Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\r\n\tThe outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), which first emerged at the end of December 2019, is still affecting every part of human life. \r\n\tHowever, both positive and negative consequences of COVID-19 are emerging from this pandemic. The negative impacts are the increase in hazard use, medical waste, disposal of disinfectants, masks, and gloves, as well as the burden of untreated wastes which are continuously endangering the environment. The positive impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment are the reduction of water pollution, reduction of air pollution, reduction of noise pollution, ecological restoration, and assimilation of tourist spots. Other positive impacts on the environment include also a governance-system-controlled investment toward a sustainable energy transition and other goals related to environmental protection.
\r\n
\r\n\tDue to movement restrictions and a significant slowdown of social and economic activities, air quality has improved in many cities with a reduction in water pollution in different parts of the world.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater demand was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in many ways, such as frequent handwashing with soap and water for 20 seconds, disinfecting surfaces, and cleaning food containers which have forced industries, businesses, and large corporations to shut down. Although the damage caused to humans, the economy, and society was extensive, the environment began to heal from the reduced exploitation of resources. The relationship between human activity and environmental health had been observed in various public health crises in the past.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book aims to gather recent research by outstanding experts in the field of environmental health and protection. It hopes to gather a wide readership from universities and industry alike. Also, we hope that the readers will obtain updated information on environmental health and protection.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-621-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-620-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-622-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a58c7b02d07903004be70f744f2e1835",bookSignature:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed and Prof. Wafaa M. Abd El-Rahim",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11450.jpg",keywords:"COVID-19 Pandemic, Human Health, Untreated Wastes, Food Contamination, Pollution, Wastewater, Gas Emissions, Carbon Dioxide, Hazard Use, Medical Waste, Disposal of Disinfectants, Tourist Spots Impact",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 9th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 27th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 26th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Rashed has been considered among the Top 2% of Scientists Around the World in 2020 and 2021. Prof. Rashed acts as editor-in-chief and an editorial board member in several international journals related to chemistry and the environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He was awarded the Egyptian Star Award for Environmental Researches in 2001, and Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Abd El-Rahim has published 65 publications and has won funding for 9 projects dealing with the bioremediation field. She was issued patent number 25076 by the Egyptian Patent office at the Egyptian Academy of Scientific Research and Technology. She is also working in the bioremediation field, especially in textile dye bioremediation. 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His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. Prof. Rashed was recognized in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists in 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"173470",title:"Prof.",name:"Wafaa",middleName:null,surname:"M. Abd El-Rahim",slug:"wafaa-m.-abd-el-rahim",fullName:"Wafaa M. 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Dr. Wafaa was awarded 9 prizes: Prize of the Best Applicable Research of the 2004-Year at The National Research Centre(NRC), Prize of the scientific encouragement of the 2006-Year at The National Research Centre(NRC), Prize of State of Egypt Advancement Award for Agricultural Sciences, 2006, Appreciation Certificate for excellence in the highest research output for the year 2009, at the National Research Centre (NRC), Award class GOLD from Korea Cyber International Genius Inventor Fair (CIGIF) 2012, a Gold prize from Korea International Women’s Invention Exposition 2013 and FIRI Diploma for the best women invention 2013. NRC Award for scientific excellence in advanced agricultural technological sciences 2015. An award for excellence in Agriculture and Food projects presented at the 4, 5th Cairo International Innovation Exhibition 2017, 2018.\r\n • Dr. Wafaa is the Chairman of the Agricultural Microbiology Department at the National Research Center, Egypt.\r\n • Dr. Wafaa published 65 publications. She also won funding for 9 projects dealing with the bioremediation field.\r\n • She was issued a patent of number 25076, date: 22-7-2008, 1242/2008. Egyptian Patent office at Egyptian Academy of Scientific Research and Technology.\r\n • She also is working in the bioremediation field, especially in textile dyes bioremediation. 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1. Introduction
Essential oils have been used in the folk medicines throughout the history. Essential oils are called the ethereal or volatile oils, which are fragrant oily liquid that are extracted from the various parts of the plants and mostly used as the food flavors. An essential oil is “essential” in sense that it contains the essence of the different fragrance, and the properties of the plants from which they are derived. These volatile oils showed the different kinds of biological activities including the antibacterial, antioxidant, antiviral, insecticidal, etc. [1]. These oils are also used for cancer treatment, while some other has been used for the food preservations, aromatherapy, and in the perfumery industries [2]. The antimicrobial and antioxidant screening of essential oil acts as the root of numerous applications including the processed and fresh food preservations, natural therapies, pharmaceuticals, and alternative medicines [3]. Essential oils are used in aromatherapy as an alternative source of wound healing because of the aromatic compounds that are present in the essential oils. It is also used as a relaxation process, but this evidence is not under consideration [4].
Numerous efforts are made to explore the essential oils usage as the treatment of various infectious diseases that supernumerary to the pharmaceutical’s remedies. Medicinal and aromatic plants are extensively used as natural organic compounds and as medicines [5]. Previously, essential oils have been used for the treatment of various sorts of infectious diseases in the whole world. Now, in this era, the importance of essential oils is increasing day by day, because they are mostly used in the beverage and food industries, cosmetics and fragrance industries for making valuable perfumes, and with lot of biological activities [6].
Various essential oils have been used for the insecticidal activities against the different pests, but in detail, studies showed that they do not show the repellence, avicidal, phytochemistry, antifungal, and oviposition. The essential oils do not show the abovementioned characteristics, but there is still urgent need to work on this side of research and study the in vivo and in vitro studies to control the pests, and most of the oils have shown good antioxidant activities [7]. Essential oils that showed good antioxidant activates and acts as the defensive role for the unsaturation of lipids in the tissue of the animal and they also act as hepatoprotective negotiators in mammals. The antioxidant substances are most important for human being because of the oxygen which is a toxic element and has the ability to change the metabolic activities into the most reactive form of oxygen just like the super oxide, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl free radicals, and the singlet oxygen which are collectively called as active oxygen [8]. Essential oils are best known for their action as the antispasmodic, antiviral negotiators, antimicrobial, and carminative, and the essential oil composition is variable; they also show different sorts of activities and mostly depend upon the chemo types [9].
2. Sources and isolation of essential oils
Essential oils were extracted from different aromatic plants. These plants are distributed in the tropical countries and Mediterranean. These plants got importance because local people use them for the treatment of diseases. The essential oil is produced in every part of the plant including the leaves, seeds, buds, stem, flowers, leaves etc as shown in Figure 1. Essential oil is accumulated from the epidermic cell, cavities, secretary cells, and channels [10]. The odor that is produced in plants is because of essential oils. The essential oils were extracted from the dried, fresh, or partially dehydrated materials of plant. The extraction rate depends upon the diffusion via plant tissues that directly involve the surface from which the essential oil was removed by different processes. The extraction of essential oil depends upon the stability of the essential oil. The two most important method that are used for the extraction of essential oil was used are steam distillation method and the hydro distillation process as shown in Figure 2. These are the most suitable and effective techniques for the extraction processes [11]. Some other methods were also used for extraction but they are not too much suitable for this process these are the microwave or liquid carbon dioxide, high- or low-pressure distillation with the help hot water or steam water (Figures 1 and 2) [12].
Figure 1.
Plants and their parts used for the isolation of essential oils.
Figure 2.
Hydrodistillation apparatus used for the extraction of essential oils.
The essential oil extracted from the steam distillation method is mostly used in pharmacological activities and food items, while the essential oil that are used in the fragrance industry or perfume industry are extracted from the lipophilic solvents and sometime with the supercritical carbon dioxide going more attractive [13]. The quality of the essential oil depended on the basis of the age of plants, parts that are used for extraction, vegetative cycle stage, effect of climate, etc. The chromatographic and the spectroscopic techniques fully changed the chemical analysis of the essential oils. The chemical composition of the essential oils was studied with the help of IR-spectroscopy, UV-Vis spectroscopy, gas chromatography, NMR spectroscopy [14]. The enhanced demand for the essential oil in various fields of life provoked us to access the reliable methods for the essential oil analysis, and the techniques used are the GC-MS and GC analyses [15]. The characterization of the essential oil was carried out by using the gas chromatography. The compounds that are present in the essential oil was confirmed by using the GC and GC-MS analysis [16]. The storage and handling of the essential oil also affect its yield and quality, ad essential oil was deposited in the oil glands that are present in the organization of the plant material [16].
3. Essential oil industry
The worldwide essential oil market demand was 226.8 kilotons in year 2018. It is expected to expand at a CAGR of 8.6% from the 2019 to 2025. Usage of essential oils in industries are increases day by including the beverage, food, personal care, aromatherapy, and cosmetics. Various sorts of the health-related benefits are offered by essential oils and they are reported as the anticipated fuel and their demand is increasing in the medical and pharmaceuticals applications. Most of the conventional drugs have no side effects. The growing inclination of the consumers toward the organic and natural products is leading to increase the use of essential oils in the beverage, food, and cosmetics industries. Worldwide essential oil market will cross USD 13 billion in the year of 2024 the latest report of the Global Market Insights, Inc. The increase in the World population are suffering from the different kinds of health-related issues and essential oils are used in aromatherapy products and due to this reason, the Worldwide market of essential oils are increasing day by day [17].
The period when essential oils were utilized first on a commercial scale is hard to recognize. The nineteenth century is for the most part viewed as the beginning of the cutting-edge period of commercial utilization of essential oils. Notwithstanding, the extensive scale use of essential oils goes back to antiquated Egypt. In 1480 BC, Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt sent a campaign to the nation of Punt (presently Somalia) to gather fragrant plants, tars, and oils, as elements for medicaments, scents, and flavors and for the preservation of bodies. Valuable scents have been found in numerous Egyptian archeological unearthing, as an image of riches and social position. The huge global exchange of fundamental oil-based items is the standard for modern use; “Ruler of Hungary Water” was the primary alcoholic scent ever. This aroma, in view of rosemary basic oil distillate, was made in the mid-fourteenth century for the Polish-conceived Queen Elisabeth of Hungary. Following an uncommon introduction to King Charles V, The Wise of France in 1350, it ended up prevalent in all medieval European courts. The start of the eighteenth century saw the presentation of “Eau de Cologne,” in light of bergamot and different citrus oils, which remains broadly used right up ‘til the present time. This crisp citrus aroma was the making of Jean Maria Farina, a relative of Italian perfumers who came to France with Catherine de Medici and settled in Grasse in the sixteenth century. As indicated by the city of Cologne files, Jean Maria Farina and Karl Hieronymus Farina, in 1749, built up a processing plant (Fabriek) of this water, which sounds exceptionally “mechanical.” The “Kolnisch Wasser” turned into the main unisex aroma as opposed to one basically for men, known and utilized all over Europe, and it has been rehashed in this manner in incalculable countertypes as a scent for men. The essential oil market was extended day by day because of increase in demand for the essential oil products including the soap, cosmetics, and food industries. The international companies are the major contributors of the development of the essential oil industries in the mid-nineteenth century [18].
Changing the standards of the living led to the occurrence of different sorts of mental issues including the depression, anxiety, insomnia, and stress that led to grow the market of essential oils because they are used for the treatment of such kinds of diseases. There are more than 300 industries in the Pakistan which industrialized various human resources. These industries used unprocessed material especially essential oils that are imported from the western countries. Pakistan imports more than Rs. 1526.8 million to buy essential oils and perfumes and isolates [19]. Pakistan is an agricultural country that is rich in aromatic sorts of plants, which are used as natural medicines and are used in local areas to cure common diseases. The environment of Pakistan is much more suitable for the growth of essential oils crops. And from these plants the essential oils obtained, and they are used in essential oil industries, but this industry is not much more attractive in Pakistan.
4. Modern trends of essential oils
The essential oil has been large number of usages in worldwide products including the ice creams perfumes, backed food stuff, beverage, and cosmetics as shown in Figure 3. Newly, at least 300 kinds of essential oils out of 3000 are commercially important in various kinds of industries including the perfume and sanitary industries, cosmetics, food, beverage, agronomics, and pharmaceuticals [20]. Some of the bioactive components that are present in essential oils are the limonene, geranyl acetate, carvone, etc., and these are the important components of the hygienic products and tooth pastes. Essential oils are used for the preservation of the food additives; for the treatment of common diseases and folk medicines; and used by aromatherapist. Essential oils are used as the natural antioxidant. The usage of natural antioxidant is prominent in the defensive medicines and food items, and because of this reason, essential oils are getting popular day by day. Recently, the growth explores the applications of the volatile essential oils for remedial usage and in the treatment of some infectious diseases [21].
Essential oils are widely used in perfumes, personal hygiene products, and in aromatherapy including the inhalation, massage, masking agent to avoid the unpleasant odor in the textile industries, paint and plastic industries, and pharmaceuticals formulations. Essential oils are also used as the natural antifungal and antibacterial agents in the food safety items; essential oil also used in the various kinds of cereals, antimicrobial packing of the food items, edible thin film, nanoemulsion, preservation of the fruits and vegetables, soft drinks, as the flavoring agents in the carbonated drinks, as the major ingredients in soda/citrus concentrates, seafood preservations, fish, etc. (Figure 3) [22].
Figure 3.
Modern trends of essential oils.
5. Growing trends of essential oils adaptation
The essential oils are the products that are obtained from the plant extracts and have been used for large-scale industrial and homemade products. The major usages of essential oils are pest control products, cleaning actions, and counter medications among the other products and personal care products. Essential oils have various advantages in wound healing, rejuvenation, and relaxation. Alongside their applications in the betterment of the health issues, the most common health issues such as migraines and nausea are cured from the essential oils. It is also used in the food industries because of their preservative potential in contrast to the foodborne pathogens, antibacterial, antimicrobial, and antifungal characteristics. The use of aromatherapy as the harmonizing care is speedup due to their unique characteristics which include the coping with some of side effects of cancer and to promote the wound healing [23].
6. Uses of essential oils in perfumery
The essential oils that are used in the perfume industries are classified according to their diffusion rate in air and volatility:
Base note: these are the least volatile essential oils and last for a longtime period. These remain for longtime duration including several hours. Some essential oils that are used as the base notes are the Myrrh, vanilla, sandalwood, and frankincense.
Middle note: these sorts of essential oils are tending to be spicy or floral and give body to blends; their time duration is less and remain up-to 1 hour. These include Ylang-ylang, jasmine, geranium, clove, and lavender.
Top note: these are the most volatile and the first perceptible odors from the perfume. Their time duration is too much less and remains maximum for 30 minutes. These include berry, bergamot, cinnamon, juniper, and gardenia.
Perfumes are formulated mostly using alcohol, though these may contain the cloudy solutions. Eau de types of perfumes are mostly formulated using the essential oils generally amber color because of their natural oils color but normally they are clear.
6.1 Percentage of essential oils in different perfumes products
Eau de perfume usually contains 8–15% amount of essential oils or sometimes their fragrance, and 80–90% alcohol.
Splash cologens usually contain 1–3% fragrance or essential oil, and 80% alcohol.
Eau de cologne usually contains 3–5% of fragrance or essential oil, and up to 70% alcohol.
Eau de toilette usually contains the essential oil between 4 and 8% or its fragrance, and 80–90% alcohol [24].
6.2 Increasing the sales of essential oils to the home appliances
All over the world, people are shifting toward the herbal products for the treatment of skin diseases compared to medicines and synthetic drugs. The essential oil is pure and does not have any side effects. The demand for essential oil is increasing because of their usage in daily life and it is mostly used for the relaxation purpose and people prefer it because of its no side effects. Aura Cacia that is manufacturer of Iowa-based care products said that the essential oil sale was increased 90% between the 2009 and 2012, and the sale of household items that contains the essential oil was increased from 6 to 12%.
Essential oils play a key role in treating the dermatological issues including the rashes, acne, hives, eczema, and psoriasis which made the essential oil suitable for the skin treatment care products that enhance the growth of skin industry. The market of essential oils is growing because it has no side effects, and other synthetic chemicals have side effects, so they are less preferred. Essential oils market of home care products and cleaning products will be increased to 550 million USD by 2024. The growth in essential oil market along with the companies that are introducing the products with supplementary benefits such as better cleaning, easy fragrance, and germ fighting.
The essential oils market of France will be increased up to 8.5% by 2024. Major cosmetics industries used essential oils in cosmetics and imported these oil products worldwide. Companies used the marketing strategies to spread the awareness to the people regarding the usage and benefits of essential oils, and the aromatherapy markets gets more enhanced customers to buy these products. The essential oil market of India will be exceeding up to 790 million USD by 2024. Since being a large country, India used the large-scale agricultural techniques to grow crops of essential oil plants including lemon, mint, and spices, and its aromatherapy market are growing day by day.
Lavender oil market will be reached up to 20 kilotons by 2024. It is used in fighting the serious health conditions, including the chronic anxiety, relieves pain, cancer, stress with reverse sign of the ageing, headache, cosmetics applications, pharmaceuticals applications, aromatherapy etc. as shown in (Figure 4). The major companies that share large market size of essential oil-based products are Firmenich, Frutarom, Flaex, Rock Mountain Moksha Lifestyle, and Florihana Falcon Young living (Figure 4) [25].
Figure 4.
Applications of essential oils in daily life.
6.3 Some major essential oils and their applications
6.3.1 Bergamot
The essential oil of bergamot obtained from the peel of the fruits of the Citrus bergamia is known as the bitter orange tree. The extract of the bergamot is used in flavoring in Earl Grey tea and essential oil of this is used also for the same purpose. It is applicable for the treatment of skin diseases, and it improves the mood, relieves pain, reduces fever, treats the digestive system problems, and breaks up chest congestion [26].
6.3.2 Clove
It is extracted from the aromatic flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum tree that is native to Maluku, Indonesia. The essential oil of Clove provides the strong fragrance, used in cooking spice foods; medically, it is used as pain relief, used for the treatment of dental disorders, for nausea treatment, to reduce inflammation, for the treatment of the digestive ailment, and to clear up acne [26].
6.3.3 Eucalyptus
It is extracted from the different species of genus Eucalyptus. Every type of species contains different and unique usage in every field. The most familiar essential oil obtained from the Eucalyptus globulus has a mint-like fragrance. It is used for decongestant chest rub, as pain relievers, as an antimicrobial agent, immunostimulant, and for the treatment of the flu and cold cough. It is used in aromatherapy and it provides mental clarity; it also boosts up energy and used as a natural insect repellent [26].
6.3.4 Frankincense
The earliest known and the most useful essential oil is Frankincense and it is obtained from the resin of the four species of the generous Bowwellia and the most known from this genus is the Bowsellia carterii hard tree which grow in the arid land of Arabian Peninsula and north eastern. The old African people used the essential oil of Frankincense in the religious and spiritual ceremonies. The Frankincense essential oil is unique from all other obtained essential oils because of the perfect combination of wood, balsam, earth, and citrus. It is used as the mood enhancer, antimicrobial, stress reducer, for faster wound healing, aid in digestion, anti-inflammatory, fades scars, reduces swelling of insect bites, for the treatment of skin diseases, and eases itching [26].
6.3.5 Lavender
The most effective essential oil obtained from the Lavandula angustifolia is the most popular garden herb English lavender. Its odor is same as the flowers from which they are obtained having the sweet smell, floral, and green, and the health benefits are greater as compared to their fragrance. The best purpose of essential oil of lavender is their sleep-inducing properties and calmness. It showed good antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal properties, and it is also used for the treatment of various sorts of skin diseases including eczema or ringworm and acne. Lavender essential oil is used to enhance the digestive system, to reduce the swelling of sore muscles, and to relieve pain. Due to its attractive smell, it attracts butterflies, bees, and some pollinators, and it also acts as a natural repellent for many flying six-legged pests [26].
6.3.6 Lemon
Essential oils obtained from the lemon are mostly used. The essential oil obtained from the Citrus limon is used worldwide. The essential oil of lemon is used as antimicrobial agents, in household items including soaps, polishes, furniture, fresheners, and in most of the cleaning products. Some other uses of these essential oils are that they are the pain relievers, show antifungal activity, help for the loss of weight, and alleviate the severe nausea; the essential oil of lemon is used in aromatherapy to reduce the anxiety and stress and simultaneously enhances the concentration and mood. It is also used for cleaning the hair and enhancing the natural growth of hairs [26].
6.3.7 Oregano
The essential oil of Oregano was obtained from the kitchen spice Origanum vulgare. It is the perfect combination of the earth, spice, and warmth. When the bottle of essential oil is opened, their fragrance has an effect on the senses. The usage of the essential oil of Oregano is increasing day by day and it is mostly used for the skin care treatment like eczema, rosacea, and psoriasis. It is used to alleviate the menstrual problems or painful menstrual cramp, used to cure stomach problems, and helps to control the flu and cold infections [26].
6.3.8 Peppermint
The essential oil of peppermint is used worldwide and it is obtained from the Mentha piperita. This mint hybrid is the most favorite between the essential oil and gardeners. It is the most famous type of essential oil because of its unique applications, and it is mostly used in preventing flu and cold, alleviating headache, relieving pain in muscles and joints, clearing the skin conditions, relieving nausea, and improving the digestive system processes [26].
6.3.9 Rosemary
The essential oil of rosemary is obtained from the evergreen shrub of Rosmarinus officinalis and is famous albeit common kitchen herb has the extraordinary healing potential in its natural oil. Just like the rosemary, the essential oil of this herb has the crisp woody, herbal, and somewhat balsamic odor just like the camphor. Due to its unique fragrance of rosemary oil, it is used for cleaning the inside and outside of the body. It is further used for the treatment of various diseases, especially skin care, dandruff treatment, to improve the scalp health, to boost up the immune system, flu infections, and ward off cold. Although this oil is used to alleviate the pain, swelling in joints and muscles, for treatment of the digestive tissues, soothe tension headaches, to promote the mental clarity, to enhance the memory, and improve mood, it is also the best natural insecticide and the bug repellent [26].
6.3.10 Tea tree
The essential oil of the tea tree is obtained from the leaves and stem of Melaleuca alternifolia and shrub of Camellia sinensis. The oil is toxic if ingested directly and it is used mostly for the external purposes and has the herbal, fresh, and slightly camphorates aroma. Melaleuca claims that essential oil of tea tree act as an antimicrobial agent, treating antifungal infections, and cleansing wounds. It is used in cosmetics products including the shampoo to clear some scalp conditions and dandruff and used for the treatment of insect bite to reduce itching and inflammation [26].
6.3.11 Some plant species essential oils and their usage
Some plant species essential oils and their usage are shown in Table 1.
Essential oils are the natural volatile compounds having loveable odor. The essential oils are isolated mostly from the hydrodistillation method which is more suitable for this process and easy to carry. Whole parts of the plants are used for the extraction of plants. Steam distillation method is expensive than the hydrodistillation, so it is less preferred. Essential oils have good medicinal applications and used in the treatment of different diseases including the infectious diseases, depression, anxiety, act as the antifungal, antimicrobial, anticancer, and wound healing; they are also used in cosmetics and perfume industries. In the field of heath, essential oils are used more frequently and are mostly applied to the external body parts to relieve the pain. In the field of fragrance, essential oils are used in the perfume industry and due to attractive odor, the essential oils are used mostly in this industry. It is used worldwide and due to their better usage, the world essential oil market is growing rapidly and getting more importance day by day.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank University of Kotli for providing the facilities to write this chapter.
Conflict of interest
Author has no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"acts as the antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, pain reliever, anxiety and depression",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68027.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68027.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68027",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68027",totalDownloads:2075,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:29,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:19,impactScorePercentile:99,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 22nd 2018",dateReviewed:"June 3rd 2019",datePrePublished:"December 17th 2019",datePublished:"January 8th 2020",dateFinished:"July 9th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Essential oils are the volatile compounds having the oily fragrance. Essential oils are obtained from the different plant parts, and they are extracted from the different techniques and the most preferable method of extraction is the hydrodistillation which is cheap and easy to use. Plant parts including the flowers, leaves, stem, bark and roots are used for the isolation of essential oils. Essential oils are used in almost every field of life and because of these characteristics, the market of essential oils is growing rapidly. Essential oils are used in the aromatherapy and act as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, pain relievers, anxiety, depression. In the field of cosmetics and industries, the essential oils are used rapidly and mostly used in the perfume industries which are growing increasingly. Essential oils are used in the food preservations and many food items. Essential oils are used as the folk herbal medicines and their fragrance is used for the improvement of the mood and as the depression release.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68027",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68027",book:{id:"7855",slug:"essential-oils-oils-of-nature"},signatures:"Muhammad Irshad, Muhammad Ali Subhani, Saqib Ali and Amjad Hussain",authors:[{id:"286484",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Irshad",fullName:"Muhammad Irshad",slug:"muhammad-irshad",email:"chemist_q2005@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"304731",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ali Subhani",fullName:"Muhammad Ali Subhani",slug:"muhammad-ali-subhani",email:"alisubhaniupr885@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"316772",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",fullName:"Amjad Hussain",slug:"amjad-hussain",email:"amjedbiotech@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"316773",title:"Dr.",name:"Saqib",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",fullName:"Saqib Ali",slug:"saqib-ali",email:"saqibali.chem@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Sources and isolation of essential oils",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Essential oil industry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Modern trends of essential oils",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Growing trends of essential oils adaptation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Uses of essential oils in perfumery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1 Percentage of essential oils in different perfumes products",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.2 Increasing the sales of essential oils to the home appliances",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.3 Some major essential oils and their applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"6.3.1 Bergamot",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"6.3.2 Clove",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"6.3.3 Eucalyptus",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"6.3.4 Frankincense",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"6.3.5 Lavender",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"6.3.6 Lemon",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"6.3.7 Oregano",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"6.3.8 Peppermint",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"6.3.9 Rosemary",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"6.3.10 Tea tree",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Abu-Shanab B, Adwan GM, Abu-Safiya D, Jarrar N, Adwan K. Antibacterial activities of some plant extracts utilized in popular medicine in Palestine. Turkish Journal of Biology. 2005;28(2-4):99-102'},{id:"B2",body:'Kelen M, Tepe B. Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of the essential oils of three salvia species from Turkish flora. Bioresource Technology. 2008;99(10):4096-4104'},{id:"B3",body:'Celiktas OY, Kocabas EH, Bedir E, Sukan FV, Ozek T, Baser KH. Antimicrobial activities of methanol extracts and essential oils of Rosmarinus officinalis, depending on location and seasonal variations. Food Chemistry. 2007;100(2):553-559'},{id:"B4",body:'Lee MS, Choi J, Posadzki P, Ernst E. Aromatherapy for health care: An overview of systematic reviews. 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Comparisons of chemical and biological studies of essential oils of stem, leaves and seeds of Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb growing wild in the state of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Records of Natural Products. 2018;12(6):638'},{id:"B29",body:'Irshad M, Aziz S, Shahid M, Ahmed MN, Minhas FA, Sherazi T. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil of Skimmea laureola growing wild in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 2012;6(9):1680-1684'},{id:"B30",body:'Irshad M, Shahid M, Aziz S, Ghous T. Antioxidant, antimicrobial and phytotoxic activities of essential oil of Angelica glauca. Asian Journal of Chemistry. 2011;23(5):1947'},{id:"B31",body:'Aziz S, Habib-ur-Rehman, Irshad M, Asghar SF, Hussain H, Ahmed I. Phytotoxic and antifungal activities of essential oils of Thymus serpyllum grown in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Journal of Essential Oil-Bearing Plants. 2010;13(2):224-229'},{id:"B32",body:'Irshad M, Aziz S, Habib-ur-Rehman, Hussain H. GC-MS analysis and antifungal activity of essential oils of Angelica glauca, Plectranthus rugosus, and Valeriana wallichii. Journal of Essential Oil-Bearing Plants. 2012;15(1):15-21'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Muhammad Irshad",address:"chemist_q2005@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, University of Kotli, Pakistan
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1. Introduction
Stress-induced cardiomyopathy is caused by intense emotional or physical stress leading to rapid and severe reversible cardiac dysfunction. This condition can occur following a variety of emotional stressors such as grief, fear, extreme anger, and surprise. On the other hand, many physical stressors (i.e., stroke, seizure or acute asthma) can also trigger the condition. Suspicion of stress cardiomyopathy is based on clinical symptoms, abnormal electrocardiogram (ECG), mildly elevated serum cardiac troponin, significantly elevated serum natriuretic peptide levels (BNP or NT-proBNP), and noninvasive cardiovascular imaging. Stress-induced cardiomyopathy symptoms following severe stress are often indistinguishable from a heart attack and may include: (1) chest pain, dyspnea, or both during stress period (often sudden and intense) [1]; (2) shortness of breath, (3) rapid or irregular heartbeat, (4) sweating and (5) dizziness [2]. The exact pathophysiology of stress-induced cardiomyopathy remains elusive, and several mechanisms may be involved (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Schematic diagram of the pathological mechanism of stresses-induced cardiac dysfunction. β-AR, estrogen receptor beta; ROS/RNS, reactive oxygen/nitrogen species; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; Akt, protein kinase B; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; SERCA2, sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 2; RyR, ryanodine receptor; Nrf2, nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; PDE5A, phosphodiesterase 5A; SIRT1, Sirtuin 1; PGC1-alpha, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha; OKG, cGMP-dependent protein kinase or protein kinase G.
Considering the causes of stress-induced cardiomyopathy, the exact cause of stress-induced cardiomyopathy is unclear. In patients without coronary heart disease, emotional stress can lead to severe, reversible left ventricular dysfunction. Although the mechanism of stress-induced cardiomyopathy is unclear, excessive sympathetic stimulation may be central to its etiology, perhaps involving excess catecholamines (Figure 1), but the link between the two is unclear. One possibility is ischemia due to epicardial coronary spasm; additionally increased sympathetic tone can lead to vasoconstriction in patients without coronary artery disease [3]. Other studies have demonstrated that these patients have reduced coronary flow reserve and regional deficits in cardiac imaging [4]. Another possible mechanism for catecholamine-mediated myocardial stunning is direct muscle cell damage, as the density of adrenergic receptors in the apex is higher than in other areas of the myocardium [1]. Elevated levels of catecholamines lead to a concentration-dependent decrease in muscle cell viability, which can be explained by the marked release of creatine kinase in cells and the decreased viability due to calcium overload mediated by circulating AMPs [5]. Animal models suggest that catecholamines are a potential source of free radicals, which in turn may contribute to cardiomyopathy by promoting lipid peroxidation, increasing membrane permeability and muscle cell damage (Figure 1) [6]. Myocyte dysfunction may be caused by increased trans-sarcolemmal calcium influx and cellular calcium overload as free radicals interfere with the transport capacity of sodium and calcium transporters (Figure 1) [7]. Abnormal coronary blood flow has recently been reported in patients with stress-related myocardial dysfunction in the absence of obstructive disease [8]. Evidence that stress cardiomyopathy may be caused by neurogenic myocardial stunning also revealed a unique pattern of ventricular synergy with meta-iodobenzyl guanidine myocardial scintigraphy, suggesting the presence of cardiac sympathetic hyperactivity and maintaining coronary blood flow [9]. The distribution of primary cardiac injury did not correspond to the perfusion area of a single coronary artery. Plasma levels of catecholamines and stress-related neuropeptides are usually higher than the patient’s physiological levels. Unlike polymorphonuclear inflammation in stress cardiomyopathy infarcts, contractile band necrosis is a distinct form of stress-induced cardiomyocyte injury characterized by hypercontraction of sarcomeres, eosinophilic transverse bands, and interstitial mononucleitis, and endomyocardial biopsy shows contractile band necrosis in patients with this syndrome [1]. Research shows that contractile band necrosis is a type of cell death detected as early as 2 min after cell injury, resulting in the release of cardiac enzymes [10]. Excessive circulating catecholamines and focal myocarditis contractile bands were found in the circulatory system of pheochromocytoma, suggesting a circulating catecholamine dependence of focal myocarditis [11], subarachnoid hemorrhage [12, 13], eclampsia [13], and in persons who died from fatal asthma necrosis [14]. All together, these suggest that catecholamines may be the link between emotional stress and heart damage (Figure 1).
A surge of stress hormones may temporarily damage the heart, many studies have found. Triggers of stress cardiomyopathy due to stress hormones include: (1) financial stress; (2) surgical stress; (3) bereavement stress; (4) asthma attack stress; (5) chronic disease or diagnostic stress; (6) other. Risk factors for stress cardiomyopathy are also quite different from any physical discomfort, mainly including: (1) age: most cases occur in people over 50; (2) intense physical or emotional events: such as a loved one accidental death, medical diagnosis, sudden economic decline or unemployment, divorce, physical abuse, car accident, major surgery, natural disaster, or intense fear; (3) side effects of certain medications: some are used to treat severe allergic reactions, diabetic neurological problems, depression symptoms or hypothyroidism drugs, etc. may cause a surge in stress hormones, leading to stress cardiomyopathy; (4) gender: this condition affects women much more than men; (5) neurological disorders; (6) previous or current mental illness.
Stress-induced cardiomyopathy is diagnosed by looking for certain markers to distinguish it from other heart conditions. Possible tests should include: (1) blood tests: to check the levels of certain fats, cholesterol, sugars, and proteins in the blood; (2) chest X-ray: common imaging tests of the lungs, heart, and aorta; (3) coronary angiography: this the procedure is usually done in conjunction with cardiac catheterization; (4) echocardiography: this test uses sound waves to take dynamic pictures of the heart’s chambers and valves; (5) electrocardiogram (ECG): this test measures the electrical activity of the heart and can help determine whether a part of the heart is enlarged, overworked, or damaged; (6) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): uses large magnets, radio waves, and a computer to produce images of the heart and blood vessels.
2. Behavior-induced cardiomyopathy
Over the past decade, research on psychosocial risk factors for heart disease has made great strides [15]. According to epidemiological studies [16], behavioral risk factors for heart disease can be divided into five categories [17]: (1) physical health behaviors; (2) negative emotional and mental states; (3) chronic stress; (4) social isolation and lack of social support; and (5) lack of a sense of purpose.
2.1 Physical health behaviors
New research suggests that poor sleep quality and inappropriate rest and relaxation are also behavior-related risk factors for heart disease [18]. As far as sleep is concerned, recent meta-analyses have shown that both insomnia and long or short sleep duration are risk factors for heart disease [19]. Excessive sleep duration can be a potential marker of depression or medical comorbidities, while too short sleep duration can be caused by multiple factors, including sleep deprivation or sleep deprivation due to worrying and other causes of insomnia. As the workload becomes heavier and the pace of life becomes faster, the boundaries between work and leisure are disappearing, and the value of relaxation has become more important. Theoretically, relaxation may benefit physiological and cognitive functions, but so far, epidemiological studies in this area are relatively lacking.
2.2 Affective disorders and negative emotional states
2.2.1 Depression
Studies have consistently shown that depression is an important risk factor for heart disease [20], and a series of meta-analyses have demonstrated a significant effect of depression on prognosis, including a meta-analysis of 54 studies showing that depression nearly doubled the risk of heart disease in a community cohort population [21].
2.2.2 Anxiety symptoms and syndromes
In recent years, studies have identified anxiety as one of the risk factors for heart disease [22]. Many meta-analyses of community cohorts and patient cohorts have shown that anxiety symptoms increase the risk of heart disease [23]. Other studies have shown that patients with generalized anxiety disorder, panic attacks, and post-traumatic stress syndrome have an increased risk of heart disease events [24].
2.2.3 Pessimism
Mental outlook is also one of the determinants of health, with optimists being more positive, having enhanced social functioning and better recovery from myocardial infarction or heart surgery [25]. Recent epidemiological data suggest that pessimism increases the risk of cardiac events, stroke, and/or all-cause mortality [26].
2.2.4 Anger and hostility
Anger and hostility have been extensively studied [27]. However, a meta-analysis of healthy people and patients with heart disease found that anger and/or hostility only increased the rate of cardiac events [28].
2.3 Chronic stress
So far, most studies on chronic stress have focused on situational stress [29], and work stress [30] is the most widely studied one. A recent meta-analysis showed that occupational stress was associated with increase in heart disease events [31]. Separation and divorce are two other common stressors that increase the risk of death [32], and independent epidemiological studies have also shown an association between marital stress and cardiovascular events [33].
It is worth mentioning that personal stress perception may also be one of the important factors affecting health [34]. A study that assessed levels of stress perception and perceptions of whether stress was harmful to health in 28,753 participants showed that stress increased mortality only in those who self-assessed risk harmful to health [35]. A complementary study showed that guiding individuals to understand stress as a positive effect improved cognitive and cardiovascular responses to stress. Combining the above two studies, we should further study the individual’s perception of stress and the impact of its regulation on health.
2.4 Social isolation and lack of social support
Epidemiological studies consistently show that small social networks, lack of social support, loneliness, and/or feelings of lack of emotional support increase the risk of cardiac events [36]. Like other psychosocial risk factors, the likelihood of adverse cardiac events increases with the degree of lack of social support, and a positive social overall can nearly triple survival [37].
2.5 Lack of sense of purpose
Observational studies have shown that a strong sense of purpose in life is central to leading an active life, and that a lack of purpose in life can lead to boredom, increase risk of depression, and diminish resilience. Although only a few studies have assessed the pathophysiological outcomes of lack of purpose, a large number of recent studies have shown that lack of purpose increases the risk of death [38].
2.6 Psychosocial functioning
Negative psychosocial factors contribute to the development of disease by forming negative behaviors and direct pathophysiological effects. These effects vary by type of psychosocial stress, but as a whole include autonomic dysfunction, cardiovascular hyperresponsiveness, insulin resistance, central obesity, increased risk of hypertension, endothelial and platelet dysfunction, and brain adverse changes in adaptive and cognitive function, etc. [39].
Conversely, positive psychosocial factors favor healthy behaviors and promote beneficial physiological effects, including enhanced immune and endothelial and autonomic function. In addition, positive psychosocial functioning contributes to increased vitality, which in turn increases presence, purpose, and resistance [40].
3. Bad emotion-induced cardiovascular disease (CVD)
With the transition from the biomedical model to the biopsychosocial medical model, the psychosomatic relationship of cardiovascular disease has attracted more attention. Most cardiovascular diseases have both biomedical and psychosocial factors in the pathogenesis; in terms of clinical symptoms, there are both somatic and psychological symptoms. Growing research is finding a strong link between mood and morbidity and mortality of CVD, as one of the common public health problems worldwide [41], arousing social concern [42]. With the transition from the traditional biomedical model to the modern biopsychosocial medical model, the psychosomatic relationship of CVD has attracted more attention. The effect of emotion on cardiovascular health can be explained by certain association mechanisms, but the specific and clear association mechanism has not yet formed a consensus.
Emotion is a short-lived, strong attitude and experience that an individual is stimulated by the living environment, accompanied by obvious physiological changes and external manifestations of a psychological state [43]. Psychologists divide emotions into two dimensions: negative emotions and positive emotions. Negative emotion is a negative emotion triggered by anticipation of future events and memory of past time, which can manifest in different forms (such as panic, anxiety, depression, hostility, etc.) [44].
3.1 Emotion and cardiomyopathy research
Previous studies have found that patients with acute myocardial infarction are often in varying degrees of negative emotional states after experiencing a sense of near-death [44, 45]. Some studies have also shown that patients with heart failure have poor quality of life, and the incidence of anxiety and depression are 62% and 65%, respectively [46]. On the one hand, negative emotions are one of the independent predictors of poor prognosis in hospitalized patients with CVD [47]. Conversely, positive emotions are associated with a reduced risk of CVD [45, 47]. However, the internal mechanism of the two is still unclear.
3.2 Biological mechanisms of emotional effects on cardiomyopathy
The study found that the biological mechanism of the influence of emotion on cardiomyopathy is mainly reflected in the two aspects of vascular endothelial injury and inflammatory response, as well as the activity of the autonomic nervous system (Figure 1) [48].
3.2.1 Emotional changes cause endothelial damage and inflammation
The early manifestation of cardiomyopathy is the damage of the vascular endothelium [49]. Studies have found that there is a correlation between emotional state and the state of the cardiovascular endothelium [50]. Massachusetts area in the United States found that positive mood (joy) was inversely correlated with inducible nitric oxide synthase promoter methylation [51], which play an important role in maintaining the homeostasis of vascular function.
3.2.2 The autonomic nervous system as a mechanism for the link between mood and cardiomyopathy
The autonomic nervous system has an important regulatory mechanism for the cardiovascular system, including the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system (Figure 1) [52]. Heart rate variability (HRV) is a commonly used index for evaluating autonomic nerve function and the risk of sudden cardiac death. HRV analysis can effectively evaluate the state of cardiac autonomic nerve function. It is a relatively independent index for predicting the short- and long-term prognosis of various CVDs and sudden cardiac death [53]. Liu [54] found that when healthy individuals were exposed to negative emotional stress, the production of cardiac autonomic nerve function was significantly different. Similar changes in the pathological state of coronary heart disease suggest that long-term negative emotions may be one of the reasons for individual parasympathetic nerve damage.
4. Mental stress-induced cardiomyopathy
There is increasing evidence that, in addition to traditional factors, mental stress plays an important role in the occurrence and development of cardiovascular disease [55]. The psychological stress generated in daily life and work can lead to the occurrence of myocardial ischemia, which is clinically referred to as mental stress-induced cardiomyopathy (MSIC) [56]. In addition to affecting the quality of life of patients, mental stress-induced myocardial ischemia (MSIMI) can also lead to a worsening clinical prognosis and an increased risk of death. Its pathogenesis and pathogenesis are different from those of exercise stress or drug-related myocardial ischemia. The incidence of MSIMI is 20–70%, and it will double the adverse cardiac events [57]. Therefore, in-depth understanding of the pathogenesis of MSIMI and timely diagnosis and treatment, is of great clinical significance.
4.1 Features of MSIC
Understanding the clinical features of MSIC will help clinicians identify MSIC patients early and treat them in a timely manner.
4.1.1 Depression or anxiety
Depression and anxiety are risk factors for cardiomyopathy, aggravate the process of heart disease, and affect the prognosis of heart disease. Patients with heart disease complicated by depression or anxiety have a higher incidence of MSIC after mental stress [58].
4.1.2 Brain function
During mental stress, changes in brain function are related to the occurrence of MSIC. Studies have shown that compared with patients with heart disease without depression, patients with heart disease and severe depression have increased activity in the parietal cortex after mental stress stimulation [59]. Another study showed that mental stress-induced vasoconstriction is associated with modulation of brain function, with stress increasing activation in the insula and parietal cortex but decreasing activation in the medial prefrontal cortex [60].
4.1.3 Cardiac markers
Changes in cardiac markers may be associated with MSIC. Highly sensitivity cardiac troponin I (hs-cTnI) is an indicator of myocardial infarction or myocardial injury and is associated with myocardial ischemia caused by mental stress. Studies have shown that compared with heart disease patients without MSIC, patients with heart disease combined with MSIMI have higher serum hs-cTnI levels, and increased N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide and mean systolic blood pressure after mental stress [55]. Numerous studies have shown that myocardial hypoxia can lead to the elevation of B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP). Elevated BNP levels may be a marker of myocardial ischemia in a meta-analysis of 2784 patients eligible for standard noninvasive stress testing [61].
4.1.4 Other factors
After psychological stress, coronary heart disease patients with severe left ventricular dysfunction have a higher risk of MSIC than patients with normal left ventricular function [62]. The product of heart rate and systolic blood pressure and peripheral arterial tension were measured in resting state and 30 min after mental stress, respectively. It was found that higher hemodynamics and vasoconstriction response were high risk factors for MSIC [63].
4.2 Pathogenesis of MSIC
4.2.1 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
When people cope with mental stress, the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus will secrete corticotropin-releasing hormone, which will cause the anterior pituitary to secrete corticotropin, which will stimulate the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol. Decreased baroreceptor reflex sensitivity can lead to myocardial ischemia and even severe arrhythmia and sudden death. Broadley et al. [64] found that the application of metyrapone, a drug that blocks cortisol release, prevented mental stress-related endothelial dysfunction and reduced baroreflex sensitivity. In addition, Seldenrijk et al. [65] showed that, in healthy elderly populations, an enhanced cortisol response to stressful stress was associated with an increased risk of coronary artery calcification.
4.2.2 Sympathetic nervous system
During mental stress, the excitability of the cardiac sympathetic nervous system increases, and the activated sympathetic nervous system promotes the release of catecholamines (including epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine), resulting in increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, increased myocardial contractility, and cardiac output (Figure 1) [63]. The study of Wittstein et al. [1] showed that under strong mental stress in patients with stress cardiomyopathy, the level of catecholamines increased rapidly, and the excitability of the sympathetic nervous system was significantly enhanced, which led to the disturbance of neurohumoral regulation, resulting in increased myocardial vitality, myocardial damage, myocardial reversibility and left ventricular dysfunction (Figure 1).
4.2.3 Inflammatory factors
Inflammation is closely related to mental stress and cardiovascular disease. When the body responds to mental stress, blood vessels constrict and blood flow increases, prompting white blood cells and platelets to release inflammatory mediators [56]. When the stress is weak, the body can play a defensive role through the inflammatory response. When the stress is strong, excessive inflammatory mediators lead to vascular endothelial damage, which further promotes inflammatory response and inflammatory mediators, as well as promotes inflammatory cells to infiltrate myocardial tissue, leading to myocardial ischemia necrosis and cardiovascular disease [56]. Hammadah et al. [56] showed that the levels of inflammatory factors such as interleukin-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and matrix metalloproteinase-9, increased in patients with heart disease after mental stress. The level of matrix metalloproteinase-9 was negatively correlated with cortisol after stress. In conclusion, the relationship between inflammation-related factors and MSIC remains to be further explored (Figure 1).
4.2.4 Gene polymorphisms
Genetic factors are one of the important reasons for the onset of cardiovascular diseases. Mental and psychological diseases are also closely related to an individual’s response to stressful stimuli. For example, the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) polymorphism is associated with emotion regulation in humans, and S allele carriers cause more severe fear and anxiety under mental stress [50]. Studies on the Val66Met single nucleotide polymorphism of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) have shown that BDNFMet/Val carriers have a higher incidence of cognitive and mental disorders and coronary heart disease [51, 66].
Chagas disease is named after Carlos Ribeiro Justiniano Chagas, a Brazilian doctor and researcher who discovered the disease in 1909. In May 2019, according to the decision of the Seventy-second World Health Assembly, World Day against Chagas Disease was set on April 14 (the day in 1909, when Carlos Chagas diagnosed the first human case of the disease in a two-year-old girl named Berenice). Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, is a life-threatening disease caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. (T. cruzi) [67]. An estimated 6–7 million people worldwide are infected with T. cruzi, mostly in Latin America, the parasite that causes Chagas disease [68]. Chagas disease is primarily found in endemic areas of 21 countries in the Latin American continent and is mostly transmitted to humans through contact with the feces or urine of triatomine bugs (vector-borne) [69]. Although the majority of these infected individuals reside in Mexico, Central America, and South America, migration patterns have resulted in large numbers of infected individuals in formerly nonaffected areas, including Europe, Japan, Australia, Canada, and the United States [70], with an estimated 300,000 individuals in the United States alone [71]. These bed bugs are also known as “kissing bugs” and have many other names depending on the geographic area.
5.1 Global distribution
Chagas disease was once completely confined to rural areas of the American continent—mostly Latin America (excluding the Caribbean islands). Most of the infected people live in urban environments (urbanization), mainly due to increased population mobility over the past few decades, with an increasing number of infections found in the United States, Canada, many European countries, and some African, Eastern Mediterranean, and Western Pacific countries [72].
5.2 Transmission
In Latin America, Trigonoscuta cruzi is mainly transmitted by contact with the feces/urine of infected blood-sucking Triton bugs. These parasite-carrying insects typically live in cracks in the walls or roofs of rural or suburban houses and surrounding structures such as chicken coops, pens and warehouses [71]. Normally, they hide during the day and become active at night, feeding on blood from animals, including humans. They usually bite on exposed areas of the skin, such as the face (hence it is often referred to as a “kissing bug”) and defecate/urine close to the bite. Parasites enter the body when a person involuntarily applies their feces or urine to the bite, eyes, mouth, or any skin breakage. T. cruzi can also be spread by: (1) ingestion of food or drink contaminated with T. cruzi, such as through contact with the feces or urine of infected Trypanosoma bugs or marsupials (this transmission often results in outbreaks of simultaneous infection of several populations, severe cases or morbidity more frequently and with a higher number of deaths or fatalities); (2) passed from an infected mother to a newborn during pregnancy or childbirth; (3) transfusion of blood or blood products from infected donors; (4) organ transplantation using infected donor organs; and (5) laboratory accident.
5.3 Symptoms and signs
Chagas disease is divided into four phases: incubation phase, acute phase, interminate phase and chronic phase.
5.3.1 Incubation phage
The incubation period for T. cruzi ranges from 1 to 2 weeks after vector-borne transmission [69] and up to 3–4 months after transfusion or transplant transmission [73]. The disease in incubation phase is unknown and may be more than a week.
5.3.2 Acute phase
The initial acute phase lasts about 2 months after infection. During the acute phase, a large number of parasites circulate in the blood. However, most cases are asymptomatic or mild and nonspecific. In less than 50% of people bitten by triatomine bugs, the typical first sign seen can be a skin lesion or bruising and swelling on one eyelid. In addition, fever, headache, swollen lymph nodes, pallor, muscle pain, difficulty breathing, swelling, and abdominal or chest pain may also present. In the acute phase, fever (missing or intermittent), rash, hepatosplenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, and non-inflammatory edema may be present and may be limited to the face or systemic. Trypanosoma’s enter tissues during or after parasemia, causing myocarditis and endocarditis, sinus tachycardia, mitral systolic murmur, cardiac hypertrophy, and meningoencephalitis. Symptoms disappear after more than 4 to 12 weeks. Severe cases are more common in neonates, young children, the elderly and immunosuppressed. Heart failure or ventricular fibrillation and meningoencephalitis caused by early myocarditis during this period can often lead to death. When more advanced electrocardiographic findings are present, including right bundle-branch block (RBBB), atrial fibrillation, or ventricular arrhythmias, they signal a worse prognosis [74].
5.3.3 Interminate phase
The interminate phase is almost asymptomatic, but progresses to a chronic, symptomatic phase, including the gradual development of irreversible life-threatening and disabling comorbidities, especially to those who are immunosuppressed. Physical examination is normal, and resting electrocardiogram is normal. Only special inspection method can find abnormalities. This is the beginning of the chronic phase. This type can persist for 20 to 30 years, or even life.
5.3.4 Chronic stage
During the chronic phase, the parasite hides mainly in the muscles of the heart and digestive tract. Ten to thirty years later, up to 30% of patients develop cardiac disorders and up to 10% develop gastrointestinal (typically enlarged esophagus or colon), neurological, or mixed lesions. In later years, infections in these patients can lead to myocardial and neurological damage, followed by arrhythmias or progressive heart failure and sudden death. The disease usually begins years or decades after the onset of parasitemia. (1) Cardiomyopathy in endemic areas: trypanosomiasis cardiomyopathy is the main cause of heart disease and sudden death. Patients often develop congestive heart failure with an enlarged heart. Two-thirds of patients have cardiac conduction disorders, often right bundle branch block, polygenic premature contractions, and myocardial necrosis. The disease course can be short and sudden death, or death from long-term heart failure. In addition, emboli from the apex or atrium can cause sudden death due to cerebral or pulmonary embolism. (2) Dilation of multiple organs: in Brazil, Chile, and some parts of Argentina, there are multiple organ expansions, mainly the esophagus and colon. Difficulty swallowing is often caused by esophageal expansion, constipation caused by colon expansion, and volvulus may also occur, such as acute abdomen. As for the giant stomach, giant duodenum, giant bronchus, giant ureter, etc. have been reported but rare.
5.4 Pathogenesis and pathological changes
5.4.1 Research achievements from relevant research institutions
T. cruzi can colonize any nucleated cell. Most of the symptoms in the acute phase of the disease are thought to be caused by damage to host cells by T. cruzi. For the chronic phase-related pathogenesis, there are currently two theories. One theory is that T. cruzi persists, leading to chronic inflammation [75], and the other theory is that it is caused by autoimmune damage [76]. Possible mechanisms include antigen cross-reactivity [77], direct cell-mediated cytotoxicity [78], antigenic Submitting changes [79], and cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction [80] etc.
Pathological changes in the acute phase showed mononuclear cell infiltration [81], interstitial edema [82], accumulation of amastigotes in muscle cells of subcutaneous tissue [83], and formation of pseudocysts at the invasion site of Trypanosoma [83]. Myocarditis with cardiac enlargement is usually seen in acute-phase deaths. In patients with sudden death in the chronic phase (mostly due to ventricular arrhythmia or conduction block), the heart size is usually normal or only slightly enlarged. In other patients with chronic Chagas heart disease, cardiac hypertrophy, dilation, and thickening can be seen, especially in the apex of the heart, resulting in apical aneurysm. Mural thrombosis and lung and peripheral organ embolism may be seen in some patients. Microscopic examination showed mononuclear cell infiltration, myocardial fiber hypertrophy, degeneration, necrosis and edema. Microscopic changes in megaesophagus or megacolon are similar to those of the heart.
5.4.2 Research achievements from our institution
We firstly have shown that cardiac mitochondria-response plays a very important roles in T. cruzi–induced cardiomyopathy [80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92], and established the third theory that oxidative stress was involved in cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction [84, 86, 88] and heart dysfunction [80, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97]. In detail, we have contributed to the understanding of the mechanism behind the decline of MnSOD and enhancement of SIRT1/PGC1/PARP-1 in correlation with T. cruzi–induced consistently oxidative heart damage [90, 91, 92, 97]. From this research, we have observed that (1) MnSODtg mice/MnSOD overexpression in cell lines are beneficial in preserving T. cruzi–induced mitochondrial/heart dysfunction [90]; (2) MnSOD−/+ mice were worse of T. cruzi infection–induced heart dysfunction [91]; and (3) inhibition of PARP-1 would prevent T. cruzi–induced heart function [92]. We also have observed T. cruzi–induced oxidative stress occurred in adipose tissues by utilizing oxidative markers, which is a novel finding [96, 98]. We have contributed to an understanding of T. cruzi–induced oxidative etiopathogenesis [85, 86, 88, 89]. Additionally, we have isolated high quality heart mitochondria to (1) recognize T. cruzi–induced oxidative mitochondrial proteins by using combination of BN-PAGE [84] and TOP MALDI MS/MS [88, 95]; (2) ascertain that mitochondrial complex III Qo site was prime source of T. cruzi–induced ROS generation [86]; and (3) find that administration of antioxidants improved T. cruzi–induced oxidative damage in heart mitochondria and heart tissues [85, 89]. We have conducted a thorough analysis of mitochondrial bioenergetic function as well as the biochemical and molecular factors that are deregulated and contribute to compromised adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production in the myocardium during T. cruzi infection. Our team is focused on the discovery and development of novel therapeutics against T. cruzi. We found that combination treatment (antioxidants and anti-parasites) is beneficial in arresting the T. cruzi–induced inflammatory and oxidative pathology and chronic heart failure in Chagasic rats. We have proven that the T. cruzi–induced oxidative alterations in circulation are correlated with heart tissue, suggesting that Chagasic human patients’ circulation can replace heart tissue, as issue we are planning to investigate. We also confirmed that this was the case in human patients with Chagasic cardiomyopathy development and assessed different ways to oxidatively modify mitochondrial respiratory complexes (Figure 1) [80, 94].
6. Tobacco- and e-cigarettes-induced cardiomyopathy
6.1 Tobacco-induced cardiomyopathy
The tobacco-induced cardiomyopathy accounts for 9.4 million, or 16.6%, of the 56 million deaths worldwide each year [99]. Smoking causes 1.62 million (18%) deaths from heart disease worldwide [100], and cause severe ill health, with an estimated 40.6 million daily lost to heart disease [100].
Tobacco use (smoked and smokeless) and exposure to secondhand tobacco causes heart disease through a variety of mechanisms, including inflammation, blood vessels shrinkage, clot formation, and reduced oxygen supply (Figure 1) [101, 102, 103]. Smoking-mediated thrombosis appears to be a major factor in the pathogenesis of acute cardiovascular disease [101]. Nicotine stimulates the heart, which increases the demand for oxygen to the heart muscle, triggering angina. Smokers are more likely to develop acute cardiovascular disease at a young age and early in their illness [101]. The associated effects of exposure to secondhand smoke on the heart are almost as severe as the effects of smoking itself, and likely through the same biological mechanisms [104]. Exposure to secondhand smoke in as little as 1 h can increase the risk of heart attack [105].
Risk of damage to the cardiovascular system increases with duration of smoking and the amount and type of smoking tobacco products consumed. However, the close relationship between dose and response is not linear [101]. Even with low exposure levels, the risk increases substantially—people who smoke only one cigarette a day have half the risk of coronary heart disease as those who smoke at least 20 cigarettes a day [106]. In addition to being a major independent risk factor for coronary heart disease, smoking may act synergistically with other major risk factors for coronary heart disease, such as high cholesterol, untreated hypertension, and diabetes [107, 108]. In 2017, an estimated 382 000 deaths from coronary heart disease were attributable to exposure to secondhand smoke [106], accounting for 4.3% of total deaths from coronary heart disease and 31% of total deaths from exposure to secondhand smoke [106]. In the same year, exposure to secondhand smoke was also estimated to be responsible for an estimated 8.8 million disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) lost to coronary heart disease [106]. Various systematic reviews and meta-analyses have shown that adults exposed to secondhand smoke have a 23–30% increased risk of coronary heart disease in countries with high to low-income levels [101, 109, 110, 111, 112]. Cohort studies conducted in multiple countries in the 1970s and 1980s showed that children’s exposure to secondhand smoke has adverse effects on cardiovascular disease, including premature atherosclerosis [113, 114]. A major challenge in these studies is accurately assessing lifetime exposure to secondhand smoke. The cumulative total lifetime exposure to secondhand smoke may be much higher than reflected during the study period [104], which may lead to an underestimation of the true risk of exposure to secondhand smoke and the impact on heart disease [104]. A recent study led by the tobacco industry claims that electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) are less harmful than cigarettes [115, 116]. However, ENDS may be more toxic than inhaled ones at low in conventional cigarettes and tobacco products, but they are not harmless, and there are risks associated with use and secondhand exposure [41, 117]. ENDS linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease Association [118, 119]. The toxic substances contained in these products can lead to causes impaired endothelial function, arterial stenosis, increased heart rate and increased blood pressure [120, 121, 122]. Concomitant use with smoking (this is most ENDS common practice of users), effects of a combination of two or more products [123]. Tobacco control measures have been shown to benefit heart health place. For example, raising tobacco taxes is directly related to reducing tobacco consumption. Associated with improved heart health [124].
6.2 E-cigarettes-induced cardiomyopathy
Due to the many pathogenic and negative effects on the heart from smoking on the heart, the market for smoking and nicotine replacement has grown rapidly in recent years. Since 2006, e-cigarettes have become more popular due to their perceived safety profile compared to traditional cigarette smoking. An electronic cigarette (or e-cigarette) is a battery-operated device for heating solutions (or e-liquids) containing nicotine, propanediol alcohol and vegetable glycerin [120, 125, 126]. E-cigarettes not only attract smokers who are trying to quit smoking, but are also becoming more popular among non-smokers, who have even become the main force in the e-cigarette market. Since the advent of electronic cigarettes, its design has constantly changed, but there has been little regulatory control. Common forms of e-cigarettes are the first generation of disposable “Cigalikes”, the second generation of rechargeable devices, and the third generation of water tanks, pens and personalized large cigarettes, boxes, and pod-based devices.
The team of Nicholas D Buchanan of The Ohio State University School of Medicine published a paper in the journal Cardiovascular Research, reviewing clinical studies related to the cardiovascular risk of e-cigarettes. This review discusses recent relevant studies from the existing literature, focusing on components and potential cardiovascular risks associated with e-cigarette vapor exposure and on evaluating and broadly discussing data from preclinical and epidemiological studies on the cardiovascular effects of acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) exposure to e-cigarettes [127]. e-cigarettes increased hyperlipidemia [128], sympathetic dominance [129], endothelial dysfunction [130], DNA damage [131], macrophage activation [132, 133]. Multiple studies suggest e-cigarettes may increase CVD risk.
7. Burn-induced cardiomyopathy
7.1 Research achievements from relevant research institutions
Severe burns can lead to severe hemodynamic and cardiodynamic disturbances, which can lead to sepsis, multiple organ failure, and death. Cardiac stress is a hallmark of acute-phase response to burns, and poorer burn recovery outcomes are associated with severe cardiac insufficiency [134, 135, 136]. Severe burn injury has a profound and widespread effect on an individual’s cardiovascular system. Early features include myocardial contractile dysfunction and increased vascular permeability.
Plasma levels of catecholamines, vasopressin, angiotensin-II [137] and neuropeptide-Y [138] are significantly elevated after severe burns, which may be responsible for the deleterious effects on cardiovascular function. Nearly 7% of children with 70% burn area develop dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) [139, 140]. Burn-induced cardiomyopathy usually develops several weeks to several months after injury [139, 141]. The initial cardiac response to severe burns is characterized by reduced cardiac output and metabolic rate (Figure 1). Other hemodynamic features of burn shock include stroke volume, venous return, coronary blood flow, peak systolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, estimated myocardial work, stroke work, myocardial oxygen consumption, myocardial oxygenation, myocardial contractility, decreased force and myocardial compliance [142]. This initial response will result in left-right heart failure and decreased cardiac contractility and is thought to be mediated by circulating vasoconstrictors (Figure 1).
Physiologically, burn-induced myocardial dysfunction is characterized by decreased isovolumic relaxation, impaired contractility, and decreased left ventricular diastolic compliance [143, 144] resulting in decreased cardiac output and metabolic rate [138, 145], leading to myocardial oxygen demand, leading ultimately to right and left heart deficits (Figure 1) [143, 146]. Following burn injury, the volume of circulating plasma is markedly reduced due to increased capillary permeability [147] and a concomitant decrease in cardiac output. Depending on the extent of the burn injury, this defect may directly lead to a severe hypermetabolic response [148] and is positively correlated with the size of the original injury [148]. Poor functional recovery from severe burns is associated with high mortality, high infection rates, and cardiac insufficiency [136, 149, 150].
Cardiac stress-induced increases in plasma catecholamines mediate postburn hypermetabolic responses [136, 151, 152]. Upregulation of catecholamines and other catabolic agents such as glucagon and cortisol may induce hyperdynamic cardiovascular responses [134]. Elevated catecholamines and other catabolic agents are further exacerbated by the substantial loss of plasma volume following burns. Hypovolemic shock, typified by severe burns and major tissue trauma, results in marked tachycardia, increased myocardial oxygen demand, and decreased contractility (Figure 1) [134]. This eventually leads to increased mortality during acute hospitalization [153]. Severe burns suffer from a profound hypermetabolic response mediated by a surge in plasma catecholamines. Sustained release of large circulating catecholamines may be detrimental to the myocardium, increasing myocardial oxygen delivery and leading to focal degeneration and hypertrophy of the myocardium [134]. Elevated plasma catecholamine levels persist for months to years resulting in cardiac stress and cardiac physiologic disturbance for at least 2 years [154]. This in turn leads to cardiac insufficiency, regional myocardial hypoxia, and cardiac death [155]. Therefore, clinical concern about catecholamine levels is related to burn-induced cardiomyopathy, myocarditis, pathological myocardial injury and necrosis [156, 157].
7.2 Research achievements from our laboratory
We applied mature animal burn models including rat and mouse, established by UTMB Health’s Blocker Burn Center, to identify the heart tissue-specific up−/down-regulated genes/proteins/metabolisms via transcriptomics/proteomics/metabolomics, and have many hypothesizes based on the differences. Briefly, the SIRT1-PGC1α-NFE2L2-ARE pathway [158], and PDE5A-cGMP-PKG pathway [159] were involved in the burn-induced cardiomyopathy. To confirm our above observations, we treated burn injury animals with PDE5A inhibitor [159, 160] (Sildenafil), and APMK inhibitor (Domorsorphin)/APMK activator (A769662)/PGC1α activator (ZLN005) [158] to partially/completely recoveries of burn-induced cardiomyopathy. Another important contribution for burn-induced cardiomyopathy was that burn injury disrupts the heart mitochondria (mt) with evidence of cardiomyocyte mtDNA damage [159, 161], mt electron transport chain (ETC) dysfunction, mt membrane potential damage, disrupted mt integrity and significant increase of mt ROS production [159, 161]. Treatment with mitochondrial-target drug (Mito-TEMPO) can be beneficial for burn injury–induced cardiomyopathy (Figure 1) [161].
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge David J. Chavarria, who assisted in the correction of the manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acronyms and abbreviations
BNP
B-type natriuretic peptide
CVD
cardiovascular disease
BDNF
brain-derived neurotrophic factor
ECG
electrocardiogram
ENDS
electronic nicotine delivery systems
HRV
heart rate variability
HDL
high-density lipoprotein
hs-cTnI
highly sensitive cardiac troponin I
LDL
low-density lipoprotein
MSIC
mental stress-induced cardiomyopathy
MSIMI
mental stress-induced myocardial ischemia
mt
mitochondria
T. cruzi
Trypanosoma cruzi
\n',keywords:"stress, cardiomyopathy, emotional symptom, physical symptom, Trypanosoma cruzi, burn injury, Tobacco and E-cigarettes",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82349.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82349.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82349",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82349",totalDownloads:12,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 6th 2022",dateReviewed:"May 26th 2022",datePrePublished:"August 10th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 23rd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The irreversible termination of individual life activities and metabolism means all fatal problems ultimately terminate the heart function. It’s very important to protect the patient’s life if we have treatment to maintain heart function and care about patients’ heart response. It is known that many diseases induced heart dysfunction including Chagas disease, burn injury, smoking and other bad stresses. Chronic stress causes these physical symptoms and emotional symptoms. Due to the awareness created by the media and internet, patients are generally aware that they should seek help immediately for chest pain. Therefore, attention and studies on stress-induced heart dysfunction would help uncover the pathophysiological mechanisms of cardiac response to non-heart diseases and provide an insight of heart-protection drugs. At the same time, physicians should be aware of this new condition and how to diagnose and treat it, even though the causal mechanisms are not yet fully understood. This special chapter will discuss on the cardiac response to the stresses especially on our associated research in recent decades such as Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi)-induced cardiomyopathy and burn injury–induced cardiomyopathy, and on some very popular stresses such as behavior, motion, mental, and smoking.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82349",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82349",signatures:"Jake J. Wen and Ravi S. Radhakrishnan",book:{id:"11739",type:"book",title:"Cardiovascular Diseases",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Cardiovascular Diseases",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. David C. Gaze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11739.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-117-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-116-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-118-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"71983",title:"Dr.",name:"David C.",middleName:null,surname:"Gaze",slug:"david-c.-gaze",fullName:"David C. Gaze"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Behavior-induced cardiomyopathy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Physical health behaviors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Affective disorders and negative emotional states",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Depression",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Anxiety symptoms and syndromes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Pessimism",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4 Anger and hostility",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.3 Chronic stress",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.4 Social isolation and lack of social support",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.5 Lack of sense of purpose",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.6 Psychosocial functioning",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Bad emotion-induced cardiovascular disease (CVD)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1 Emotion and cardiomyopathy research",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2 Biological mechanisms of emotional effects on cardiomyopathy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.2.1 Emotional changes cause endothelial damage and inflammation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.2.2 The autonomic nervous system as a mechanism for the link between mood and cardiomyopathy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18",title:"4. Mental stress-induced cardiomyopathy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.1 Features of MSIC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"4.1.1 Depression or anxiety",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"4.1.2 Brain function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"4.1.3 Cardiac markers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"4.1.4 Other factors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"4.2 Pathogenesis of MSIC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"4.2.1 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"4.2.2 Sympathetic nervous system",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"4.2.3 Inflammatory factors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"4.2.4 Gene polymorphisms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29",title:"5. Trypanosoma cruzi infection-induced cardiomyopathy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"5.1 Global distribution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"5.2 Transmission",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"5.3 Symptoms and signs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"5.3.1 Incubation phage",level:"3"},{id:"sec_32_3",title:"5.3.2 Acute phase",level:"3"},{id:"sec_33_3",title:"5.3.3 Interminate phase",level:"3"},{id:"sec_34_3",title:"5.3.4 Chronic stage",level:"3"},{id:"sec_36_2",title:"5.4 Pathogenesis and pathological changes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36_3",title:"5.4.1 Research achievements from relevant research institutions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_37_3",title:"5.4.2 Research achievements from our institution",level:"3"},{id:"sec_40",title:"6. Tobacco- and e-cigarettes-induced cardiomyopathy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_40_2",title:"6.1 Tobacco-induced cardiomyopathy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_41_2",title:"6.2 E-cigarettes-induced cardiomyopathy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_43",title:"7. Burn-induced cardiomyopathy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_43_2",title:"7.1 Research achievements from relevant research institutions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_44_2",title:"7.2 Research achievements from our laboratory",level:"2"},{id:"sec_46",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_49",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_46",title:"Acronyms and abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Wittstein IS, Thiemann DR, Lima JA, Baughman KL, Schulman SP, Gerstenblith G, et al. Neurohumoral features of myocardial stunning due to sudden emotional stress. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2005;352(6):539-548'},{id:"B2",body:'Sharkey SW, Lesser JR, Zenovich AG, Maron MS, Lindberg J, Longe TF, et al. Acute and reversible cardiomyopathy provoked by stress in women from the United States. Circulation. 2005;111(4):472-479'},{id:"B3",body:'Lacy CR, Contrada RJ, Robbins ML, Tannenbaum AK, Moreyra AE, Chelton S, et al. 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Key position of catecholamines in functional and degenerative cardiovascular pathology. The American Journal of Cardiology. 1960;5:571-578'},{id:"B156",body:'Rona G. Catecholamine cardiotoxicity. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology. 1985;17(4):291-306'},{id:"B157",body:'Van Vliet PD, Burchell HB, Titus JL. Focal myocarditis associated with pheochromocytoma. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1966;274(20):1102-1108'},{id:"B158",body:'Wen JJ, Cummins CB, Szczesny B, Radhakrishnan RS. Cardiac dysfunction after burn injury: Role of the AMPK-SIRT1-PGC1alpha-NFE2L2-ARE Pathway. Journal of the American College of Surgeons. 2020;230(4):562-571'},{id:"B159",body:'Wen JJ, Cummins CB, Radhakrishnan RS. Burn-induced cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction via interruption of the PDE5A-cGMP-PKG Pathway. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020;21(7):2350-2365'},{id:"B160",body:'Wen JJ, Cummins C, Radhakrishnan RS. Sildenafil recovers burn-induced cardiomyopathy. 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Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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Catarina Guedes and F. Xavier Malcata",authors:[{id:"83136",title:"Prof.",name:"F. Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Malcata",slug:"f.-xavier-malcata",fullName:"F. 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This chapter will discuss an innovation in seaweed cultivation of the genus Eucheuma, which is the prime marine commodity in the tropical regions of the world. Research conducted during 2015-2017 and 2019 in Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia, provided an overview of the use of floating cage that showed very significant growth results. The research result showed that the growth rates of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii in floating cage seemed faster and resulted in better thallus morphology. Daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii that were cultivated in floating cage was higher than daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated on longline. Specific growth rate (SGR) of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using floating cage method was also higher than E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using longline method. Moreover, the cultivation by using floating cages produces good growth rates with no effect of herbivore attacks.",book:{id:"8928",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Ma’ruf Kasim, Abdul Muis Balubi, Ahmad Mustafa, Rahman Nurdin, Rahmad Sofyan Patadjai and Wardha Jalil",authors:[{id:"309893",title:"Prof.",name:"Maruf",middleName:null,surname:"Kasim",slug:"maruf-kasim",fullName:"Maruf Kasim"},{id:"313040",title:"MSc.",name:"Abdul Muis",middleName:null,surname:"Balubi",slug:"abdul-muis-balubi",fullName:"Abdul Muis Balubi"},{id:"313041",title:"MSc.",name:"Wardha",middleName:null,surname:"Jalil",slug:"wardha-jalil",fullName:"Wardha Jalil"},{id:"313042",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",slug:"ahmad-mustafa",fullName:"Ahmad Mustafa"},{id:"313043",title:"MSc.",name:"Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Nurdin",slug:"rahman-nurdin",fullName:"Rahman Nurdin"},{id:"313044",title:"MSc.",name:"Rahmat Sofyan",middleName:null,surname:"Patadjai",slug:"rahmat-sofyan-patadjai",fullName:"Rahmat Sofyan Patadjai"}]},{id:"62842",title:"Integrated Rice and Aquaculture Farming",slug:"integrated-rice-and-aquaculture-farming",totalDownloads:1920,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The burning problems like scarcity of food for ever-growing human population in the present world are addressed by adapting various methods for production of protein, carbohydrate, oils and other food materials. One of the methods to produce high amount of food is integrated farming including rice-aquaculture farming, which produces protein and carbohydrate as major components besides others. Rice-aquaculture farming produces grain (carbohydrate) and animal protein without affecting the quality and quantity of rice yield on the same piece of land and renders additional financial gain besides main crop (rice) like conventional monoculture. The aquatic species grown in the integrated culture are mainly distinct types of fishes, selected crustaceans and other selected species. Profitable rice-aquaculture integrated farming is popular in Asian countries than in Western countries. However, the integrated rice-aquaculture farming has its own limitations. The type of methods, culture species, influencing factors, and pros and cons of rice-aquaculture integrated farming are discussed in the present chapter.",book:{id:"7229",slug:"aquaculture-plants-and-invertebrates",title:"Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Aquaculture - Plants and Invertebrates"},signatures:"Pamuru Ramachandra Reddy and Battina Kishori",authors:[{id:"242524",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramachandra Reddy",middleName:null,surname:"Pamuru",slug:"ramachandra-reddy-pamuru",fullName:"Ramachandra Reddy Pamuru"},{id:"255022",title:"Dr.",name:"Kishori",middleName:null,surname:"Battina",slug:"kishori-battina",fullName:"Kishori Battina"}]},{id:"24074",title:"Embryonic and Larval Development of Freshwater Fish",slug:"embryonic-and-larval-development-of-freshwater-fish",totalDownloads:7469,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"612",slug:"recent-advances-in-fish-farms",title:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms"},signatures:"Faruk Aral, Erdinç Şahınöz and Zafer Doğu",authors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"},{id:"29132",title:"Dr.",name:"Zafer",middleName:null,surname:"Dogu",slug:"zafer-dogu",fullName:"Zafer Dogu"},{id:"39952",title:"Dr.",name:"Erdinc",middleName:null,surname:"Sahinoz",slug:"erdinc-sahinoz",fullName:"Erdinc Sahinoz"}]},{id:"68966",title:"Novel Biofloc Technology (BFT) for Ammonia Assimilation and Reuse in Aquaculture In Situ",slug:"novel-biofloc-technology-bft-for-ammonia-assimilation-and-reuse-in-aquaculture-in-situ",totalDownloads:1954,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Ammonia is one of the most harmful risks for success of fish and shrimp culture. There is no effective solution for harmlessness of ammonia in traditional aquaculture operations except exchanging water, which would bring negative effects on environment, or fixing expensive equipment. Biofloc technology (BFT) that appeared in recent years supplies a novel solution for this issue without exchanging huge water and fixing equipment. This technology could assimilate ammonia almost in real time with many other supplemental benefits. Because of the very high nutritional value for fish and shrimp, bioflocs, the by-product of BFT, could also be reused as a complemented food in situ or a gradient for feedstuff to replace expensive fishmeal or be processed to pellet diet to feed fish and shrimp directly. However, some aspects with regard to the effective use of biofloc as a food source for fish and shrimp, such as high lipid content, productivity, and palatability, need to be further researched in detail.",book:{id:"8928",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Hai-Hong Huang",authors:[{id:"305215",title:"Dr.",name:"Hai-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"hai-hong-huang",fullName:"Hai-Hong Huang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"32",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{id:"83117",title:"Endothelial Secretome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106550",signatures:"Luiza Rusu",slug:"endothelial-secretome",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Luiza",surname:"Rusu"}],book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"83087",title:"Role of Cellular Responses in Periodontal Tissue Destruction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106645",signatures:"Nam Cong-Nhat Huynh",slug:"role-of-cellular-responses-in-periodontal-tissue-destruction",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. 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\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",annualVolume:11400,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",annualVolume:11401,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",annualVolume:11402,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. 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