures of disordered motions in different directions so that the MFF becomes irregular in state.
\nSuch forces structurally affect the velocity gradient on viscous flow like ∂
In case of highly viscous liquids such as honey and glycerol, which have 1490 cP, they do not much involve in laminar flow because of their exceptionally stronger hydrogen bonding which do not allow molecules to flow so easily as of water and ethanol. For them, the velocity gradient is very high and hence they flow slowly because their molecules are not reoriented. Thus, it becomes a most pertinent question that how the molecules orient and reorient when they are in hydrogen bond networking or in contact of the plate assumed on the rigid wall of unit surface area noted by A. Interestingly, it also triggers liquid-solid interfaces; thus, the id, structure, dimension of survismeter matter a lot in case of causing kinetic energy correction which was not considered. Also, the cohesive forces in liquid mixtures respond during opposing forces, and hence these molecules face the plate area despite this interface they maintain the molecular dynamics and molecular mechanics. Therefore, it becomes a question of discussion which may lead to develop a new theory apart from friccohesity-like patterns of molecular motions, distance of hydrogen bonding, because HB distance matters a lot, which defines the manipulation of forces seen in extraction, separations, binding, evaporation, capping of nanoparticles, and functionalization of graphene as carbon nanotubes.
\nMore interestingly, the torque and frictional forces become the most prominent for these situations. So such scenario could open a new facet of molecular interaction engineering leading to thermodynamics of structured liquids. Thus, the LLI have ventured with electronic, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, geometrical, electrostriction like cis and trans forms of H atoms. LET and LEM local equilibrium thermodynamics and local electronic motions, respectively, work on the infinitesimal mode to assist the friccohesity so that structural transitions are avoided. Till date, the viscosity theories existing could not take an account of the potential of plate liquid-solid interface (LSI) and so could not answer the treatment of actual behavior like how could these localized dynamics and mechanics (LDM) could affect the atomic motions, bond twisting, torsion, stretching, scissoring, rocking in planes and out of the planes. So, the friccohesity comes into existence because it takes into account the DM in terms of cohesive forces and also the frictional forces. So, anyone is in position to answer the complications of fluid dynamics of the giant molecules within prescribed experimental conditions and dimensions of the survismeter. Thus, the friccohesity is directly proportional to the stretching frequency of the molecules, and there is an urgent need to track all the surfaces of the molecules which undergo such changes.During such situations, the inner part of the molecules as per molecular dynamics, mechanics get freshly reoriented and the molecules with these activities maintain stronger rigidity and electronic stability [6–8]. They remain intact intramolecular; however, intermolecular forces undergo changes. Thus, the friccohesity is in relation with UV, visible light, FTIR, quantum chemistry.
\nIn light of spectroscopic and thermodynamic scales of molecular identification, it seems valid that the friccohesity, tentropy, and IMMFT, the new concepts, become the most relevant and wanted tools to define overall interacting behavior of molecules. Since the molecule does have localized electrons cloud with stronger chemical bonds, which support the molecular motions with definite energy noted as follows.
Thus, if the molecules move from one point to another, they have energy or momentum as is listed in above equation. Such mass flux could have effect on the muscle or on other objects, which is noted as molecular shock; in practice it is noted when the hot water is used as heating agent to warm up the wanted object. Such molecular energy is obtained when the molecules on getting heat oscillate with definite kinetic or oscillatory or rotational or translational energies. Since a single molecule shows so many wave numbers in FTIR, these different stretching sites of molecules could have LET (local equilibrium thermodynamics), LEM (local equilibrium molecular dynamics), local energy distribution arrays (LEDA) with certain tentropy, and IMMFT scales of parameters of specific magnitudes. For example, the solubility of cholesterol attained through simple vegetables juices act as friccohesity destabilizing agents. Therefore the nature of juices or extracts of fenugreek, garlic, ginger, turmeric, butter guards etc. could have valuable physicochemical properties which may dissolve the cholesterol leading to have a useful bioengineering process. Several
Isotropic science at LLI or in individual phases
Alignment toward micelles
Sensing of double bond detection
Hydrogen bond and radii determination
Kinetic energy and surface inhibition activity
Nanoparticles like Au, ZnO, SiO2, Ag, alkane thiol capping ability
Drug-binding ability of the dendrimers
Rationalized hydrodynamic volume that retrieves the viscosity B coefficient
Contribution of loan pair electrons of surfactants or the double bond of tweens which are determined with survismeter
Oscillating crystal for density in liquid mixtures is informatory
Thus, the friccohesity and tentropy study aligning the molecular orientation leading to form the favorable force patch noted as CF it could also be tracking that some of the molecules with higher KE (kinetic energy) could be out of the phase isotropy.
\nHow do molecular structures affect the overall interacting behavior with solvents polarity, functional groups, electronegativity, hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity?
How do van der waals forces, London dispersive forces, and Lennard Jone potential work interacting activities?
Structural input to the molecular interactions and reorientation of the molecules
\nFriccohesity of pure chemical compounds is a most important data, for example, the friccohesity of the pure water at specified temperature indicates purity and entropy level of the water. It is noted that the change in temperature induces a change in internal pressure because on raising the temperature the CF are weakened and the FF are strengthened as the molecular motions are intensified. Therefore, the molecular networking developed because HB gets weakened and motions are intensified. Thus, the friccohesity is applicable in case of pure substance. Thus, the friccohesity is directly proportional to the kinetic energy and the molecular motions. It is also applicable to the rule of the Kelvin, van der Waals, Lennard jones potentials. Actually, these scientists could not visualize the real picture of the molecular forces without going in deeper look of the molecular dynamics. The friccohesity is very much connected to the molecular dynamics because the CF and the FF are possible only when the molecular identity is maintained, otherwise the concept is not applicable. Thus, the friccohesity of catalyst could be possible because the catalyst allows the adsorbate molecules to adhere to the surface of the adsorbents. It is possibly when the adhesive forces are developed. Therefore, the types of the friccohesity are made. For example, if the cohesive forces are between the similar molecules, then it is symmetric friccohesity; but when it is applicable when solid and liquid develop cohesive forces like adsorbate and adsorbent where the adhesive forces work rather than the CF. Thus, in such cases the friccohesity is noted as asymmetric friccohesity.
\nIn case of the Arrhenius equation, the following equation is used for determining activation energy when the reaction goes on.
Taking natural log, the eqn.1 becomes as follows.
Thus, the final equation is developed as given below.
The eqn. 3 could also be applied for any physicochemical indicator.
The
Innumerable isotropic orientations with rigorous molecular orientations in Tri(1,3,5) triglycerate triazine (TTGTA), a second-tier dendrimer.
Here,
For example, a first-order rate reaction could be fitted with
When
Thus the unit of
New creative ideas in respective areas of research and teaching work well provided a focus is on creating something new superseding the existing sciences in that specific area; it has to be absorbed in creative brains. Since time immemorial, the varieties of new creations have been the new state of arts and in succeeding steps have been the new path of development where no new idea, bigger or smaller, loses its identity as the scale is based on the need and also creating new needs or applications. Thereby, right from late thirteenth to late fifteenth centuries, there was a huge hunger of idea developing and modeling something new as alternative sciences, which further led to a new era of industrialization of fundamentals from sixteenth century onwards, may be James Watt’s vapor run engine or Robert Boyle’s equation for ideal gases. Thus, the creativity has been the prime object of research and teaching in all the time of civilization. The Ostwald viscometer, Ubbelohde viscometer for viscosity, or Traub’s stalagmometer for surface tension studies have been the foundation stones in measuring valuable physicochemical properties of liquid mixtures. Contrary to their work for measuring the parameters individually, the new research methodology named as survismeter has been successful in measuring surface tension, viscosity, activation energy, interfacial tension, wetting coefficient, and friccohesity. Currently, this new state of art is patented and 7 commercialized by Borosil named as Borosil Mansingh Survismeter (BMS). Schematic 8 illustration of survismeter is noted in
The subsidiary zone explains equilibration of the liquids in buffer bulbs whereas the functional bulbs explain the main bulbs where the prescribed liquid sample is filled and allowed to flow through standard orifice within the marks noted on the capillaries.
\nThe data of several physicochemical properties generated on authentic reproducibility, high resolution, and repeatability modes have been published in American Chemical Society, Royal Chemical Society including several journals of leading publishing companies. The survismeter is being used by numerous industries such as inks, soaps and detergents, resins, nanoemulsions, along with introduction of academic curricula of several educational and research institutions. Thus, the science and potential of survismeter is most effective for study of multiple physicochemical properties of liquid mixtures. Science invention and craze (SIAC) creates a lot of self-inspiration to do more and more in life; there is only the craze that fills up new energy to move forward for more work of new nature and new beginning.
\nThe nanoemulsions are different from the solutions because the hydrophobic part could not interact with water if used as solvent and hence move toward surface in haphazard motions as the solvent is unable to develop stronger IMF. The alkyl chain thus involves in uncontrolled motions in 1, 2, and 3Ds and thus is measured comparing the friccohesity of solutions with the equation noted as follows.
The
The studies could be extended for these activities determined with survismeter using the following equation.
The
The symbols
The factors making survismeter a green and clean science for wider acceptability and use are listed as follows.
Critical reasoning of hypothesis and mechanism already used in surface tension and viscosity theories and to look for undiscovered or untouched or hidden interfaces and possibilities of new hypothesis
Ludwig Boltzmann energy distribution theories of energy homogenization and capping of nanoparticles
Rudolf Clausius entropic factors for homogenization and Gibbs Helmholtz energy
Boon and newly established novel sciences in areas of solutions and emulsion chemistries
Functional asset of liquid-solid interfaces
Combination of uniform functional capillaries for continuum and noncontinuum liquid flows within a length aligning and reorienting the molecules.
Establishes an operator noted as friccohesity, between continuum and noncontinuum fluid flows
Wonders of bulbs noted as CPU (controlled pressure unit) or selection bulb
The 1:1 channel selection wisdom or rule of CPU
Geometrical isomerism and symmetry in shape (GIASH) of functional bulbs, made for surface tension and viscosity measurements, as most critical coordinates of the survismeter noted as most specified coordinates
Transforming CF into AD around uniform glass circular surface with uniform surface tension, roughness, surface forces for the purpose of PDN formation and detaching kinetics
Liquid accessibility and development of excellent uniform liquid distributions around an exposed area of extreme lowermost tip of the capillary.
Distributions around uniform surface energy and liquid so that the nature of CF into AD are functional in PDN formation and falling that lead to equal distribution of the forces in all directions for excellent result.
Drop formation and size depending on liquid density in all directions so that the stress and strain are not developed.
Study of stress and strain on the drop formation must be completely avoided because of a jacket of CPU and vertically at 90 degree angle.
Flow remains constant and remains like a current which makes backlash and back jerk to influence the quality of data, so that the extruded distance of capillary is optimized and monitored by pressure regulatory limb (PRL).
The withdrawal of the pressure regulatory story is withdrawn smoothly so that no air bubble or some additional mechanical energy is not created inside the liquid filled in reservoir bulb.
Pressure distribution inside CPU is excellently and naturally distributed during the fall of PDN assisted by PRL.
Distance between the terminus of an extruded capillary and lower orifice of CPU is optimized to avoid the creation of mechanical energy and air trapping.
Entrance of the viscous flow capillary is at 45 degree angle so that backlash and jerking are avoided during measurements.
Top coordination among physical parts, orifices, capillaries, angles, opening, and regularity actions is made for accurate, reproducible, and reliable data.
Vertical positions alignment effect on fluid flow.
Asset for study of viscoelastic fluids noted as MRF (magnetorheological fluids) external forces.
Novel science for study of aero emulsions or aerated solutions for determination of adsorbed air, for example, adsorption of O2 and CO2.
Vertically aligning uniform flat plate at the top of survismeter.
UV and IR sensing mode of reservoirs bulb and magnetic doses to functional bulbs.
Friccohesity model of rupturing of molecular membrane to determine membrane strength made out of holding hydrophobic interactions together like lipid membranes.
Asset for study of rupturing/distorting of lipid membranes made up of hydrocarbon-water that decrease surface tension from
IMMFT and thermodynamics of biomembrane ruptures (1 to 25 mN/m) based on lipid composition and rupture strength is a dynamical property.
This is not the question of measuring many parameters together, but it is the essential need since no such research methodology exists that is why people could not think and work with individual measurement as in isolations; however, simultaneously measurements go multifaceted like redox, kinetics where complementary part characterization is essential. Thus, the purpose of measuring viscosity is to find out solute-solvent interactions, and currently the entangling or the trapping of the solvent with solutes or other chemical species like drug in dendrimers. This is supplemented by the surface tension or better known as coalesce or the cohesive forces [12].
\nThe difference in fluid flow velocity and pendant drop numbers on loading the molecules in capillary flow of the survismeter gives the idea of solute-solvent interactions, size, shape, enthalpy, entropy, tentropy, IMMFT, friccohesity. Therefore, the difference in velocity between adjacent layers of fluid is listed as a velocity gradient depicted in simple terms as
LBL stands for layer by layer flow in a closest manner during the viscous flow.
\nThe friccohesity becomes indispensable data in case of IL (ionic liquids), LC (liquid crystal), TGL (triglycerides), and NEL (nanoemulsions) because these molecules develop dispersion of hydrophobic part in aqueous phase, but at the same time their hydrophilic part develops different activity with water. Briefly, hydrophilicity induces enthalpic activity whereas hydrophobicity induces entropic activities, but at a nanometer range. Thus, the hydrophobic part by attacking structured water with definite Brownian motion leads to induce frictional forces as its cohesive forces are weakened, then only it is able to disperse in structured water. Similarly, the hydrophilic part leads to develop binding forces on disrupting structured water with more weakening of hydrophilic-hydrophilic transforming toward hydrophilic-water linkages. In hydrophilic-water linkages, more weakening of CF takes place and this could also lead to act as a favorable factor for increasing frictional forces too. Thus, the frictional forces in the form of hydrophobic tail causing Brownian motions are favored and also in case of the hydrophilic-water head weakens surfactant self-binding to its binding with water. If higher is Brownian motion, the surfactant approaches the surface of the liquids mixtures and settles at the surface; when the surfactant reaches to surface and gets settled at the surface, then the surface energy is utilized in larger amount. Thus, weakening surface energy, which is formed out of unbalanced molecular forces (UBMF) of the solvent molecules, leads to develop molecular reorientation to optimize the forces as per their geometrical activities. This process or movement of larger surfactant molecules to surface is noted as surface excess concentration occupying per unit area of the surface. At surface, still two thermodynamics domain work, one hydrophilic and another hydrophobic where hydrophobic dominates and surface tension decreases with higher pendant drop numbers if measured with survismeter.
\nAt the same time, in such a situation the frictional forces also become active and in fact increase if measured in terms of viscous flow time using survismeter. In general, it is seen that in case of nonelectrolytes the surface tension decreases, resulting in an increase in viscosity which proves that on surfaces excess concentration is higher and bulk concertation is lower. This theory is defined by friccohesity as both the forces are active in such liquid mixtures; however, conductance could be another data which plays an important role in defining the exact location and binding and mobility of the molecules with higher forces or the lower forces. It is also defined by Walden product, but there is a need to also incorporate the surface or the CF forces somewhere in the ambit of the Walden which is not an effect for emulsion, thus the new version could be presented as physicochemical molecular mimicry (PCMM). The equation is noted as follows.
The pdn depicts pendant drop numbers, vft viscous flow time, OD is optical density, density is self-explanatory, conductance, and these parameters integrated offer the physicochemical profile of the molecules in any working medium and working experimental conditions. The N-4-methoxybenzylidene-4-butylaniline could generate effective friccohesity if dissolved in several solvents under variable temperatures.
\nAlso, the ionic liquids noted in the following could also develop very useful liquid mixtures, may be with metallic nanoparticles of the magnetic nanoparticles as an effective medium for light-sensitive process or the heat-sensitive processes. Both the ionic liquids 1,7-bis(3-methylimidzolium-1-yl)heptane and 1,8-bis(3-methylimidzolium-1-yl)octane could develop stronger solubilization of two immiscible solvents dissolving insoluble pollutant to recover them or to transform them into safer chemical forms, which may be used as medium, washing reagents, or coating materials. Their percentage solubilizing strength with respect to their hydrophobic chain could be estimated with their interfacial tensions with respect to air-liquid-interface (ALI) and liquid-liquid-interface (LLI). The ALI acts as standard data whereas another solvent, when used in forming LLI, is used as the test case or the sample. For example, air-water-interface is most widely used as standard if pure water is used in the experiment in a laboratory of pure air. The interfacial tension of ALI system is 71.97 mN/m (milli Newton per meter), but when CCl4 is brought in contact with water, then the system is noted as LLI which has its own IFT.
The
The LLI and also their impact on solubilization with series of alcohol, ketones, ester, organic acid, and mineral acids could be the most interesting experiments. Since interfacial tension is the most effective data for study of mutual solubilization of two immiscible liquids or any third component in the two.
\nQuantitative study of friccohesity and tentropy of biomolecules like proteins, LDL (low density lipoproteins), in liquid media constituted of biocompatible ionic liquids at variable temperatures and pH could lead to develop new dimension of the liquid materials apart from ionic liquids, liquid crystal. Such liquid materials could be noted as isotopic or anisotropic liquid materials (IALM). Since the IALM are new study and no such concept is reported till date and no data on in vitro molecular arrangements are reported, and thus being potential population of the several substances in a most organized or nonorganized form could perform several tasks like medically essential outcome to prevent cardiovascular disease, fluid dynamics of the study, friccohesity engineering of the liquid mixtures, thermodynamical significance of the compositions of the LDL and IL, surfactants, TGL, homogenization of the liquid mixtures prepared out of various proteins, their effects on proteins conformations, their isotropy study, their spintronics, their micellization and aggregation. There are several surface area-based processes where the molecules do have entropic shock cum Brownian motions: Tyndale effect on molecules motions, Lechatelier and van der Waals’ theories, Mansingh equations, UV and visible light effect, effects on free radical, tracking activities of the cancerous drugs, effect on drug solubilization, dendrimer effect on LDL emulsion, curcumin effect on emulsion, LC effect on nanoemulsion, DLS pattern aggregation, clustering, coalesces.
\nThe LDL particle effectively enables emulsification by surrounding fatty acids to push them to extracellular fluid. Each LDL particle contains a single apolipoprotein B-100 molecule (Apo B-100, having 4536 amino acid residues of 514 kDa), along with 80 to 100 ancillary proteins. The LDL has a polyunsaturated fatty acid hydrophobic core of linoleate and hundreds to thousands (≈1500) of esterified and unesterified cholesterol molecules.
\nThe core carries varying numbers of triglycerides and other fats surrounded by a shell of phospholipids and unesterified cholesterol, as well as a single copy of Apo B-100. The LDL particles are ≈ 22 nm diameter of ≈ 3 million daltons. Since LDL particles contain a variable and changing number of fatty acids, hence there is a distribution of LDL particle mass and size. Determining LDL structure has been a tough task because of its heterogeneous structure as a structure of LDL at human body temperature in native state, with a resolution of ≈ 16 Angstroms using cryo-electron microscopy, has been recently described.
\nTitration as an effective method utilizes reacting species as per a law of mass action which undergoes or materialized through structural activities [14]. For example, the structure of methyl orange from red to colourless depicted as canonical forms of reduction and oxidation. Of course, countless such species are generated but two out of them have been studied as delocalized structure noted in the following.
\nThus, the titration at several time intervals could have different states of molecular dynamics and molecule expressions of forces with definite friccohesity and tentropy because several asymmetric structures exist. Such intramolecular dynamics or activities induced on several intramolecular motions develop countless arrays of motions or orders, which lead to develop intramolecular entropy noted as tentropy. Therefore, the movements of electron in structure show that how the mutual structural changes occur as noted in the following.
\nHowever, the electrons do not fully shift to either side, but remain in benzene case and an actual structure resonate somewhere in between these. It is most interesting to determine the friccohesity at each interval so that the intermolecular forces are determined with respect to a shift in the electrons within the structures. Therefore, the titration could be performed in the solution reservoir of the survismeter to estimate the possible changes, although the canonical structures may not have any effect on the geometrical changes like in bond lengths or bond angles. The lone pairs on N atoms induce delocalization and all the bonds around these N atoms remain in the same plane and the lone pair sticking up facilitating sideways overlap with orbitals on the subsequent next-door atoms. Hence, a kind of host canonical forms with double and single bonds along with positive charge located at various places around the rings and on the other N atom, and such structural orientations make these systems most active and suitable for the study of friccohesity of such liquid mixtures. It could be more interesting if the ionic liquids are also mixed with methyl orange for understanding of the multitude of canonical forms that induce delocalization. Therefore, the catalytic molecules may develop green upper critical solution temperatures using such systems with two immiscible solvents.
\nThus, the friccohesity and tentropy, which deals with molecular or ionic forces in liquids mixtures, could effectively be applied or extracted and retrieved useful ideas about their behaviors.
\n\n
Friccohesity, as new physicochemical property, assists formulation of molecular liquids.
Tentropy, new intramolecular potential for drug loading or adsorbing toxic metals.
Thrust areas of research studied in the proposed academic plan and project are as follows:
Molecular interaction engineering
Phase extraction based on chemical affinity and CF
Ionic liquids and their physicochemical properties
Enthalpic studies of salts based on Hofmeister series
Structure breaking and hydrodynamics molecules of
Biomolecules in varied aprotic polar medium
Salts on increasing size
Re-engineering of solvents by salts
Increase in friccohesity indicating structure breaking
Dendrimers in increasing tiers
Ionic liquids in increasing alkyl chain in imidazolium ring
Flavonoids in increasing OH and double bonds
Surfactants in increasing I+ effects
Nanochemical sciences of structured and non-structured miceller liquid mixtures
Hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity of interacting molecules
Brownian motions and hydrodynamic volumes
Adsorption and surface area of adsorbents
Heat capacity and mass transfer rate within rigid one-dimensional box
Enhanced intake of curcumin in nanoemulsion
Saving detergents during washing clothes kitchenwares
Pesticides in fields
Sprayants in houses
Hydrology and percolation of water
GPC and molecular weights of the materials
Aligning molecules isotopically on capillary flow and generating electric response
Viscous flow with ionic liquids for electric generator replacing concentration cells
Viscous flow of salts aqueous solutions for electricity generation
The analytical chemistry is based on the quality of colour in coloured solution, we observe the colour, the colour’s depth, or intensity. These observations led to the technique called colorimetry, the colour of a solution identify species while the intensity of the colour depends on identifying the concentration of the species present. The important and sensitive colour tests have been developed for the detection and determination of a wide range of chemical species, both inorganic and organic in nature, this used the development of visible and ultraviolet spectrometer [1].
The wavelength range of UV radiation starts at 400 nm, the blue end of visible light, and ends at 200 nm. The radiation has sufficient energy to excite electrons. When light passes through the solution and emerges as red light, then the solution is red. Because the solution has allowed the red component of white light to pass through, whereas if the solution has led the red component of white light to pass through because it has absorbed the complementary colours, yellow and blue [2].
If the solution has more concentration, more yellow and blue light is absorbed, and more intensely red solution appears to the eye. There is a difficulty in comparing the intensity of the two colours. The wavelength range of UV radiation starts at the end of visible light of 400 nm and ends at 800 nm [3]. The atoms or molecules have sufficient energy to excite valence electrons. Visible light starts the wavelength from 800 to 400 nm.
The atoms are held strongly by sharing electrons in a molecule. The electron in a molecule moves in molecular orbitals at discrete energy levels. When the energy of the electrons is at a minimum, the molecules are in the lowest energy state or ground state. The molecules can absorb radiation and move to a higher energy state or excited state. The movement of electrons from a higher energy state is called electronic excitation [4]. The frequency captivates or effuse by a molecule and the power is related by, ΔE = hγ. The amount of energy required is based upon the variation in energy linking the ground state E0 and the excited state E1 of the electron. It is stated as
where, E1 is the energy of the excited state.
E0 is the energy of the ground state.
The full strength of a molecule is the same as the sum of electronic, vibrational, and rotational electricity. The importance of the energies decreases inside the following order: Eelec, Evib, and Erot. Ultraviolet energy is computed, the assimilation spectrum arising from a single electronic transition must contain a single discrete line. However, an awesome line is not obtained because digital absorption is superimposed upon rotational and vibrational sublevels. Suppose of complex molecules in conjugation with an excess of two atoms, discrete bands merge to bring about broad absorption bands or “band envelops” [5]. Three distinct types of electrons are involved in organic molecules. They are as follows:
σ electrons: Electrons associated with the single bonds are known as σ electrons. Electrons are involved in saturated bonds, such as those between carbon and hydrogen-like C-C, C-H, O-H. As the amount of energy required to excite electrons in σ bonds is much more than that produced by UV light. Example: Hexane C6H14.
π electrons: Electrons are involved in a double and triple bond that is involved in unsaturated hydrocarbon-like alkenes, alkynes, conjugated olefins, and aromatic compounds.
n electrons: Electrons that are not involved in bonding between atoms or molecules. Organic compounds containing nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur or, halogens.
A rule to predict how molecules undergo a transition is given by Quantum mechanics. Some transitions are “allowed” while others are “Forbidden.”
n →
In methyl chloride and methyl iodide due to the electronegativity of chlorine atom, the n electrons on chlorine atom are comparatively difficult to excite, whereas the methyl iodide is 258 nm as n electrons on iodide atom are loosely bound.
π → π*: The transitions occur in unsaturated compounds that contain double and triple bonds and in aromatics. The excitations of π electron require smaller energy and hence transitions of this type occur at a longer wavelength. π electron of a double bond is excited to π* orbital. The compounds that undergo are alkenes, alkynes, carbonyl compounds, cyanides, azo compounds, etc.
n → π*: the compounds with a functional group such as C=O, C=S, C=N undergo n → π*. This type of transition requires the least amount of energy. The compounds like nitrogen, oxygen, Sulphur, halogen atom especially Br and I in UV/visible region undergo transition with nonbonded electrons [6]. The electronic transitions are shown in Figure 1.
The electronic transition.
There are two laws related to the absorption of radiation [7].
I = Intensity of incident light.
Ia = Intensity of absorbed light.
It = Intensity of transmitted light.
The intensity of a beam of monochromatic light drops exponentially with expanding in the concentration of absorbing species arithmetically.
When concentration, C = 0, there is no absorbance I = I0.
Exchange in Eq. (1).
Substitute the value of -ln I0 = b in Eq. (1).
The rate of decrease of intensity (monochromatic light) with the thickness of the medium is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
When concentration, t = 0, existent is never absorbance I = I0.
Substituting in Eq. (3).
Substitute the rate of -ln I0 = b in Eq. (1).
Combine and equate Eqs. (3) and (4)
Transmittance (T) = I/Io and Absorbance (A) = log 1/T.
Hence
Substitutes Eq. (6) in Eq. (5)
Where, A = Absorbance or optical density or extinction coefficient
ε = molecular extinction coefficient
C = Concentration of drug (mmol/lit)
T = pathlength (1 cm)
ε can also expressed as
Where
Beer and Lambert’s law is found to be obeyed by the system if a straight line passes through the origin and a graph is plotted between absorbance and concentration.
But there is always a deviation from the linear relationship between the absorbance and concentration particularly at higher concentration, and hence the absorption curve changes with the change in concentration of the solution. The deviation may be positive or negative, if the resulting curve is concave upwards it is called positive deviation. If the resulting curve is concave downwards it is called negative deviation, which is depicted in Figure 2 [8].
Deviation from Beers & Lamberts law.
Factors like stray radiation improper slit width, fluctuations in single and when monochromatic light is not used.
The law does not hold if the substance ionises, dissociates, or associates in solution. Since the nature of the ionised species in solution varies with the concentration.
Example: Benzoic acid in benzene is associated to form dimer and hence deviation occurs.\t\t
Potassium dichromate in high concentration exists as orange solution (λmax −450 nm). But on dilution, dichromate ions are dissociated into chromate ions, which are yellow-coloured (λmax −410 nm).
When sufficient time is not allowed for making absorbance measurement or when the reading is made when the colour has faded away due to instability of colour, deviation can occur due to incomplete reaction.
If a solute forms complexes, the composition and extent of complexation depend upon the concentration.
A large number of electrolytes may shift the λmax and change the extinction coefficient.
If the change in concentration causes significant alterations in the refractive index, then deviations from the law.
Changes in pH with a change in concentration of solute may cause deviation.
The presence of impurities that fluoresce or absorb at the required absorption, the wavelength may cause deviation.
Chromophore: the term chromophore is used to denote a functional group or presence of some structural feature that gives colour to a compound [9].
Example: Nitro group is a chromophore because its presence in a compound gives the yellow colour to the compound. It can be defined as any group which exhibits absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the visible or ultraviolet region. It may or may not impart any colour to the compound. Some of the important chromophores are ethylenic, acetylenic, carbonyls, acids, esters, nitrile group, etc.
There are two types of chromophores. The chromophore in which the group contains π electrons and they undergo n → π* transitions, the compounds like ethylene, acetylene, etc.
The other type of chromophore contains both π electrons and n (non-bonding) electrons. This type of chromophore undergoes two types of transitions, π → π* and n → π* and examples include carbonyls, nitriles, azo compounds, and nitro compounds.
For isolated chromophore groups such as >C=C < and -C ≡ C-, absorption takes place in the far ultraviolet region which cannot be easily studied.
But the role of absorption is maximum and the intensity of absorption can be edited in exceptional approaches by some structural adjustments or change of solvent.
It involves the shift of absorption most in the direction of longer wavelength because of the presence of certain groups such as OH and NH2 called auxochromes or by change of solvent. A Bathochromic shift is also produced when two or more chromophores are present in conjugation in the molecule.
Example: Ethylene shows π → π* transition at 170 nm, whereas 1,3 -butadiene (where two double bonds are in conjugation) shows λmax at 217 nm.
The shift of absorption maximum towards shorter wavelength and may be by the removal of conjugation or by change of solvent. The absorption shift towards a shorter wavelength is also called the blue shift.
Example: Aniline shows maximum absorption at 280 nm, because the pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom is in conjugation with the π bond system of the benzene ring. In acidic solution, a blue shift is caused and absorption takes place at a shorter wavelength 200 nm. The electron pair is no longer present and hence conjugation is removed.
The various components of a UV-VIS spectrophotometer are as follows [3]:
Radiation source
Monochromators
Detector
Recording system
Sample cells
Matched cells
Power supply
In UV-VIS spectrophotometer, the normally pre-owned radiation is preferred to assets the hydrogen or deuterium lamps, the xenon discharge lamps, and mercury arcs. In all the assets, agitation is carried out by means of transient electrons through gasoline and those impacts in the midst of electron and gas molecules may bring about digital, vibrational, and rotational elation in the fume’s particle [10].
The following are requirements of a radiation source:
It must be stable.
It must be sufficient intensity for the transmitted energy to be detected at the end of the optical path.
It must supply continuous radiation over the entire wavelength.
The function is similar to an electric light bulb. It is a tungsten filament heated electrically to white heat. The structure is depicted in Figure 3.
Tungsten lamp.
The intensity of radiation at a short wavelength < 350 nm is small.
To maintain a constant intensity, the electrical current to the lamp must be controlled.
The lamps are generally stable, robust, and easy to use.
Hydrogen gas is stored under relatively high pressure. When an electric discharge is passed through the lamp, excited hydrogen molecules will be produced which emit UV radiations. Hydrogen lamps cover the range of 3500–1200A°. These lamps are stable, robust, and widely used.
Hydrogen discharge lamp consists of hydrogen gas under relatively high pressure through which there is an electrical discharge. The hydrogen molecules are excited electrically and emit UV radiation. The high pressure brings many collisions between the hydrogen molecules, resulting in pressure broadening. This causes the hydrogen to emit a continuous broadband rather than a simple hydrogen line spectrum. It is stable, robust, and widely used. It is more expensive is the disadvantage.it is depicted in Figure 4.
Hydrogen discharge lamp.
It is used in place of hydrogen, the intensity of radiation emitted is 3–5 times the intensity of a hydrogen lamp of comparable design. It is more expensive than a hydrogen lamp. But it is used when high intensity is required. It is represented in Figure 5 [11].
Deuterium lamp.
Xenon gas is stored under pressure in the range of 10–30 atmospheres. The xenon lamp possesses two tungsten electrodes separated by about 8 mm. When an intense arc is formed between two tungsten ultraviolet light is produced. The structure is depicted in Figure 6.
Xenon discharge lamp.
Mercury vapour under high pressure, the excitation of mercury atoms is done by electric discharge. It is not suitable for continuous spectral studies because of the presence of sharp lines or bands. It is depicted in Figure 7.
Mercury arc.
The monochromator is used to disperse the radiation. The essential elements of a monochromator are:\t\t
Entrance Slit (to get narrow source)
Collimator (to render light parallel)
Grating or Prism (to disperse radiation)
Collimator (to reform the images of entrance slit)
Exit slit (to fall on sample cell)
Monochromators are better and more efficient than filters in converting polychromatic light or heterochromatic light into monochromatic light. The structure is depicted in Figure 8.
Monochromators.
The prism disperses the light radiation into individual colours or wavelengths. These are found in expensive instruments. The bandpass is lower than that of filters and hence it has better resolution and is depicted in Figure 9.
Prism.
The two types of the prism are:
Refractive
Reflective
They undergo dispersion giving wavelengths that do not overlap and the disadvantage is they give non-linear dispersion.
The sources of light, through the entrance slit falls on a collimator. The parallel radiations from the collimator are dispersed into distinctive colorations or wavelength, and through the use of any other collimator, the pix of the front slit is reformed. The reformed ones will be both violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, or pink. The desired radiation on go-out slit may be decided on with the aid of rotating the prism or by way of preserving the prism stationary and transferring the exit slit which is depicted in Figure 10.
Refractive prism.
The dispersed radiation gets reflected and can be collected on the same side as the source of light.
Grating are the most efficient ones in converting a polychromatic to monochromatic light. Two types of the grating are diffraction and transmission.
A grating consists of a large number of parallel lines (grooves) ruled on a highly polished surface such as alumina, generally, 15,000–30,000 lines per square inch are drawn. When light rays have impinged on the grating, its grooves act as scattering centres for light rays. The light is diffracted or reinforcement takes place. Grating are difficult to be prepared. The replica grating is prepared from an original grating. This is done by coating the original grating with a film of an epoxy resin, which after setting is removal to yield a replica (Figure 11).
Diffraction grating.
λ = wavelength of light produced
b = grating spacing
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of reflection
m = order
Refraction takes place instead of reflection. The wavelength of radiation produced by transmission grating can be expressed by the following equation, the structure is depicted in Figure 12.
Transmission grating.
λ = wavelength of radiation
d = 1/lines per cm
m = order no. (0, 1, 2, 3, … etc.)
ϴ = angle of deflection
d = 1/2000 = 0.0005 = 5 × 10−4
ϴ = 6.89°
Whilst a radiation is passed via a pattern cellular, part of its miles being absorbed by means of the pattern solution and rest is being transmitted. The transmitted radiation falls on the detector and the intensity of absorbed radiation can be decided.
The barrier mobile includes a semiconductor, consisting of Selenium that is deposited on a sturdy steel base, inclusive of iron. A completely skinny sheet of silvery or aurelia is stammer ended the surface of the semiconductor to behave as collector electrode. The emission falling at the floor yield electron at the selenium silver interfaces. A barrier exists between the selenium and iron, which rule out the electrons against streaming into iron. The electrons are collected on the silver surfaces. The buildup of electrons on the silver surfaces produces an electric voltage distinction between the silver surfaces and the base of the mobile.
If the peripheral circuit secures a low resistance, a photocurrent will glide, that is precisely equivalent to the intensity of the incident radiation beam. It is holed directly to micrometre or galvanometer to read its output (Figure 13) [12].
Barrier layer or photovoltaic cell.
It consists of a high-sensitive cathode in the form of a half-cylinder of metal is contained in an evacuated tube. The inside surface of the photocell is coated with a light touchy layer. While the mild is incident upon a photocell, the floor coating emits electron. Those are attracted and amassed by an anode. The modern-day, that is created among the cathode and anode, is seemed as a measure of radiation falling at the detector. A phototubes is greater touchy than photovoltaic cellular due to the fact excessive diploma of amplification can be used (Figure 14) [13].
Phototubes or photoemissive cell.
A photomultiplier tube is a combination of a photodiode and an electron-multiplying amplifier. A photomultiplier tube consists of an evacuated tube that contains one photo-cathode and 9–16 electrodes referred to as dynodes. The surface of each dynode is Be-Cu, Cs-Sb.
While radiation falls on a metallic floor of a photocathode, it emits electrons. The electrons are attracted towards the primary dynode that is kept of a fine voltage. While the electron strikes the primary dynode which is saved at a wonderful voltage. Whilst the electron strikes the first dynode, extra electrons are emitted with the aid of the floor of the dynode; these emitted electrons are then attracted via a second dynode, wherein comparable sort of electron emission take area. The technique is repeated over all of the dynodes gift in the photomultiplier tube until a bath of electrons reaches the collector. The range of electrons accomplishing the collector is the degree of the depth of light falling at the detector (Figure 15).
Photomultiplier tubes.
The signal from the detector is finally by the recording system. The recording is done by recorder pen.
The cells must contain:
Uniform in construction
Material used for construction should be inert to solvents.
They must transmit light of the wavelength.
The commonly used cells are made of quartz or fused silica (Figure 16) [13].
Sample cells.
When double beam is used, two cells are needed, one for the reference and one for the samples. It is normal for the absorption by the cells to differ slightly. This causes a small error and can lead to analytical error, so matched cells are used. When the same matched cells are used, absorption is equal.
It decreases the line voltage of the instrument. The converts A.C to D.C. It smooths out many ripples which may occur in the line voltage.
UV radiation is delineated by using the source. A convex lens accumulates the beam of emission and focal point it on the inlet splinter. The inlet splinter allows light from the source to bypass, however blocks out stray radiation. The light then reaches the monochromator, which splits it up consistent with wavelength. The exit splinter is positioned to permit mild of the required wavelength to skip thru. The chosen radiation passes through the pattern cells to the detector, which measures the depth of the radiation attaining it.
Next, to differentiate the depth of radiation preparatory to stop after it passes through the pattern, it is feasible to degree several radiation is absorbed by the pattern on the unique wavelength used. The output of the detection is commonly recorded on graph paper.
The drawback is that estimates the whole quantity of mild accomplishing particular detector, as opposed to particular proportion wrapped. The source of intensity may vary with changes in line voltage. For example, when the line voltage decreases, the intensity of the light coming from the source may decrease. The single-beam spectrophotometer is depicted in Figure 17.
Single beam spectrophotometer.
The radiation from the supply is authorised to skip thru a reflect device to the monochromator. The activity of the monochromator is to permit a slender variety of wavelengths to skip continuously an go-out slit. The radiation popping out of the monochromator through the go-out slit is received via the rotating zone which divides the beam into, one glancing through the reference and the opposite through the sample cellular. After glancing through the sample and reference mobile, the light beams are focussed onto the detector.
The yield of the detector is hooked up towards a development touchy amplifier which reciprocates to any trade-in transmission through sample and reference. The segment empathetic amplifier transmits the indicators to the recorder that is accompanied with the aid of the motion of the pen or chart. The chart drive is to integrate the rotation of the prism and for this reason, the optical density or transmission of the pattern is set down as a characteristic of wavelength.
The advantage is not necessary to continually replace the blank with the sample or to zero adjust at each wavelength. The ratio of the powers of the sample and reference beams is constantly obtained and used. Any error due to variation in the intensity of the source and fluctuation in the detector is minimised (Figure 18).
Double beam spectrophotometer.
It enables to identify the relationship between the exceptional groups, especially with appreciate to conjugation can be among or extra carbon–carbon (double or triple) bonds, between carbon–carbon and carbon–oxygen double bonds and between double bonds and at an aromatic ring [11].
The trans isomers exhibit λmax at slightly longer wavelength and feature larger extinction coefficients than the Cis isomers. Examples Stilbenes in trans isomers show λmax at 294 nm, while the λmax Cis isomer has 278 nm. Detection of functional groups: to detect the presence of certain functional groups is possible, like conjugation, carbonyl group, and benzene ring.
Molecular weight determination: the molecular weight is determined. For example, the molecular weight of any amine is converted into amine picrate. Then a known concentration of amine picrate is dissolved in a litre of solution and its optical density is measured at λmax at 380 nm.
Consider an Acid (HA), it undergoes dissociation in water to form H3O+ and A−, i.e.,
To determine the percentage of various keto and enol forms present in a tautomeric equilibrium. Example: Ethyl acetoacetate in keto form has λmax 275 nm and ε = 16. This has only weak n → π* band of the isolated carbonyl group. The enol form has λmax 244 nm and ε = 16,000, we can measure the proportions of tautomers present in ethyl acetoacetate.
The presence of impurities can be determined by the additional peaks and can be compared with that of standard raw material.
The presence or absence of unsaturation, the presence of heteroatom like S, O, N or halogen can be determined.
It is used to find out the percentage purity of samples from the formulations or raw material.
Ultra violet/visible spectroscopy is an analytical technique that is used to determine qualitatively and quantitatively for the estimation of different ions. It is a powerful technique for resolution enhancement when signal overlaps or interference occurs. This technique may also be used in many other industries. For example, measuring a colour index is useful for monitoring transformer oil as a preventative measure to ensure electric power is being delivered safely.
We believe financial barriers should not prevent researchers from publishing their findings. With the need to make scientific research more publicly available and support the benefits of Open Access, more and more institutions and funders are dedicating resources to assist faculty members and researchers cover Open Access Publishing Fees (OAPFs). In addition, IntechOpen provides several further options presented below, all of which are available to researchers, and could secure the financing of your Open Access publication.
",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\\n\\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
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\\n\\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\\n\\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\\n\\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\\n\\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\\n\\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\\n\\nFeel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\\n\\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\n\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\n\nFeel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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Almost all the parts of this plant, that are, fruit, leaves, flower bud, trunk, and pseudo-stem, can be utilized. This chapter deals with the fiber extracted from the pseudo-stem of the banana plant. It discusses the production of banana pseudo-stem fiber, which includes plantation and harvesting; extraction of banana pseudo-stem fiber; retting; and degumming of the fiber. It also deals with the characteristics of the banana pseudo-stem fiber, such as morphological, physical and mechanical, durability, degradability, thermal, chemical, and antibacterial properties. 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So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. 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Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:193291,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. 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In other words, AF is arborizing agriculture and animal production to obtain more benefits including climate change adaptation and mitigation by ecosystem services.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ricardo O. Russo"},{id:"82972",title:"Actinomycosis: Diagnosis, Clinical Features and Treatment",slug:"actinomycosis-diagnosis-clinical-features-and-treatment",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104698",abstract:"Actinomycosis is a filamentous bacterium that forms part of the normal human flora of the gastrointestinal, oropharynx and female genitalia. This indolent infection is characterized by abscess formation, widespread granulomatous disease, fibrosis, cavitary lung lesions and mass-like consolidations, simulating an active malignancy or systemic inflammatory diseases. It is subacute, chronic and variable presentation may delay diagnosis due to its capability to simulate other conditions. An accurate diagnostic timeline is relevant. Early diagnosis of pulmonary actinomycosis decreases the risk of indolent complications. Proper treatment reduces the need for invasive surgical methods. Actinomycosis can virtually involve any organ system, the infection spread without respecting anatomical variables as metastatic disease does, making malignancy an important part of the differential diagnosis. As it is normal gastrointestinal florae, it is difficult to cultivate, and share similar morphology to other organisms such as Nocardia and fungus. It is often difficult to be identified as the culprit of disease. Its true imitator capability makes this infectious agent a remarkable organism within the spectra of localized and disseminated disease. In this chapter, we will discuss different peculiarities of actinomycosis as an infectious agent, most common presentation in different organ systems, and challenging scenarios.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Onix J. Cantres-Fonseca, Vanessa Vando-Rivera, Vanessa Fonseca-Ferrer, Christian Castillo Latorre and Francisco J. Del Olmo-Arroyo"},{id:"82476",title:"Joint Action of Herbicides on Weeds and Their Risk Assessment on Earthworm (Eisenia fetida L.)",slug:"joint-action-of-herbicides-on-weeds-and-their-risk-assessment-on-earthworm-eisenia-fetida-l",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105462",abstract:"Frequent and intensive use of similar modes of action herbicides increases selection pressure resulting in nature adapt and a number of herbicide-resistant weeds. The most effective methods to prevent and delay herbicide-resistant weeds are herbicide tank mixture and adjuvant mixed herbicides. This chapter intends to explain the advantages of herbicide tank mixture and adjuvant mixed herbicides. In addition, the models of estimated herbicide mixture interaction response have been explained. Although herbicide mixtures have benefits, they may present risks leading to soil pollution and affecting soil fauna such as earthworms. Therefore, we discussed the negative effect of mixture herbicides on Eisenia fetida. On the other hand, various models to calculate mixture herbicide toxicity on earthworms will be present in this chapter.",book:{id:"11610",title:"New Insights in Herbicide Science",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11610.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammad Taghi Alebrahim, Elham Samadi Kalkhoran and Te-Ming Paul Tseng"},{id:"82953",title:"Early Visual Areas are Activated during Object Recognition in Emerging Images",slug:"early-visual-areas-are-activated-during-object-recognition-in-emerging-images",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105756",abstract:"Human observers can reliably segment visual input and recognise objects. However, the underlying processes happen so quickly that they normally cannot be captured with fMRI. We used Emerging Images (EI), which contains a hidden object and extends the process of recognition, to investigate the involvement of early visual areas (V1, V2 and V3) and lateral occipital complex (LOC) in object recognition. The early visual areas were located with a retinotopy scan and the LOC with a localiser. The participants (N=8) then viewed an EI, followed by the hidden object’s silhouette (disambiguation), and then, the EI was repeated. BOLD responses before and after disambiguation were compared. The retinotopy parameters were used to back-project the BOLD response onto the visual field, creating spatially detailed maps of the activity change. V1 and V2 (but not V3) showed stronger response after disambiguation, while there was no difference in the LOC. The back-projections revealed no distinct pattern or changes in activity on object location, indicating that the activity in V1 and V2 is not specific for voxels corresponding to the object location. We found no difference before and after disambiguation in the LOC, which may be repetition suppression counteracting the effect of recognition.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Marleen Bakker, Hinke N. Halbertsma, Nicolás Gravel, Remco Renken, Frans W. Cornelissen and Barbara Nordhjem"},{id:"82937",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-1",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105944",abstract:"Stress in plants refers to external conditions, which drastically affect the growth, development, or productivity of plants. Stress triggers a wide range of plant responses, such as altered gene expression, cellular metabolism, changes in growth rates, and crop yields. Some abiotic stresses, such as low or high temperature, deficient water, and ultraviolet radiation, make plant growth and development unfavorable, leading to a fall in crop yield worldwide. The following writeup incorporated the abiotic stress factors related to the growth and development of plants, such as temperature, drought, heat, cold, and many more. Abiotic stress factors are the nonliving factors influencing the metabolism, growth, and development of the plant tissues at that particular time when such abiotic stress affects them. As a result of such abiotic stresses, the plants have generated many stress tolerance factors. Various stress-responsive genes are thus being formulated in response to the abiotic stresses, so the plants can survive even in such extreme conditions as well. Henceforth, it can be concluded that the abiotic stress factors imposed on the plants adversely impact their growth and developmental procedures, and at the same time, they also produce some stress tolerance factors to minimize the damage.",book:{id:"11330",title:"Plant Response Mechanisms to Abiotic Stresses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11330.jpg"},signatures:"Shubham Dey and Ayan Raichaudhuri"},{id:"82943",title:"Laboratory Diagnosis of Candidiasis",slug:"laboratory-diagnosis-of-candidiasis",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106359",abstract:"The burden of Candidiasis continues to increase and so does the Candida species. Although Candida species are closely similar phenotypically, they differ from each other in terms of epidemiology, genetic characteristics, antifungal susceptibility and virulence profile. Therefore, reliable and accurate laboratory methods for identification of Candida species can determine the Candidiasis burden and enable the administration of the most appropriate antifungal drug therapy to reduce fungal mortality rates. Conventional and biochemical methods are often used in identification of Candida species. However, these techniques are specific and sensitive enough in detecting the non albicans candida (NAC) species. Molecular techniques have improved the laboratory diagnosis and management of Candidiasis due to improved sensitivity and specificity threshold. This chapter provides an overview of different laboratory methods for diagnosis of Candidiasis.",book:{id:"11608",title:"Candida and Candidiasis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11608.jpg"},signatures:"Benson Musinguzi, Obondo J. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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