Overview of sensitivities and specificities for LPS detection methods.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6215",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Graphene Materials - Advanced Applications",title:"Graphene Materials",subtitle:"Advanced Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Graphene is, basically, a single atomic layer of graphite, an abundant mineral that is an allotrope of carbon that is made up of very tightly bonded carbon atoms organized into a hexagonal lattice. What makes graphene so special is its sp2 hybridization and very thin atomic thickness (of 0.345 Nm). These properties are what enable graphene to break so many records in terms of strength, electricity, and heat conduction (as well as many others). This book gathers valuable information about many advanced applications of graphene (electrical, optical, environmental, cells, capacitors, etc).",isbn:"978-953-51-3142-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3141-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4835-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68679",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"graphene-materials-advanced-applications",numberOfPages:240,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3a921aba41351ab84fd7a9b4ea63914d",bookSignature:"George Z. Kyzas and Athanasios Ch. Mitropoulos",publishedDate:"May 17th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6215.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21644,numberOfWosCitations:34,numberOfCrossrefCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:41,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:93,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 6th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 27th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 24th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 24th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 23rd 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/152296/images/system/152296.jpg",biography:"Dr. George Z. Kyzas is a professor in the Department of Chemistry, International Hellenic University (IHU), Greece. He studied Chemistry at the Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTh), Greece. He obtained his BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. in Chemical Technology from the same university where he also worked as a postdoctoral researcher. He is now working at the Department of Chemistry, International Hellenic University, Kavala, Greece, where he has been the head of the department since 2019. He is also the Director/Chair of the MSc in Cosmetic Chemistry. His research interests are the synthesis and characterization of various (majorly adsorbent) materials (inorganic, aluminates, polymers, graphenes, activated carbons, agro-food residues, nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes, etc.) for environmental applications (wastewaters treatment). Dr. Kyzas has published more than 220 scientific papers in international journals, 8 books, and 38 book chapters. He also holds three patents. He has been a guest editor for special journal issues and is the editor of Environmental Science and Pollution Research and is a reviewer for more than 200 other scientific journals. He has more than 120 announcements (invited) at international conferences. He was named in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists for 2019 and 2020. He has been awarded scholarships from the Research Committee of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (2009, 2013), the Greek State Scholarship Foundation (2013), and the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (2016). He has also participated in about twenty-five research projects.",institutionString:"International Hellenic University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"152889",title:"Dr.",name:"Athanasios",middleName:null,surname:"Mitropoulos",slug:"athanasios-mitropoulos",fullName:"Athanasios Mitropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/152889/images/5607_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. A. Ch. Mitropoulos was born in Athens in 1957. He studied Chemistry at the University of Thessaloniki (BSc) and Physical Chemistry at the University of Bristol (MSc, PhD). In 1998, he was appointed as professor in the Department of Petroleum Engineering at the Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Institute of Technology. Since 2008, Prof. Mitropoulos is the president of the same institute. He specializes on the characterization of porous media, nanoporous materials and membranes with in situ techniques of adsorption, and small-angle X-ray scattering. He has more than 100 journal papers, book chapters, and patents. Prof. Mitropoulos is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"950",title:"Solid-State Chemistry",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-solid-state-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"54461",title:"Degradation of Toxic Organic Contaminants by Graphene Cathode in an Electro‐Fenton System",doi:"10.5772/67492",slug:"degradation-of-toxic-organic-contaminants-by-graphene-cathode-in-an-electro-fenton-system",totalDownloads:1633,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A novel composite electrode was constructed by pressing graphene and CuO, using a cathode in an electro‐Fenton (EF) system. Cyclic voltammetry, charge/discharge curve and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were used to characterize the composite electrode. The degradation of a toxic organic contaminant, Terramycin, by EF system was studied in an undivided electrolysis cell. The possible degradation products of Terramycin were studied by a Fourier transform‐infrared spectrum, and the findings showed that the structure of Terramycin was damaged. The variations of hydrogen peroxide and the relative content of hydroxyl radical (.OH) during the degradation process were traced by enzyme catalysis method and fluorescence spectrometry. The results showed that the electro‐catalytic degradation of Terramycin occurred by an ·OH radical mechanism. More importantly, this as‐prepared cathode was very stable and could be reused without any catalytic activity decrease, suggesting its potential application in the wastewater treatment.",signatures:"Liu Shuan, Zhao Xia, Jiang Xin, Zhao Xiaorong, Pu Jibin, Wang\nLiping and Zhou Kaihe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54461",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54461",authors:[{id:"181699",title:"Dr.",name:"Liu",surname:"Shuan",slug:"liu-shuan",fullName:"Liu Shuan"}],corrections:null},{id:"54455",title:"Graphene Oxide–Antimony Nanocomposite Sensor for Analysis of Platinum Group Metals in Roadside Soil Samples",doi:"10.5772/67699",slug:"graphene-oxide-antimony-nanocomposite-sensor-for-analysis-of-platinum-group-metals-in-roadside-soil-",totalDownloads:1416,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present study introduced a very sensitive and low-cost analytical procedure based on voltammetry to study platinum group metals in road dust and roadside soil matrices. Cathodic stripping voltammetry in conjunction with a reduced graphene oxide-antimony nanocomposite sensor and ICP-MS analysis were used to analyse roadside soil and dust samples. The results were processed to evaluate possible pollution in order to map the distribution of the PGMs along specific roads in the Stellenbosch area, outside Cape Town. The results revealed that within each site under investigation, Pd was more abundant than Pt and Rh using both voltammetric and spectroscopic methods. The AdDPCSV results obtained showed concentrations for Pd(II) ranging between 0.92 – 4.0 ng kg–1. For Pt (II), the concentrations ranged between 0.84 – 0.99 ng kg–1. For Rh(III), concentrations ranged between 0.42 – 1.21 ng kg–1. The ICP-MS results showed Pd concentrations ranging between 0.01 – 0.34 µg kg–1. For Pt the concentrations ranged between 0.004 – 0.07 µg kg–1. For Rh, concentrations ranged between 0.002 – 0.26 µg kg–1. The analysis showed significant levels of all PGMs in soil and dust samples analysed. Metal concentration in dust and soil followed the trend Pd > Pt > Rh using both voltammetric and spectroscopic techniques",signatures:"Bongiwe Silwana, Charlton van der Horst, Emmanuel Iwuoha and\nVernon Somerset",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54455",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54455",authors:[{id:"6648",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vernon",surname:"Somerset",slug:"vernon-somerset",fullName:"Vernon Somerset"},{id:"34449",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Iwuoha",slug:"emmanuel-iwuoha",fullName:"Emmanuel Iwuoha"},{id:"196755",title:"Dr.",name:"Bongiwe",surname:"Silwana",slug:"bongiwe-silwana",fullName:"Bongiwe Silwana"},{id:"196756",title:"Dr.",name:"Charlton",surname:"Van Der Horst",slug:"charlton-van-der-horst",fullName:"Charlton Van Der Horst"}],corrections:null},{id:"54395",title:"Fundamentals of Chemical Vapor Deposited Graphene and Emerging Applications",doi:"10.5772/67514",slug:"fundamentals-of-chemical-vapor-deposited-graphene-and-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:3592,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Graphene, the atomically thin sheet of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms arranged in honeycomb structure, is becoming the forefront of material research. The chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process has been explored significantly to synthesis large size single crystals and uniform films of monolayer and bilayer graphene. In this prospect, the nucleation and growth mechanism of graphene on a catalytic substrate play the fundamental role on the control growth of layers and large domain. The transition metals and their alloys have been recognized as the active catalyst for growth of monolayer and bilayer graphene, where the surface composition of such catalysts also plays critical role on graphene growth. CVD-synthesized graphene has been integrated with bulk semiconductors such as Si and GaN for the fabrication of solar cells, photodetectors, and light-emitting diodes. Furthermore, CVD graphene has been integrated with hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) for the fabrication of van der Waals heterostructure for nanoelectronic, optoelectronic, energy devices, and other emerging technologies. The fundamental of the graphene growth process by a CVD technique and various emerging applications in heterostructure devices is discussed in detail.",signatures:"Golap Kalita and Masaki Tanemura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54395",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54395",authors:[{id:"17333",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Tanemura",slug:"masaki-tanemura",fullName:"Masaki Tanemura"},{id:"195869",title:"Dr.",name:"Golap",surname:"Kalita",slug:"golap-kalita",fullName:"Golap Kalita"}],corrections:null},{id:"54742",title:"Solution-Processed Graphene-Based Transparent Conductive Electrodes as Ideal ITO Alternatives for Organic Solar Cells",doi:"10.5772/67919",slug:"solution-processed-graphene-based-transparent-conductive-electrodes-as-ideal-ito-alternatives-for-or",totalDownloads:2095,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The isolation of free-standing graphene in 2004 was the spark for a new scientific revolution in the field of optoelectronics. Due to its extraordinary optoelectronic and mechanical properties, graphene is the next wonder material that could act as an ideal low-cost alternative material for the effective replacement of the expensive conventional materials used in organic optoelectronic applications. Indeed, the enhanced electrical conductivity of graphene combined with its high transparency in visible and near-infrared spectra, enabled graphene to be an ideal low-cost indium tin oxide (ITO) alternative in organic solar cells (OSCs). The prospects and future research trend in graphene-based TCE are also discussed. On the other hand, solution-processed graphene combines the unique optoelectrical properties of graphene with large area deposition and flexible substrates making it compatible with printing and coating technologies, such as roll-to-roll, inkjet, gravure, and flexographic printing manufacturing methods. This chapter provides an overview of the most recent research progress in the application of solution-processed graphene-based films as transparent conductive electrodes (TCEs) in OSCs. (a) Chemically converted graphene (CCG), (b) thermally and photochemically reduced graphene oxide, (c) composite reduced graphene oxide-carbon nanotubes, and (d) reduced graphene oxide mesh films have demonstrated their applicability in OSCs as transparent, conductive electrodes.",signatures:"Minas M. Stylianakis, Dimitrios Konios, Konstantinos Petridis and\nEmmanuel Kymakis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54742",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54742",authors:[{id:"195441",title:"Dr.",name:"Minas",surname:"Stylianakis",slug:"minas-stylianakis",fullName:"Minas Stylianakis"},{id:"204912",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",surname:"Konios",slug:"dimitrios-konios",fullName:"Dimitrios Konios"},{id:"204913",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",surname:"Petridis",slug:"konstantinos-petridis",fullName:"Konstantinos Petridis"},{id:"204914",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Kymakis",slug:"emmanuel-kymakis",fullName:"Emmanuel Kymakis"}],corrections:null},{id:"54591",title:"Chemical, Thermal, and Light-Driven Reduction of Graphene Oxide: Approach to Obtain Graphene and its Functional Hybrids",doi:"10.5772/67808",slug:"chemical-thermal-and-light-driven-reduction-of-graphene-oxide-approach-to-obtain-graphene-and-its-fu",totalDownloads:2066,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The alternative synthetic route of graphene (G) is presented. At first, graphite is oxidized to graphite oxide, which is dispersed in water to form graphene oxide (GO). GO can be reduced to rGO or G. GO being negatively charged can be used to obtain organic functionalized GO or hybrid of GO, reduction of which finally result in the formation of G-based hybrids. The reduction of GO or GO hybrid can be accomplished by light irradiation, thermal annealing, or by treating with reducing agents. The chemical changed from graphite to GO and GO to rGO can be monitored by surface analysis, microscopic investigation, and various spectroscopic methods.",signatures:"Mohammad Razaul Karim and Shinya Hayami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54591",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54591",authors:[{id:"196109",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",surname:"Hayami",slug:"shinya-hayami",fullName:"Shinya Hayami"},{id:"197250",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Karim",slug:"mohammad-karim",fullName:"Mohammad Karim"}],corrections:null},{id:"54181",title:"Reduced Graphene Oxide–Based Microsupercapacitors",doi:"10.5772/67433",slug:"reduced-graphene-oxide-based-microsupercapacitors",totalDownloads:1732,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent development in miniaturized electronic devices has been boosting the demand for power sources that are sufficiently thin, flexible/bendable, and even tailorable and can potentially be integrated in a package with other electronic components. Reduced graphene oxide can be a promising electrode material for miniaturized microsupercapacitors due to their excellent electrical conductivity, high surface-to-volume ratio, outstanding intrinsic electrochemical double-layer capacitance, and facile production in large scale and low cost. Therefore, the routes to produce high-quality reduced graphene oxide as electrode materials, along with the typical fabrication techniques for miniaturized electrodes, are deliberately discussed in this chapter. Furthermore, breakthroughs in the area of the advanced packaging technology, deciding the electrochemical performance and stability of these miniaturized microsupercapacitors, are highlighted. Lastly, a summary of the overall electrochemical properties and current development of the reported devices is presented progressively to provide insights into the development of novel miniaturized energy storage technologies.",signatures:"Zhi Jiang, Yang Wang and Cheng Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54181",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54181",authors:[{id:"25830",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",surname:"Yang",slug:"cheng-yang",fullName:"Cheng Yang"},{id:"196519",title:"Mr.",name:"Zhi",surname:"Jiang",slug:"zhi-jiang",fullName:"Zhi Jiang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54222",title:"Adsorption of Metal Clusters on Graphene and Their Effect on the Electrical Conductivity",doi:"10.5772/67476",slug:"adsorption-of-metal-clusters-on-graphene-and-their-effect-on-the-electrical-conductivity",totalDownloads:1578,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"When adsorbates are introduced in graphene, the electric conductivity is highly modified. This chapter discusses how to estimate the electrical conductivity of graphene sheets with adsorbates, using electronic structure calculations and some theoretical approaches. Also, we discussed how the clustering of adsorbates attached to the graphene can impact electrical conductivity. We will focus in using metallic clusters as adsorbates (Mn; M = Ag, Au, Pt, and Pd; n = 1, 2, 3, and 4). The electrical conductivity is found using theoretical approaches, which are summarized in this chapter. We compare these approaches between each other to determine which is the most appropriate for each system.",signatures:"Roxana M. Del Castillo and Luis E. Sansores Cuevas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54222",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54222",authors:[{id:"196573",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana Mitzaye",surname:"Del Castillo Vazquez",slug:"roxana-mitzaye-del-castillo-vazquez",fullName:"Roxana Mitzaye Del Castillo Vazquez"},{id:"196574",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Enrique",surname:"Sansores Cuevas",slug:"luis-enrique-sansores-cuevas",fullName:"Luis Enrique Sansores Cuevas"}],corrections:null},{id:"54878",title:"Graphene-Enhanced Optical Signal Processing",doi:"10.5772/67491",slug:"graphene-enhanced-optical-signal-processing",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Graphene has emerged as an attractive material for a myriad of optoelectronic applications due to its variety of remarkable optical, electronic, thermal and mechanical properties. So far, the main focus has been on graphene based photonics and optoelectronics devices. Due to the linear band structure allowing interband optical transitions at all photon energies, graphene has remarkably large third-order optical susceptibility χ(3), which is only weakly dependent on the wavelength in the near-infrared frequency range. Graphene possesses the properties of the enhancement four-wave mixing (FWM) of conversion efficiency. So, we believe that the potential applications of graphene also lies in nonlinear optical signal processing, where the combination of its unique large χ(3) nonlinearities and dispersionless over the wavelength can be fully exploited. In this chapter, we give a brief overview of our recent progress in graphene-assisted nonlinear optical device which is graphene-coated optical fiber and graphene-silicon microring resonator and their applications, including degenerate FWM based tunable wavelength conversion of quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK) signal, two-input optical computing, three-input high-base optical computing, graphene-silicon microring resonator enhanced nonlinear optical device for on-chip optical signal processing, and nonlinearity enhanced graphene-silicon microring for selective conversion of flexible grid multi-channel multi-level signal.",signatures:"Jian Wang and Xiao Hu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54878",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54878",authors:[{id:"174233",title:"Prof.",name:"Jian",surname:"Wang",slug:"jian-wang",fullName:"Jian Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"54489",title:"Graphene against Other Two-Dimensional Materials: A Comparative Study on the Basis of Photonic Applications",doi:"10.5772/67807",slug:"graphene-against-other-two-dimensional-materials-a-comparative-study-on-the-basis-of-photonic-applic",totalDownloads:1818,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Two‐dimensional materials represent the basis of technological development to produce applications with high added value for nanoelectronics, photonics, and optoelectronics. In first decades of this century, these materials are impelling this development through materials based on carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and boron. 2D materials for photonic applications used until now are graphene, silicene, germanene, stanene, phosphorene, arsenene, antimonene, and borophene. In this work, the main strategies to modify optical properties of 2D materials are studied for achieving photodetection, transportation, and emitting of light. Optical properties analyzed here are refractive index, extinction coefficient, relative permittivity, absorption coefficient, chromatic dispersion, group index, and transmittance. The transmittance spectra of various two-dimensional materials are presented here with the aim of classifying them from photonic point‐of‐view. A performance comparison between graphene and other two‐dimensional materials is done to help the designer choose the best design material for photonic applications. In next three decades, a lot of scientific research will be realized to completely exploit the use of 2D materials either as single monolayers or as stacked multilayers in several fields of knowledge with a special emphasis in the optoelectronics and photonic industry in benefit of the industry and ultimately to our society.",signatures:"Rafael Vargas-Bernal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54489",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54489",authors:[{id:"182114",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Vargas-Bernal",slug:"rafael-vargas-bernal",fullName:"Rafael Vargas-Bernal"}],corrections:null},{id:"54232",title:"Surface-Modified Graphene for Mid-Infrared Detection",doi:"10.5772/67490",slug:"surface-modified-graphene-for-mid-infrared-detection",totalDownloads:2288,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, morphology variation and electronic structure in a surface-modified graphene are demonstrated by both calculation and experimental results. The results indicate that the band structure and morphology of modified graphene sheets are altered because of changing in the type of hybridization of carbon atoms in the graphene sheet. Accordingly, the band gap of graphene can be tuned by surface modification using organic molecules. Then, modified graphene is used for fabrication of infrared detectors. The properties of unmodified graphene photodetectors were also measured so as to compare with modified graphene photodetectors. The results demonstrate that modification of graphene using organic ligands improved the detection parameters such as fast response time, electrical stability and low dark current. Moreover, the sensitivity of photodetectors based on modified graphene was significantly improved.",signatures:"Mehrdad Siahsar, Mahboubeh Dolatyari, Ali Rostami and Ghasem\nRostami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54232",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54232",authors:[{id:"4761",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",surname:"Rostami",slug:"ali-rostami",fullName:"Ali Rostami"},{id:"196152",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahboubeh",surname:"Dolatyari",slug:"mahboubeh-dolatyari",fullName:"Mahboubeh Dolatyari"},{id:"196172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghasem",surname:"Rostami",slug:"ghasem-rostami",fullName:"Ghasem Rostami"},{id:"196173",title:"Mr.",name:"Mehrdad",surname:"Siahsar",slug:"mehrdad-siahsar",fullName:"Mehrdad Siahsar"}],corrections:null},{id:"54212",title:"Fluorinated Graphene Dielectric and Functional Layers for Electronic Applications",doi:"10.5772/67451",slug:"fluorinated-graphene-dielectric-and-functional-layers-for-electronic-applications",totalDownloads:1822,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Future electronics technology is expected to develop from rigid to flexible devices. This process requires breakthroughs in material properties, especially flexibility, in combination with desirable electrical insulating, semiconducting, or metallic properties. Graphene, being one of the recently developed two-dimensional (2D) materials, presents great promise as an active layer in a wide spectrum of electronics devices and, first of all, in field-effect transistors (FET). The development of optimized dielectrics for the graphene active layer is critical for graphene applications. The carrier transport in graphene films takes place at interfaces with dielectric or semiconductor substrates; therefore, the quality of such interface and the interaction of graphene films with nearby dielectric layers (charge carrier scattering) determine the device performance. Generally, the development of dielectric materials aiming at high performance device operation, proper mechanical properties, and low-temperature fabrication is not progressing well since the graphene thin film is very sensitive to surface conditions of dielectric layers. Solving the problem with dielectric layers in the case of nonorganic printed and flexible electronics is especially acute. As it is demonstrated in the present chapter, dielectric layers fabricated from fluorinated graphene suspension or in its combination with graphene oxide are the most promising for graphene-based flexible, printed, and transparent electronics.",signatures:"Irina V. Antonova and Nadezhda A. Nebogatikova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54212",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54212",authors:[{id:"96688",title:"Prof.",name:"Irina",surname:"Antonova",slug:"irina-antonova",fullName:"Irina Antonova"},{id:"196570",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadezhda",surname:"Nebogatikova",slug:"nadezhda-nebogatikova",fullName:"Nadezhda Nebogatikova"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5722",title:"Graphene Materials",subtitle:"Structure, Properties and Modifications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ebc42323146bb1d453a4f2785ce8029",slug:"graphene-materials-structure-properties-and-modifications",bookSignature:"George Z. Kyzas and Athanasios Ch. 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The increasing occurrence of infectious disease is a global issue. Emerging pathogens with increasing levels of drug resistance are a continuing danger to both public health and agriculture. Accurate and rapid detection of pathogens is critical to implement preventative measures to mitigate this problem. Despite this urgent need, conventional methods for bacterial detection require cell culture and serology, which can take several weeks. As new pathogens emerge, it is even more important that our detection technologies evolve to keep pace with the need to discriminate pathogen from host flora. This requires an understanding of pathogen biology, the types of samples they occur in, and their mechanism of immune interaction within the hosts [1].
The innate immune system is able to discriminate pathogens from nonpathogens, and rapidly sense pathogen biomarkers in the complex milieu of the host. Exploiting this recognition via measurement of pathogen signatures, can provide an optimal strategy for discriminatory biodetection. A primary category of such biomarkers is virulence signatures termed pathogen‐associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) [2]. PAMPs are evolutionarily conserved molecules that bind pattern‐recognition receptors in the host, and activate the innate immune response [2, 3], providing a means for both early and specific pathogen detection. Biochemically, PAMPs are a diverse array of proteins, lipopeptides, lipoglycans, peptidoglycans, teichoic acids, and nucleic acids [4]. However, many detection methods have largely focused on proteins and nucleic acids [1, 5], ignoring other categories of PAMPs [2, 6–8]. Also, their small size, biochemistry, and low concentration in hosts make them difficult to target in detection assays [8, 9].
Classified as a lipogylcan, lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are small amphiphilic molecules that are associated with Gram‐negative bacteria [7, 10]. LPS is an indicator of active infection, is serogroup‐specific [11–13], more stable than its protein counterparts, and is released early in infection, making it an ideal candidate for detection and diagnostics. LPS serves as a biomarker that aids in serological discrimination of Gram‐negative bacteria; this allows for identification and characterization of pathotypes that are essential for timely mitigation and treatment of infections. Since LPS is a pathogen‐specific biomarker, it is an indicator of acute infection, which is an advantage over serological assays. In addition to medical diagnostics, LPS detection provides a method for detecting
Bacteria are classified into Gram‐negative and Gram‐positive [15], which release amphiphilic virulence factors such as LPS, lipoarabinomannan (LAM), and lipoteichoic acid (LTA) in the host. Species of pathogenic Gram‐negative bacteria of concern to human health, include
Herein, we present a comprehensive description of the structural and biochemical properties of LPS, current methods for its detection, and potential approaches to overcome the current limitations for direct detection of the molecule in physiological matrices.
Lipopolysaccharides have been the subject of intense study for over half a century [37–39]. LPS is the prototypical lipoglycan with an overall net negative charge [40–42], and is the primary component of the outer membrane of nearly all Gram‐negative bacteria [11]. The bacterial membrane of each
Representative structure of the molecular components of smooth LPS. The hypervariable O‐polysaccharide antigen, core polysaccharide, and the hydrophobic lipid A group. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [
There are two main forms of LPS—smooth (S‐form) and rough (R‐form) [42, 45, 46]. The distal end of LPS extends to a long chain O‐polysaccharide antigen (O‐ag(s)) in organisms possessing S‐form, which is an indicator of virulence [51, 52]. R‐form LPS is devoid of the O‐ag [45], but can still induce an immunogenic response [53]. The O‐ag is hyper‐variable, and made up of repeating subunits, each composed of 1–7 glycosyl residues [45, 54]. As many as 40 size variations in subunit repeats of the O‐ag have been reported just for
In aqueous solutions, amphiphiles like LPS can present in a micellar conformation [48, 55, 57–59]. This occurs at a concentration specific to the amphiphile [55], and is known as the critical micelle concentration (CMC). At or above the CMC, there is an equilibrium state between monomers, micelles or supramolecular aggregates, depending on environmental conditions [48, 55–57, 60–63]. This amphiphilic biochemistry and structural variability complicates determination of the exact molecular weight of S‐form LPS. As such, LPS concentrations are reported in weight per volume, or in endotoxin units (EU), a measure of activity. As degree of endotoxicity can vary according to bacterial origin, a rough estimate of 100 pg = 1 EU is used in many cases to facilitate unit conversion [64, 65].
The large oligosaccharide region on S‐form LPS makes the molecule amphipathic [54], which influences the shape of micelles in solution. Lipid A is largely responsible for shaping the LPS micelle [10, 45, 46, 56, 66–68], although other factors can also contribute. Lipid A is conserved within species in the number of fatty acid chains and the degree of saturation [44, 66] within those chains [22, 47, 69]. Shapes for LPS micelles include cubic, lamellar, and hexagonal inverted structures [56, 67, 70, 71]. Whether aggregate or monomeric forms (or both) of LPS is required for innate immune activation is debatable [56, 72, 73]. Since this process occurs in aqueous blood, it is unlikely that the molecule is presented as a monomer, unless associated with serum binding proteins.
Variation in LPS micelles [55] modifies presentation of O‐ag‐specific epitopes to antibodies, making detection challenging [74, 75]. This is specifically true when the heterogeneous presentation of linear [76] and conformational epitopes [49, 77] present on LPS molecules are considered. The primary structure of LPS varies in the core polysaccharide, within and between species [47, 55]. Core polysaccharides are primarily made up of common sugars such as heptose and 2‐deoxy‐d‐
There have been many efforts to establish rapid and reliable detection methods for LPS in clinical samples [10, 46] and for testing pharmacological products such as infusion fluids, sterile injectables, medical device implants, and others [87]. These methods can be broadly divided into six overlapping categories:
The first method approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for LPS detection was called the rabbit pyrogen test [88–90], which simply measures the ability of an endotoxin to induce fever in an animal. Any febrile response was attributed to the presence of endotoxin [89–91]. The test, clearly, is activity‐based, and nonspecific. In the case of Hepatitis B vaccine manufacturing, the rabbit pyrogen test is still the standard method for determining endotoxin contamination [91], but the test is cost prohibitive and is minimally utilized today, except in some parenteral devices [10].
In 1956, Bang discovered that amoebocytes from
Variants of the LAL assay use turbidimetric [95], chromogenic [46], or viscosity [10] measurements to determine results [10, 46]. A turbidimetric gel clot has more coagulen, and measures the change in turbidity over time, but does not form a solid clot [46, 95]. The viscosity assay, however, measures the degree of clotting via the change in viscosity. The chromogenic assay can be endpoint or kinetic, and utilizes a
Description | Sample | Detection method | Species | Sensitivity (ng/mL)* | Specific | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rabbit pyrogen | Purified endotoxin | Febrile response | – | No | [89] | |
LAL | Plasma | Gelation | Multiple species | 0.5–5.0 | No | [96] |
LAL | Blood, plasma | Gelation | 0.5–5.0 | No | [92] | |
LAL | Serum plasma | Optical density | 0.025–0.5 | No | [100] | |
LAL | Urine | Gelation | 0.5 | No | [204] | |
LAL | Urine | Optical density | Multiple species | 2.0 | No | [98] |
LAL | Spinal fluid/ plasma | Optical density | 0.1 | No | [101] | |
LAL | Ascites | Gelation | 0.5 | No | [104] | |
LAL | Cerebral/synovial | – | 1.0 | No | [103] | |
LAL | Seawater | Optical density | 2.3 | No | [41] | |
LAL | Purified endotoxin | Gelation | 1.0 | No | [95] | |
LAL | Purified endotoxin | Gelation | 10−11 | No | [111] | |
LAL | Ground beef | Gelation | – | No | [205] | |
LAL | Ground beef | Gelation | Multiple species | 51.0 ng/g | No | [108] |
LAL | Milk | Chromogenic | 0.01 | No | [107] | |
LAL | Purified endotoxin | Gelation | 100 | No | [206] | |
LAL‐magnetoelastic sensor | Purified LPS | resonant frequency | 0.0105 EU/mL | No | [207] | |
ENDOLisa® (LAL) | Purified endotoxin | Fluorescence | 0.05–500 EU/mL | No | [129] | |
ELISA | Milk | Abs at 405 nm | 100–200 | [165] | ||
LPS pull down‐sandwich ELISA | Pure cultures | Abs at 450 nm | – | [125] | ||
LPS pull down‐sandwich ELISA | Purified LPS | Abs at 450 nm | 1.0 | Yes | [126] | |
Premier EIA | Stool extract | Spectro‐photometric | – | Yes | [122] | |
LPS pull down | Purified endotoxin | RIA | 300 | No | [206] | |
LPS pull down‐ion (NTA‐Cu) | Purified LPS | EIS | 0.0001–0.1 | No | [161] | |
Diaphorase functionalized surface | Purified LPS | Chemical | 50 | Maybe | [87] | |
LPS pull down‐SAMs with synthetic peptide | Purified LPS | Electro‐chemistry | 21.8 pg/mL | No | [189] | |
LPS pull down‐SAMs with aptamer | Purified LPS | EIS | 0.1–1.0 | Maybe | [159] | |
LPS pull down‐gold electrode w/ aptamer | Purified LPS | EIS and cyclic voltammetry | 0.001–1.0 | No | [160] | |
LPS aptamer sandwich | Purified LPS | Electro‐chemistry | 10 fg/mL | Maybe | [188] | |
LPS pull down‐gold electrodes w/ PmB | Purified LPS | EIS | 0.2 | No | [162] | |
Polydiacetylene liposomes | Purified LPS (5 groups) | Change in Abs | 2.22 mg/mL | Yes | [191] | |
Impedance enthothelial biosensor | Purified LPS in culture medium+ | Resistivity of cell monolayer | 500 | No | [169] | |
Macrophage microarrays on gold electrodes | Purified LPS in culture medium | FTIR | 0.1 µg/mL | No | [200] | |
Primary culture HDME cells | Purified LPS | Fluorescence | 1.0 µg/mL | No | [171] | |
Engineered cells secrete alkaline phosphatase | Purified LPS in culture medium+ | Electro‐chemistry | 0.1 | No | [170] | |
LPS pull down‐PmB | Purified LPS | Evanescent sensing | 25 | No | [75] | |
LPS pull down‐TLR4/MD2 on gold electrodes | Purified LPS | Electro‐chemistry | 0.0005 EU/mL | No | [180] | |
LPS pull down‐membrane insertion | Purified LPS (3 groups) | Evanescent sensing | 420 | Yes | [74] | |
LPS pull down‐antibody | Pure cultures in ground beef | Evanescent sensing | – | Yes | [166] | |
LPS pull down‐proanthocyanidin | FITC‐labeled LPS | Fluorescence | – | No | [192] | |
Copolythiophene interacts with LPS | Purified LPS | Fluorescence | 2.5E−5–2.0 µM | No | [164] | |
Polydiacetylene liposomes | – | Fluorescence | 0.1 µM | No | [190] | |
Peptide‐based fluorescence | Purified LPS | FRET‐increase | 0.15–2.0 µM | No | [194] | |
Pyrenyl‐derived long‐chain quaternary ammonium probe | Purified LPS | Fluorescence | 100 nM | No | [193] | |
LPS pull down‐peptide on Graphene Oxide | Purified LPS (4 groups) | Fluorescence | Several species | 130 pM | No | [195] |
LPS pull down‐PmB capture | Purified LPS spiked in blood | Acoustic sensing | 1.0 | No | [196] | |
LPS pull down‐CD14 capture | Biotin‐LPS | Luminescence | 10.0 | No | [176] | |
LPS pull down Polyaniline + ConA lectin | Purified LPS and LTA | EIS | 50.0 | No | [208] | |
Aptamer sandwich on beads | Purified LPS | Fluorescence | 0.01 | Maybe | [163] | |
LPS pull down endotoxin neutralizing protein | Purified LPS | Capacitance | 10−13 M | No | [181] | |
LPS pull down CramoLL lectin | Purified LPS (4 types) | EIS | 25.0 µg/mL | No | [185] |
Overview of sensitivities and specificities for LPS detection methods.
*Unless otherwise indicated.
In 1970, Levin discovered that samples tested in whole blood would not render a positive result [92], but if plasma was extracted in chloroform and diluted 1–10%, then endotoxin activity could be detected in the 0.5–5 ng/mL range [92, 96]. Levin correctly assumed that components of whole blood were bound to endotoxin, thereby inhibiting the reaction with the LAL reagent [46, 92, 97], or changing the reaction kinetics [46]. This is evident when the amphiphilic nature of LPS and the aqueous nature of blood are considered. In addition to blood and plasma [46, 92, 96], the LAL assay has been used in urine [46, 98], cerebral spinal fluid, synovial fluid, ascites fluid, vaginal and cervical fluids, broncho‐alveolar lavage samples, seawater [46], bovine milk [99], and beef tissue [100, 101]. Virtually all of these have reported ng/mL LoDs, for endotoxin, but none are serogroup‐specific. Researchers have used heat [46, 102], chemical treatment with chloroform [103], acids [104, 105], alkali [106, 107], or ether [108] to improve sensitivity with some success when using heat or chemical extraction of the endotoxin [46, 109]. However, the results show poor reproducibility between researchers (Table 1). Yin and Galanos [106] reported a sensitivity of 10−11 ng/mL for
Thus, the LAL assay and rabbit pyrogen test, both based on the native immune responses of the horseshoe crab or rabbit, exhibit significant variability in outcomes. Despite these, the LAL is still very useful for quickly detecting contamination. For example, in 1981, Jay [101] used the LAL test to determine both microbial counts and endotoxin load in 153 samples of store bought ground beef with a mean sensitivity of 7.9 µg/mL (endotoxin/beef sample) in 1 h. In 1985, Nachum and Shanbrom [46] used a chromogenic LAL system to detect between 2 and 175 ng/mL of endotoxin in 324 patient urine samples, with the assay taking between 2 and 4 h. Timely detection is valuable to both patient care and product viability. Despite being an ideal test for the presence of endotoxin, determining identity of pathogens still requires culture or enrichment.
Developed in 1971 [112, 113], the enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are based on the immune reaction between antigen and antibody, with each assay being tailored for the unique antigen being tested. ELISAs were evaluated for
There exist two primary types of LPS‐ELISAs, which detect either the LPS antigen, or LPS antibody titers. With the former, the plate surface is typically coated with a primary capture antibody specific to LPS, or with the sample to be tested [118]. After antigen capture, an epitope‐specific antibody is used to detect LPS. The detection antibody can be directly labeled with an enzyme [113] or secondary antibody for colorimetric detection [120, 121]. In 1998, Mackenzie et al. [122] reported on the effectiveness of a commercial assay to screen stool samples for
The second type of ELISA measures LPS antibody titers to screen for Gram‐negative bacterial infections. Here, the surface of the plate is functionalized with the antigen to pull down antibodies (Immunglobulins A, G, and M (IgG, IgA, IgM)) from serum. Since this method is based on adaptive immunity, there is a lag between initial exposure to the pathogen, and increased antibody titers [130], making early detection difficult. This assay is not specific for active infection, but has been used to monitor population health and track epidemiology of infections. Screening has been used to detect exposure of military personnel to
Functionalizing ELISA plates with amphiphilic LPS is a technical challenge [12], since the surfaces are optimized for protein binding. In the late 1970s, it was discovered that polymyxin B (an antibiotic, PmB) interacted with LPS monomers in a 1:1 ratio [86, 140], and can be used to functionalize surfaces for Gram‐negative detection [119]. However, PmB recognizes the conserved lipid A group of LPS, and does not allow for discriminative detection. Takahashi et al. [118] showed that precoating the plate with high molecular weight poly‐l‐lysine increases surface adsorption and allows for detection of 1 µg/mL LPS, with no cross reactivity. Others have studied the effects of ions such as calcium and magnesium [141], trichloroacetic acid [142], mixing the antigen in chloroform/ethanol, and drying on the plate surface [135], or complexing LPS with a protein such as bovine serum albumin [143] to improve performance and reproducibility. Functionalization of ELISA plates with proteins known to bind LPS, such as high‐ or low‐density lipoproteins (HDL, LDL), chylomicrons, and LPS‐binding protein (LBP) have also been evaluated [123, 124] and offers promise for the reliable detection of LPS antigen in complex samples.
Other limitations for LPS detection include the fact that many LPS antigens have not been isolated [144] and thus are not available for the development of screening assays, limiting accessibility of specific antibodies as well [145–150]. However, there is also a need to refine methods for selection of tailored antibodies. While there are variations [10], ELISA plates are typically functionalized with whole dead bacteria to screen monoclonal antibody cultures [145, 146, 148], giving rise to potentially cross reactive clones [10, 144] that are then screened against a multitude of bacterial strains [146, 149, 150]. It is noted that it is impossible to screen clones against all epitopes of LPS, even amongst the many
Many advanced methods such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) [159–161], antimicrobials [75, 162], aptamers [163], synthetic polymers [164], optical immunoassays [122, 125, 165], waveguide technology [75, 166, 167], lipid bilayers [9, 74, 168], and
LBP [10], a relatively small protein (~60 kDa) that transports LPS in blood, shuttles the antigen to the cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14) protein in the extracellular matrix, or to the membrane of immune cells, such as macrophages [10]. After LPS binds CD14, it is passed to the hydrophobic binding pocket of myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD‐2) [7, 10], a necessary cofactor for the activation of TLR4. Also, the serum carrier lipoproteins (HDL and LDL), are carriers for LPS in blood. In addition to these, LPS has been demonstrated to bind aptamers [159, 160], various peptides [87, 109, 162, 172], and metal/cation complexes [84, 86, 161, 173–175]. Such carrier moieties are exploited in the development of novel detection methods for LPS, as outlined below.
For electrochemical (EC) sensing of LPS, a recognition ligand (similar to ELISA) and a transducer are required to measure the variation in signal [161]. For fluorescence‐based sensing, a receptor captures LPS, while another molecule emits a fluorescent signal when bound to the antigen. Burkhardt et al. [176] used solubilized LBP to transfer LPS to a CD14 functionalized surface, with a LoD of 10 ng/mL using an electro‐chemiluminescent assay. This method enforces the role of LBP as a lipid transfer protein, as demonstrated by Wurfel et al. [177, 178] and shows that CD14 can bind monomeric LPS in the absence of TLR4 [179]. Highly sensitive (LoD = 0.0005 EU) EC sensors have also been developed using a recombinant TLR4 + MD‐2 complex for recognition of LPS [180]. Yet, these assays are unable to discriminate between LPS serogroups. Priano et al. [10] developed a competitive EC assay using recombinant endotoxin‐neutralizing protein (ENP) on a dextran matrix, with a detection range of 1–100 ng/mL. ENP has also been used in a capacitive biosensor with an extremely low LoD (1.0 × 10−13 M) [181]. The sensitivity differences may be due to variations in surface functionalization. Priano et al. [10] used the dextran matrix, and Limbut et al. [181] used self‐assembled monolayers, which provide low background interference [182–184]. Inoue and Takano [10] used a recombinant factor C in an EC hybrid LAL biosensor, with a sensitivity range of 5 × 10−4–1.0 EU/mL [10]. Kato [87] and Iijima [10] labeled PmB with ferrocene‐bound LPS in solution, and captured it on a nanocarbon‐film electrode with a detection range of 2–50 ng/mL in 5 minutes [10]. Ding et al. [162] functionalized an electrode with PmB and performed EIS with a detection range of 0.2–0.8 ng/mL which is more sensitive, but has a smaller range. A broader detection range was demonstrated by Rahman et al. [172] who functionalized interdigitated electrodes with PmB and tested 0.1–1000 µg/mL of LPS O111:B4 in food samples, using impedance spectroscopy. Sugar binding proteins, such as lectins and polyaniline coated electrodes, have been used for detecting LPS [10], as with an EIS sensor functionalized with the lectin, cramoLL, with a detection range of 25–200 µg/mL [185].
Several assays have been developed using aptamers as the detection ligand. Su et al. [160, 186, 187] used aptamers attached to gold nanoparticles to detect LPS using EIS, with an impressive detection limit of 0.1 pg/mL [10]. Aptamers have also been used in a magnetic aptasensor to detect LPS in medias containing BSA, sucrose, glucose, or RNA [163], and provide a detection range of 0.01–1.0 × 106 ng/mL (LPS O55:B5) by flow cytometry within 1 minute. Bai et al. [188] developed an EC sensor where aptamers that bind LPS were hybridized with capture probes, which were hybridized to complementary DNA sequences on gold nanoparticles with a very sensitive range (10 fg/mL up to 50 ng/mL). However, multiple aptamer libraries against O‐ag would be essential before this method could be implemented for serogroup discrimination. Modifications to improve sensitivity include use of SAMs to functionalize sensors with peptides [189], PmB [162], antibodies [10], and aptamers [159]. Despite optimal surface capture methods, some of these assays suffer from poor detection limits or range of performance [10, 159].
Investigators have utilized the interaction of LPS with synthetic systems such as copolythiophene copolymers [164] and polydiacetylene liposomes [190, 191]. Johnson et al. [192] demonstrated an endotoxin capture technique by functionalizing a bead matrix with proanthocyanidins and binding with fluorescein isothiocyanate‐labeled LPS [192]. Pyrenyl‐derived quaternary ammonium probes, developed by Zeng et al. [193] exhibited fluorescence when bound to LPS and detected nanomolar concentrations, while fluorescently labeled CD14 synthetic peptides demonstrated an increase in Förster resonance energy transfer when bound to LPS, but were only able to detect µM concentrations [194]. Lim et al. [195] used a functionalized graphene oxide to develop a fluorescence quench‐recovery method for LPS, targeting the lipid A component. Thompson et al. [196] designed a tandem system to both detect (LoD = 1.0 ng/mL)and filter LPS from blood using piezoelectric quartz discs functionalized with PmB.
Other methods have taken advantage of the amphipathic nature of LPS. Harmon et al. [197] demonstrated that disrupting the hydrophobic association of LPS with liposomes increases the sensitivity of the LAL assay. Stromberg et al. [74, 198] were able to detect 4.20 µg/mL of amphiphilic LPS O157 in beef lysates on a waveguide biosensor using a technique called membrane insertion, which has previously been applied to other amphiphiles such as LAM and phenolic glycolipids [8, 9, 199]. Membrane insertion uses the natural association of amphiphiles with a lipid bilayer to facilitate detection and fluorescent detection of a labeled antibody is performed within an evanescent field [168, 199]. Many biosensors report exquisite sensitivity, even down to the picogram [164] and femtomolar [9, 168, 199] range, but very few are capable of physiological presentation of amphiphiles to facilitate discriminative detection of O‐ag groups [74, 167, 198].
Cell systems are ideal for recognizing endotoxin, although interpreting the signal response can be challenging. Bouafsoun et al. [169] functionalized the surface of an impedance biosensor with endothelial cells, and measured the decrease in impedance with LPS binding, with a sensitivity of 500 ng/mL. Veiseh et al. [200] patterned macrophage cells onto gold electrodes to detect LPS concentrations of 0.1–10 µg/mL. However, cells were concurrently stained with necrosis and apoptosis markers in parallel studies, and no staining effect could be seen in cells using concentrations less than 10 µg/mL. This is an interesting effect, as in many
Many novel approaches have been used for the detection of amphiphilic LPS, not all of which are functional in physiological matrices or have the required sensitivity or ease of use. One major reason for this is the failure to incorporate the amphiphilic properties of the antigen into assay design. The presentation, conformation, and host‐interactions of the antigens should be considered for the development of effective assays. While both LAL and EC assays are the most sensitive for testing endotoxicity, identifying O‐ag with a high degree of selectivity remains elusive, and limited to methods that use specific recognition ligands, such as membrane insertion and ELISAs. By far, the greatest limitation has been the lack of sensitive and selective ligands for the serogroup‐specific detection of the antigen. Thus, as repositories of these necessary recognition molecules expand to include more serogroups, so too will our ability to selectively detect LPS.
This work was supported by the Agriculture and Food Research Initiative Competitive Grant no. 2012‐68003‐30155 from the United States Department of Agriculture\'s National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
Over the last couple of decades, there has been a growing trend in the use of minimally invasive techniques in spine surgery because of low rates of complications, reduced hospital length of stay, lower estimated blood loss, and minimal soft tissue trauma [1]. With the growing prevalence of low back pain and lumbar degenerative spine disease, spine surgeons have found the need to expand their surgical armamentarium in treating degenerative spondylosis and spondylolisthesis [2]. Current surgical techniques to fuse two vertebral levels include posterolateral fusion, posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF), transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF), and extreme lateral interbody fusion associated with pedicle-screw fixation/instrumentation [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]; however, all these methods have drawbacks, such as increased operative time, risk of serious complications, and increased stiffness of the fused motion segment which may cause pathologic stresses at the adjacent levels [7]. These drawbacks of pedicle screw fixation (PSF) techniques have necessitated surgeons to explore novel and even more minimally invasive methods to achieve comparable levels of stability and fusion rates. Spinous process fixation (SPF)/interspinous process fixation (ISPF) achieved through the use of interspinous fusion devices (IFD) is not as widely used or known in the spine surgical community as PSF. Such devices aim to secure plates to the lateral aspects of two adjacent spinous processes thereby preventing motion at that segment. It is imperative that IFDs are not mistaken for similar other interspinous devices that offer “dynamic stabilization” such as X-STOP or DIAM etc. IFD placement has been successfully applied as an adjunct to posterolateral fusion and anterior fusion techniques and has shown similar rates of stability and fusion rates as PSF and has also been associated with improved or comparable patient-outcome scores [8].
In this chapter, we present the current evidence behind interspinous process fixation/fusion devices. We describe the primary biomechanical evidence and then present a discussion on clinical evidence of some case–control, case-series, and outcome studies. We then discuss the results of a recently completed randomized control trial of the Aspen® MIS Spinous Process Fusion System (Zimmer Biomet Spine, Westminster, Colorado) and their implications in the use of IFDs in the future. At the end of the chapter, we describe in detail the components of the Aspen® MIS Spinous Process Fusion System and outline the basic surgical technique of placing this IFD successfully.
Ex-vivo biomechanical studies have demonstrated that IFDs provide comparable rigidity to PSF in flexion-extension [9]. The data are less clear in lateral bending and axial rotation. Techy et al. in 2013 specifically studied the Aspen interspinous device in comparison to pedicle screw fixation and found that the stability provided by the device was statistically equivalent to both bilateral or unilateral pedicle screw/rod construct in flexion-extension; however, lateral bending and axial rotation tests showed pedicle screw fixation to have significantly greater stability [9]. In contrast, an earlier biomechanical study by Karahalios et al. in 2010 showed no difference in stability provided by IFDs compared to PSF in flexion-extension, lateral bending or axial rotation [10]. Papp et al. showed IFDs preserve adjacent facet joint anatomy [11]; other studies have even suggested IFDs may reduce load on intervertebral discs and potentially reduce the risk of adjacent segment disease [12, 13]. Yu et al. in 2014 studied their own novel IFD and found that interspinous process fixation combined with posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) was equivalent in biomechanical stability to bilateral pedicle screw/rod fixation with PLIF [14]. In short, it seems that cadaveric studies have shown IFDs to fare pretty well in restricting motion through flexion-extension comparable to the current gold-standard pedicle screw fixation but are likely unable to stabilize a motion segment against shearing forces.
Tomii et al. studied the S-plate (Kisco DIR, Osaka, Japan) in a series of 15 patients who underwent PLIF and subsequent IFD placement and found no complications and increase in mean JOA scores from 12.1 to 21.9 with a study follow-up period of 1.5–4 years [15]. Kim et al. showed decreased operative time for IFD placement and PLIF versus PS fixation and PLIF (135.8 minutes versus 170.8 minutes) and lower blood loss. The same study also showed decreased visual analog scale (VAS) scores in the immediate post-operative period of IFD and PLIF compared with PS and PLIF (4.6 vs. 7.0) [13]. However, VAS scores at 1 year follow-up showed no significant differences between the two groups. The Korean Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) scores also showed no significant differences between the two techniques [13].
To assess the value of IFDs in fusion rates, Vokshoor et al. [16] analyzed a sub-cohort of 50 patients who underwent IFD with PLIF or TLIF and showed 94% of them showed interspinous process fusion and 86% of those levels showed solid interbody fusion based on Burkus criteria [17]. Kim et al. [13] also studied fusion rates in their paper by either looking at 6-month post-operative flexion-extension films and/or assessing for trabecular bone on the 6 month post-operative CT scan; they found that IFD with PLIF showed a 92.5% fusion rate, which was similar to 91.6% fusion rates for PLIF with PS fixation. The same paper also reported adjacent segment disease in 12.5% of patients who underwent PLIF with IFD versus 36% in PLIF with PS fixation.
Lastly, Panchal et al. [8] in 2016 reported results from the first randomized, prospective, controlled, multi-center trial comparing outcomes from patients receiving anterior (ALIF) or lateral (LLIF) interbody fusion with adjunctive interspinous fusion with the Aspen® MIS device or pedicle screw fixation. Patients were followed pre-operatively and post-operatively at 6 weeks, 3 months, 6 months, 12 months, and even 24 months. The primary study endpoint was the comparison of the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) score from the pre-operative time period to that of the 12-month post-operative time period. The primary hypothesis of the trial was noninferiority of the ODI score change by the Aspen® MIS IFD group (investigation) compared to the pedicle screw fixation group (control).
103 subjects underwent single-level interbody fusion via ALIF or LLIF approach. Sixty-six of them underwent adjunctive interspinous fusion with Aspen MIS spinous process fixation device. Thirty-seven of them were supplemented with pedicle screw fixation. All patients had degenerative disc disease and/or Grade 1 or 2 spondylolisthesis. The trial demonstrated no significant differences between the two groups with respect to patient-reported outcome scores (ODI, SF-36, or VAS) at 1.5, 3, 6, or 12-month time points. Interbody fusion was assessed at 12 months by evaluating computed tomography (CT) scans and scoring them according to the Brantigan, Stelfee, Fraser (BSF) criteria [18]; the authors found no significant difference in the BSF scores, even after adjusting for potential confounders such as anterolateral plating and/or interbody technique. Furthermore, 92% of the patients who had the Aspen® MIS device placed showed bone formation between the device plates bridging the spinous processes [8]. Operative times (47.6 minutes vs. 70.2 minutes), fluoroscopy times (12.2 seconds vs. 58.4 seconds), and blood loss (57.5 cc versus 103.7 cc) were also significantly less between the groups. Notably, no device breakage or dislodgement occurred in the study; however, 6 patients (3.1%) did have spinous process fractures and 3 patients (1.5%) needed to be reoperated due to new or worsening postoperative back and/or leg pain that may have been related to IFD placement.
In short, Panchal et al. was the first randomized multi-center trial to report that interspinous rigid fixation used as a supplement to anterior or lateral interbody fusion techniques is comparable to adjunctive pedicle screw fixation in terms of fusion rates and patient-reported outcomes and has a better intra-operative risk profile.
The Aspen® Minimally Invasive Fusion System is a collection of spinous process fixation devices that are designed for rigid posterior fixation from T1 to S1 levels (see Figure 1). Each device consists of spinous process plates that come in three configurations (standard, medium, “Flared 5-1”), a “post plate” (a cylindrical device that is threaded in between the interspinous ligament and eventually joins the two spinous process plates) and a set screw that locks the system together. The cylindrical barrel in between the two plates can also hold approximately 0.5 cc to 3 cc of bone graft material. The system also has its own set of surgical tools to facilitate the insertion.
Aspen® MIS fusion system standard size spinous process plate [
The final assembled Aspen® Minimally Invasive Fusion System interspinous fixation device is shown in Figure 2. The system is FDA approved and indicated for use in the United States as an adjunct to interbody and/or posterior fusion or as a standalone fixation device from T1 – S1 levels [8] in degenerative, traumatic, and deformity pathologies.
Aspen® minimally invasive fusion system fully assembled [
The Aspen MIS system is placed with a patient in prone position through a 3–5 cm incision, enough to expose the length of the spinous process. Subperiosteal dissection is used to elevate the paraspinal muscles of the spinous process and lamina. The fusion site should be clear of connective and soft tissue then decorticated. The supraspinous ligament (SSL) can be removed or kept intact. Keeping the SSL intact helps preserves the natural anatomy and can prevent over distraction. The interspinous ligament is pierced as anterior as possible with a dilator (Figure 3).
Dilator is used to create space between the interspinous ligament [
A fluoroscopy image can be taken at this point to confirm anterior placement and appropriate level of dilator. The interspinous space is opened with a lamina spreader and measured to determine implant size. The interspinous space is decorticated with a rasp (Figure 4).
Rasp for decortication [
The barrel diameter is selected based on the fit of the rasp or spreader. The barrel length comes in a standard 21 mm size, appropriate for thick spinous processes or medium 18 mm when there are hypertrophied facets. The post plate implant is attached first to the left of the spinous process, then the barrel which is packed with graft material through the interspinous space, and finally the locking plate to the right of the spinous process (Figure 5).
Attachment of the post plate [
Autograft and/or allograft can be placed posterior to the graft between the spinous process and across the lamina. The device should sit in the proper anterior placement and not protrude above the lumbodorsal fascia before compressing the plates and tightening the set screw. If the implant is placed too far posterior there is an increased risk of spinous process fracture. The spikes should be fully seated into the bone, but care should be taken to not over-compress and weaken the cortex.
The Aspen® MIS Fusion System should be removed in the case of nonunion or if any components loosen or break. The provided set-screwdriver or a T10 Torque driver can be used to loosen the locking set screw. The plates can then be lifted with a Cobb elevator and removed from the spinous process. Figure 6 shows lateral and antero-posterior radiographs of a full assembled Aspen® MIS Fusion System.
A/P and lateral images of Aspen MIS fusion system at L4-L5.
Until recently, IFDs have had only biomechanical and some prospective clinic studies in evaluating their role as an adjunct to thoracolumbar fusion. However, the randomized control trial by Panchal et al. [8] showed outcomes of interspinous process fixation to be comparable and even, in some cases, more favorable to those of pedicle screw fixation. The relative ease with which a surgeon can minimally invasively implant this device combined with a relatively short operative times, low blood loss, and reduce hospital length of stay provides an attractive alternative to pedicle screw fixation.
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Early studies are focusing on the miRNA profile as a biomarker in disease. As discovery of human miRNAs increased in the setting of disease, the research focus was gradually shifted towards miRNA therapeutic strategy for diagnostic and treatment of disease. Increasing evidences suggest that miRNAs are the next important class of antisense therapeutic molecules, which have significant advantage over antisense such as siRNAs because miRNAs are naturally occurring endogenous molecules. Aberrant alteration of the endogenous miRNAs has been linked to the development of certain diseases. Correcting these altered miRNAs by their mimics or inhibitors has been developed as potential therapeutic approaches. Some of the miRNA-based therapeutics are processed in preclinical and clinical trial for treatment hepatitis C, liver cancer, and other diseases. Currently, the major focus in the development of miRNA-based therapeutics is how to increase the miRNA stability and optimize delivery systems for specific disease with minimal off-target effect. This chapter will first overview the miRNA biogenesis, patho- and physiologic function, and regulation of miRNA molecules. Then, we discuss the miRNA-based potential therapeutic approaches and implication in disease.",book:{id:"6987",slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Andrew Walayat, Meizi Yang and DaLiao Xiao",authors:[{id:"188957",title:"Dr.",name:"DaLiao",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",slug:"daliao-xiao",fullName:"DaLiao Xiao"},{id:"269866",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Walayat",slug:"andrew-walayat",fullName:"Andrew Walayat"},{id:"283826",title:"Dr.",name:"Meizi",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"meizi-yang",fullName:"Meizi Yang"}]},{id:"65601",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84455",title:"Epigenetic Modifications in Plants under Abiotic Stress",slug:"epigenetic-modifications-in-plants-under-abiotic-stress",totalDownloads:1590,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Plants face a plethora of biotic and abiotic stresses ranging from extreme temperatures to salinity, drought, nutritional deficiencies, chemical toxicity, and pathogen attacks. As a consequence, plants have acquired several sophisticated regulatory mechanisms that allow them to cope with such adverse conditions. Epigenetic regulation plays a key role in the mechanisms of plant response to the environment, without altering DNA sequences. Epigenetics refers to heritable alterations in chromatin architecture that do not involve changes in the underlying DNA sequence but alter gene expression through DNA methylation or histone modifications. The epigenetic regulation of the plant genome is a highly dynamic process that fine-tunes the expression of a pertinent set of genes under certain environmental or developmental conditions. Over the past two decades rapid advancements in the field of high throughput sequencing unveil epigenetic information at genome wide level in various plant species. In view of the adverse effects of global climatic change, utilizing epigenetic differences for developing improved crop varieties is of paramount importance.",book:{id:"7995",slug:"epigenetics",title:"Epigenetics",fullTitle:"Epigenetics"},signatures:"Garima Singroha and Pradeep Sharma",authors:[{id:"142882",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradeep",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"pradeep-sharma",fullName:"Pradeep Sharma"},{id:"281215",title:"Dr.",name:"Garima",middleName:null,surname:"Singroha",slug:"garima-singroha",fullName:"Garima Singroha"}]},{id:"32799",doi:"10.5772/33525",title:"GC3 Biology in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes",slug:"gc3-biology-in-eukaryotes-and-prokaryotes",totalDownloads:1990,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"1723",slug:"dna-methylation-from-genomics-to-technology",title:"DNA Methylation",fullTitle:"DNA Methylation - From Genomics to Technology"},signatures:"Eran Elhaik and Tatiana Tatarinova",authors:[{id:"95992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:"Valerievna",surname:"Tatarinova",slug:"tatiana-tatarinova",fullName:"Tatiana Tatarinova"},{id:"105570",title:"Dr.",name:"Eran",middleName:null,surname:"Elhaik",slug:"eran-elhaik",fullName:"Eran Elhaik"}]},{id:"63488",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80874",title:"Nontransformative Strategies for RNAi in Crop Protection",slug:"nontransformative-strategies-for-rnai-in-crop-protection",totalDownloads:2088,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"RNAi in crop protection can be achieved not only by plant-incorporated protectants through plant transformation (transgenic) but also by nontransformative strategies such as formulations of sprayable dsRNAs used as direct control agents, resistance factor repressors, or developmental disruptors. Therefore, the RNAi-based biopesticides are expected to reach the market also in the form of nontransgenic strategies such as sprayable products, stem injection, root drenching, seed treatment, or powder/granule. While the delivery of dsRNA by transgenic expression is well established, it requires generations of crop plants and is costly, which may take years and delays for practical application, depending on the regulatory rules, plant transformability, genetic stability, and public acceptance of genetically modified crop species. DsRNA delivery as a nontransgenic approach was already published as a proof-of-concept work, so it is time to point out some directions on how the real potential for agriculture and crop protection is.",book:{id:"7331",slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",fullTitle:"Modulating Gene Expression - Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies"},signatures:"Deise Cagliari, Ericmar Avila dos Santos, Naymã Dias, Guy Smagghe\nand Moises Zotti",authors:null},{id:"64492",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82105",title:"Antisense Oligonucleotides, A Novel Developing Targeting Therapy",slug:"antisense-oligonucleotides-a-novel-developing-targeting-therapy",totalDownloads:3426,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) have been validated as therapeutic agents and an important tool in molecular biology. Indeed, ASOs are used either in vitro or in vivo to generate mRNA selective knockouts. They can be used for human therapy since ASOs can inhibit specifically target genes especially whose are difficult to target with small molecules inhibitors or neutralizing antibodies. However, despite their specificity and broadness of use, some practical obstacles remain unsolved in antisense pharmacology, such as insufficient stability due to nucleases degradation activity, and poor cellular delivery as a result of low cellular uptake difficult biological membrane crossing. Moreover, in many cases, potential off-target effects and immunostimulation are also part of the problems derived from their use. In this review, we will discuss ASOs, their chemistry, limitation of use, some solutions to increase stability, and finally some of their therapeutical application.",book:{id:"6987",slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Sara Karaki, Clément Paris and Palma Rocchi",authors:[{id:"273516",title:"Dr.",name:"Palma",middleName:null,surname:"Rocchi",slug:"palma-rocchi",fullName:"Palma Rocchi"},{id:"275051",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Karaki",slug:"sara-karaki",fullName:"Sara Karaki"},{id:"282578",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Paris",slug:"clement-paris",fullName:"Clement Paris"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66368",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Editing Technologies and Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",totalDownloads:1192,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"8891",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}]},{id:"64290",title:"Strand Displacement Amplification for Multiplex Detection of Nucleic Acids",slug:"strand-displacement-amplification-for-multiplex-detection-of-nucleic-acids",totalDownloads:2213,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The identification of various targets such as bacteria, viruses, and other cells remains a prerequisite for point-of-care diagnostics and biotechnological applications. Nucleic acids, as encoding information for all forms of life, are excellent biomarkers for detecting pathogens, hereditary diseases, and cancers. To date, many techniques have been developed to detect nucleic acids. However, most of them are based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology. These methods are sensitive and robust, but they require expensive instruments and trained personnel. DNA strand displacement amplification is carried out under isothermal conditions and therefore does not need expensive instruments. It is simple, fast, sensitive, specific, and inexpensive. In this chapter, we introduce the principles, methods, and updated applications of DNA strand displacement technology in the detection of infectious diseases. 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There are 29 different crops and fruit trees in 42 countries, which have been successfully modified for various traits like herbicide tolerance, insect/pest resistance, disease resistance and quality improvement. GM crops are grown worldwide and its area is significantly increasing every year. Many countries have very strict rules and regulations for GM crops and are also a trade barrier in some situations. Hence, identification and testing of crops for GM contents is important for identity and legitimacy of transgene to simplify the international trade. Normally, molecular identification is performed at three different levels, i.e., DNA, RNA and protein, and each level has its own importance in testing about the nature and type of GM crops. In this chapter, current scenario of GM crops and different molecular testing tools are described in brief.",book:{id:"8891",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Shahid Nazir, Muhammad Zaffar Iqbal and Sajid-ur-Rahman",authors:null},{id:"38872",title:"Repetitive DNA: A Tool to Explore Animal Genomes/Transcriptomes",slug:"repetitive-dna-a-tool-to-explore-animal-genomes-transcriptomes",totalDownloads:4726,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"2748",slug:"functional-genomics",title:"Functional Genomics",fullTitle:"Functional Genomics"},signatures:"Deepali Pathak and Sher Ali",authors:[{id:"33032",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"sher-ali",fullName:"Sher Ali"},{id:"141455",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepali",middleName:null,surname:"Pathak",slug:"deepali-pathak",fullName:"Deepali Pathak"}]},{id:"64492",title:"Antisense Oligonucleotides, A Novel Developing Targeting Therapy",slug:"antisense-oligonucleotides-a-novel-developing-targeting-therapy",totalDownloads:3423,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) have been validated as therapeutic agents and an important tool in molecular biology. 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In this review, we will discuss ASOs, their chemistry, limitation of use, some solutions to increase stability, and finally some of their therapeutical application.",book:{id:"6987",slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Sara Karaki, Clément Paris and Palma Rocchi",authors:[{id:"273516",title:"Dr.",name:"Palma",middleName:null,surname:"Rocchi",slug:"palma-rocchi",fullName:"Palma Rocchi"},{id:"275051",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Karaki",slug:"sara-karaki",fullName:"Sara Karaki"},{id:"282578",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Paris",slug:"clement-paris",fullName:"Clement Paris"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"396",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"