Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
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Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
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"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
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\r\n\tElectromagnetic imaging is an emerging biomedical imaging modality, which when matured, might present an effective supplement to current imaging technologies for non-invasive assessment of functional and pathological conditions of tissues. This book aims to provide a state-of-art for the most relevant advancements in the development of electromagnetic sensing and imaging for non-invasive detection, by covering all aspects related to the design, modeling, and experimentation. The authors are welcome to submit original research and review articles reporting recent advances in the application of electromagnetic waves technologies in industry and bioengineering.
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\r\n\tThe scope of this book will be the collection of new and/or review results exploring the use of electromagnetic waves for industrial and biomedical applications with particular focus on inclusion detection and medical treatment as well as a diagnostic tool for disease detection. Potential topics include but are not limited to the following: Electromagnetic sensing and imaging for industry applications, Electromagnetic sensing and imaging for biomedical applications, Microwave sensing and imaging , Non-invasive electromagnetic diagnostic tools, Usage of electromagnetic waves for probing organs and advanced MRI techniques, Theoretical modeling of electromagnetic wave propagation, Application of electromagnetic waves in advanced MRI techniques, RF sensors and coils, Biomaterials for wearable sensors, In vitro and in vivo testing.
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(Hons.) and a Ph.D. degree from the Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand, Dr. Wang is the first author of over 60 peer-reviewed publications, received multiple national and international awards from various professional societies and organizations she is a member of (ASME, IEEE, AAAS, PSNZ, and IPENZ ).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/257388/images/system/257388.jpg",biography:"Lulu Wang is a Full Professor of Biomedical Engineering at Shenzhen Technology University in China. She received the M.E. (First class Hons.) and Ph.D. degrees from the Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand, in 2009 and 2013, respectively. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
\n
1.1. Genetic predispositions and impact of environmental factors on the lactation process in sheep
\n
\n
1.1.1. Role of melatonin and the biological clock
\n
Sheep are short-day breeders, in which the signal for onset of estrus occurs after the summer solstice and is maintained until winter. Such a model of the reproductive cycle in which the young ones are born in the spring provides favorable conditions for rearing lambs as this period coincides with the time of abundance of food, thereby the young have time to put aside fat for the winter. Seasonality of reproductive cycle in sheep is associated with the season and the day length as a recurring reproductive cycle is an endogenous rhythm, encoded genetically. Information on changes in photoperiod reaches the animal\'s organism through a multineural tract. Much more studies confirm the presence of a molecular mechanism—located in the SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) as well as in pars tuberalis (PT)—involved in decoding the melatonin signal.
\n
Both the SCN and PT host over a dozen genes of the circadian clock, such as Bmal1, Clock, Per1, Per2, Cry1, Cry2A, Rev-erbα and CK1ε, which are mutually coupled [1, 2]. Most likely, the summer and winter rhythm observable in sheep is conditioned by the biological clock genes. Over 24 hours, changes in the melatonin profile affect the rhythmic changes in the expression of these genes as evidenced by varying levels of clock genes mRNA in the PT and SCN. The peak gene expression of Cry1 (Cryptochrome) gene occurs at twilight, together with the increase in melatonin level, while expression of the gene Per1 (Period) is stimulated by approaching dawn [3, 4]. In contrast to Cry1, Cry2 gene is not melatonin-induced [5]. On the other hand, expression of the Per1 gene is melatonin-dependent as pinealectomy (surgical removal of the pineal gland) blocks the rhythm of the Per1 gene in the PT, but does not affect the expression of this gene in the SCN.
\n
Studies have reported that repeated multiple injections of melatonin in animals previously subjected to pinealectomy restore the cyclical transcription of Per1 in PT [6]. The results of studies on biological clock genes in mammalian SCN showed that the BMAL1/CLOCK protein complex encoded by the genes of Bmal1, Clock induces activation of the Per1, Per2, Cry1, Cry2, Rev-erbα genes [2]. Studies in sheep artificially subjected to a sudden light stimulus characteristic of a long-day period have shown that the gene expression profile of Cry1 and Per1 mirrored that occurring in natural conditions, i.e., expression of Cry1 increased at night, while that of Per1 was rising during the day, indicating the presence of a rapid mechanism for regulation of Cry1 and Per1 gene expression in response to a melatonin impulse [1].
\n
The neurosensory receptor of circadian rhythm in mammals is the retina of the eye, through which light stimuli are transmitted to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus (SCN). The pathway the light stimulus travels from the retina to the SCN is known as the retinohypothalamic tract. Secretion of melatonin is a biochemical signal informing the body about changes occurring in the external environment. Melatonin has lipophilic properties and is secreted from the pineal gland by simple diffusion [7]. Because of a well-developed network of blood vessels in the pineal gland, this hormone is released directly into the blood and distributed throughout the entire organism. In animals sensitive to changes in day length, the melatonin profile is a biochemical signal regulating the processes of reproduction and lactation [8]. In sheep, which are short day breeders, seasonal changes in melatonin levels inform the fetus of the environmental conditions.
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A large number of MT1 melatonin receptors are present in pars tuberalis (PT) of sheep, while no similar high concentration is noted in the tuberal region of the hypothalamus and in the SCN. This suggests that melatonin may modulate the secretion of hormones secreted only in the pars tuberalis [9, 10]. Increase in melatonin secretion in sheep is stimulated already within 1 or 2 hours after sunset and lasts until the onset of dawn. According to Misztal et al. (1999) [11], the modulating effect of melatonin on prolactin (PRL) secretion could be explained by two different mechanisms. One is linked to the circadian rhythm, which may either have direct impact or act through the factor conventionally known as tuberalin. However, this effect is short-lived and most likely is only applicable to prolactin stored in the lactotropic cells of the pituitary. It is possible that tuberalin activates the expression of the prolactin gene in lactotropic cells [9]. The second mechanism modulating melatonin secretion is related to the annual rhythm of secretion—this means that melatonin, due to its lipophilic properties, has a direct effect on the lactotrophic cells of the pituitary and thus also impacts the secretion of prolactin [11, 12]
\n
\n
\n
1.1.2. Role of prolactin and the growth hormone (GH)
\n
Changes in melatonin and prolactin profiles in sheep are closely interlinked. Regulation of PRL secretion by melatonin may occur via two different mechanisms. In the case of the circadian rhythm mechanism, melatonin may directly affect PRL secretion—this option applies to the hormone stored in the lactotropic cells; the process may also be mediated by the aforementioned peptide—tuberalin, which activates PRL gene expression in lactotropic cells of the anterior pituitary [9]. In contrast, the process of annual PRL secretion rhythm is directly induced by melatonin that—due to its lipophilic nature—affects the lactotropes [13]. Synthesis of prolactin occurs in the anterior pituitary in the lactotropic cells. The main role of PRL is to initiate and control processes such as mammogenesis, lactogenesis, galactopoesis and involution. Moreover, this hormone plays an important role in biosynthesis of milk proteins (β-casein, α-lactalbumin, lactose). It has been shown that in sheep, the daily and seasonal rhythms of PRL and melatonin are characterized by volatility. Changes in prolactin levels throughout the day are strongly associated with the season. Increases in PRL concentration in the spring are observed at dawn and before dusk. In the summer, the peak level is recorded halfway through the dark cycle, while the autumn PRL profile is characterized by a spike in the first half of the photoperiod and near its end. In short-day breeders, such as sheep, the seasonal lengthening of day-light hours (spring, summer) resulting in a short melatonin signal (4–8 hours a day) does not inhibit the secretion of PRL, while in autumn and winter, a long-lasting melatonin impulse (>10 hours per day) causes a decrease in prolactin concentration [6, 14]. Melatonin modulates PRL secretion also through the intermediary of dopamine. The neurotransmitter stimulates PRL secretion acting through dopamine D1 receptors and inhibits the secretion of this hormone via its effect on dopamine D2 receptors. The presence of seasonal changes in melatonin and prolactin profiles was also confirmed by tests carried out on sheep kept for dairy purposes. It has been shown that key factors affecting milk yield in ewes are changes in the photoperiod. It has been found that milk yield in females entering lactation during the day-light lengthening season is by far (50%) higher than that in animals starting milk synthesis in short-day conditions [15]. The reaction to the shortening of the photoperiod was an increase in melatonin levels, decrease in PRL concentration and lower milk yield. Subjecting sheep to conditions of artificially prolonged day-light cycle (16L:8D) resulted in light-induced inhibition of melatonin synthesis in the pineal gland. Decrease in PRL concentration and lower milk yield were observed simultaneously. Thus, the artificial prolongation of the photoperiod during short-day season is not enough to maintain lactation in seasonal sheep [10, 14, 16, 17]. Previous observations indicate that such processes as mammogenesis, lactogenesis, galactopoesis and involution in sheep require the presence of multiple factors, strongly interdependent. Milk production is based on the impact of a number of factors and day length, as well as changes in PRL profile are only some of many [18]. An important role is also played by the somatotropic system (GH, IGF-1). The growth hormone, similar to PRL, is produced in the anterior pituitary and is involved in synthesis of proteins and fatty acids; it also lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood and is partly responsible for synthesis and secretion of prolactin [19]. Increase in concentration of the GH is stimulated by the “suckling factor”—higher growth hormone levels are observed at the beginning of lactation. Studies carried out on sheep have shown that changes in concentration of both the GH and PRL are dependent on the length of day and are linked to changes in the profile of pineal melatonin. Periodic changes in melatonin levels result in rhythmic inhibition of PRL secretion [20]. It is known that during lactation, under the impact of suckling, the GH and PRL levels in the blood are boosted [19]. Increase in GH secretion during lactation is controlled by GHRH and endogenous opioids. Recently, attention has been drawn to a compound, derivative of dopamine, known as salsolinol—it has been shown that concentration of this substance increases in the case of various dysfunctions in the dopaminergic system. Salsolinol stimulates the release of PRL in rodents and ruminants. In lactating sheep, the presence of salsolinol was confirmed in MBH and increase in its concentration in response to suckling was recorded [21]. Salsolinol administered to the third ventricle of the brain during lactation increases prolactin concentration. Salsolinol antagonist is a compound called 1-MeDIG—this substance inhibits the release of PRL and cancels the stimulatory impact of the “suckling factor” on PRL secretion in rats. A similar effect was observed in sheep in which 1-MeDIQ acts directly on the central nervous system [22]. The compound inhibits the increase in the level of noradrenaline (NA), which acts as a mediator between salsolinol and GH. Interestingly, 1-MeDIQ does not affect the changes in GH concentration induced by stimulation of the mammary gland during suckling. In sheep, both over the period of lamb rearing and beyond, PRL levels decreased after 1-MeDIG was administered. It was proven experimentally that salsolinol has no direct influence on GH profile during lamb rearing. However, in rats subjected to simultaneous administration of both salsolinol and 1-MeDIQ, no statistically significant changes in pituitary hormone levels were observed with the exception of prolactin.
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\n
\n
1.1.3. Role of metabolic hormones
\n
The role of metabolic hormones in the process of lactation has garnered a lot of attention. An important role in initiating and maintaining lactation in small ruminants is played by the thyroid hormones, ghrelin and orexin. The production capacity of animals (milk yield, growth and development, coat growth) is largely dependent on proper functioning of the thyroid hormones. These hormones influence also the processes of reproduction in many species of animals, including sheep and goats [23]. In seasonal species, T4 and T3 are obligatory for the annually recurring termination of reproductive activity [24, 25]. Thyroxine in sheep with normally functioning thyroid will shorten the reproductive period and quicken the transition into anoestrus. Thyroxine level peaks in ewes in early pregnancy and decreases just before lambing and after the offspring is born. The level of thyroid hormones in sheep varies throughout lactation. At the start of the process, concentration of these substances is low [26]; however, over time, the thyroxine concentration increases. It has been shown that thyroid hormones, especially tri-iodothyronine, have a suppressive effect on expression of the prolactin gene, which can translate into milk yield as well. An important role in lactation belongs to calcitonin and the parathyroid hormone, responsible for modulation of phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca) levels. Concentration of these elements in milk has major impact on the chemical composition of the product. The presence of the parathyroid hormone is essential for calcium absorption from the gastrointestinal tract; it also enhances synthesis of active D3 (1,25-di-hydroxycalciferol) that stimulates the process of calcium binding by proteins. It has been experimentally demonstrated that thyroid hormone secretion is correlated with day length in sheep. In vitro studies in thyroid gland explants showed higher levels of thyroxine under short-day conditions and lower in the season of elongating photoperiod (spring), while T3 reached higher levels in the summer and lower when the photoperiod was shortening. In addition, there was an increase in T3 concentration induced by exogenous melatonin [25]. Productivity of the animals depends not only on the level of nutrition, environmental factors and their genetic potential. Thyroid hormones are an important link in the key stages of life (reproduction and lactation) of all living organisms [27]. Orexin A is of particular importance in the reproductive process of animals sensitive to changes in day length. The process of initiating and maintaining lactation in sheep requires the presence of many hormones. Defining the role of orexin in regulating their secretion, especially that of prolactin, may allow to better understand the process of maintaining lactation in sheep, in particular over short-day period.
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2. Influence of day length and melatonin on milking yield
\n
Changes in day length and the related secretion of melatonin and prolactin are of particular significance in sheep as they determine reproductive processes, the last stage of which is lactation. The possibility of artificial extension of the milking period in late-lambing ewes by application of prolonged day length, 16 hours of light—8 hours of darkness (16L:8D), was introduced additionally (Group III). Measurements of plasma levels of prolactin and melatonin were used as parameters of season-dependent hormonal regulation of milk production in this seasonally breeding species [28]. Lambs remained with their mothers up to 56th day of life. Then lambs were separated from their mothers, which were allocated to the milking. During milking period, ewes were milked twice a day using Alfa-Laval machine. Individual milk yield checks were carried out every 10 days. From the 20th day of lactation to the end of this process, the blood samples were carried out from each sheep every 30 days to determine concentration of melatonin and prolactin. Blood sampling started after sunset and continued for 6 consecutive hours with a frequency of every 60 minutes. Blood after collection were centrifuged and the resulting plasma was stored at temperature −20°C until analysis. Hormones have been determined by radioimmunologically (RIA) method. During lambs’ rearing period, sheep produced similar quantities of milk, since ewe Group 1 produced 48.2 ± 12.9 liters whereas Group II produced 42.4 ± 16.4 liters. Higher productivity was observed in Group III 60.5 ± 16.6 liters, which was kept in artificial light conditions. The observed differences were statistically insignificant. Distinct differences in milk yield were observed between the groups of sheep milk in the period of use. The highest milk yield of 33.0 ± 11.2 liters was found in Group I, while Group II produced only 16.8 ± 4.4 liters, the obtained differences were statistically significant (P ≤ 0.01). Mothers who remained in artificial light conditions (Group 3) produced 21.2 ± 5.5 liters of milk (Table 1). The results of the total lactation length and days of milking show conclusively that the lactation period in Group I was significantly longer than that in Groups II and III (P < 0.05, Table 1). Analysis of the course of lactation with regard to the mean amount of milk obtained in particular months of milk use revealed that the milk yield of Group I in the first month of milking (0.43 ± 0.09 liters/day) was similar to the milk yield of Group III (0.42 ± 0.07 liters/day), with only 0.18 ± 0.08 liters/day in Group II (P < 0.01, Figure 1, Tables 2–4).
\n
Figure 1.
Mean monthly milk yield of Polish Longwool sheep lambed in January (Group I), in June, kept under natural lighting conditions (Group II) and in June, kept under the long-artificial photoperiod (16L:8D, Group III), during the milking period. See text for statistical comparisons.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Groups of sheep
\n
Milk yield of the first 28 days of lactation (l)
\n
Total length of lactation (days)
\n
Days of milking (days)
\n
Milk production during milking (l)
\n
\n
\n
x¯
\n
SEM
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n
\n
SEM
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n
\n
SEM
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n
\n
SEM
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Group I Sheep lambed in January
\n
48.2
\n
2.3
\n
177
\n
8.6
\n
102
\n
4.8
\n
33.0
\n
3.6
\n
\n
\n
Group II Sheep lambed in June
\n
42.4
\n
3.1
\n
147
\n
3.5
\n
77
\n
4.0
\n
16.8
\n
1.4
\n
\n
\n
Group III Sheep lambed in June (16L:8D)
\n
60.5
\n
3.2
\n
160
\n
4.1
\n
90
\n
3.9
\n
21.2
\n
1.7
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Parameters characterizing lactation duration and efficiency of Polish Longwool sheep lambing in January (Group I), in June, kept under natural lighting conditions (Group II) and in June, kept under the long-artificial photoperiod (16L:8D, Group III). See text for statistical comparisons.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Months
\n
II
\n
III
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IV
\n
V
\n
VI
\n
VII
\n
VIII
\n
IX
\n
\n\n\n
\n
MLT (pg/ml)
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n SD
\n
168.5 137.3
\n
85.5 45.3
\n
132.8 112.6
\n
133.5 113.0
\n
77. 38.9
\n
73.3c 50.1
\n
124.7 100.6
\n
91.3 42.2
\n
\n
\n
PRL (ng/ml)
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n SD
\n
128.6 46.3
\n
102.8 33.8
\n
156.5 18.1
\n
312.6r 45.2
\n
185.7 54.7
\n
247.0j 60.9
\n
151.6 43.9
\n
43.9 33.1
\n
\n
\n
Milk (l)
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n SD
\n
–
\n
–
\n
–
\n
0.43 0.08
\n
0.35 0.05
\n
0.19 0.04
\n
0.08 0.04
\n
0.01 –
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Mean (±SEM) and SD of plasma melatonin and prolactin and milk concentrations in sheep lambed in January (Group I). See text for statistical comparisons.
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\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Months
\n
VII
\n
VIII
\n
IX
\n
X
\n
XI
\n
\n\n\n
\n
MLT (pg/ml)
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n SD
\n
61.1 28.5
\n
87.8 45.5
\n
82.3 45.0
\n
77.5 46.1
\n
93.2a 57.4
\n
\n
\n
PRL (ng/ml)
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n SD
\n
234.0 39.5
\n
124.6 48.8
\n
60.5 31.1
\n
30.8 17.7
\n
16.8 10.4
\n
\n
\n
Milk (l)
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n SD
\n
–
\n
0.18 0.05
\n
0.12 0.03
\n
0.07 0.01
\n
0.04 0.01
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Mean (±SEM) and SD of plasma melatonin and prolactin and milk concentrations in sheep lambed in June kept under natural lighting conditions (Group II). See text for statistical comparisons.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Months
\n
VII
\n
VIII
\n
IX
\n
X
\n
XI
\n
\n\n\n
\n
MLT (pg/ml)
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n SD
\n
41.0a 19.7
\n
60.4 39.8
\n
17.6 27.6
\n
4.4 4.1
\n
17.0 15.5
\n
\n
\n
PRL (ng/ml)
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n SD
\n
278.8 55.3
\n
132.7 57.4
\n
147.9 82.4
\n
84.3 42.5
\n
38.3 25.2
\n
\n
\n
Milk (l)
\n
\n\n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n\n SD
\n
–
\n
0.42 0.07
\n
0.28 0.05
\n
0.19 0.03
\n
0.09 0.02
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Mean (±SEM) and SD of plasma melatonin and prolactin and milk concentrations in sheep lambed in June and kept under the long-artificial photoperiod (Group III, 16L:8D, bottom). See text for statistical comparisons.
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\n
2.1. Secretion melatonin and prolactin in day length
\n
The highest melatonin level in Group I determined in February was 168.5 ± 137.3 pg/ml, while prolactin level at this time was 128.6 ± 46.3 ng/ml. The highest prolactin concentration determined in May was 312.6 ± 45.2 ng/ml, further growth of prolactin level in July was 247.0 ± 60.9 ng/ml and the resulting differences were statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05) compared to the level of the hormone in other administrations. With the lengthening of lactation and changes in day length light from August to September significantly decreased prolactin level from 151.6 ± 43.9 ng/ml to 43.9 ± 33.1 ng/ml and increased levels of melatonin. In August, the concentration of melatonin was the highest and amounted to 124.7 ± 100.6 pg/ml, while sheep milk production has decreased to a level of 0.08 ± 0.02 liters per day. In the last month of lactation, melatonin level was 91.3 ± 42.2 pg/ml and sheep milk production at this time was only 0.01 ± 0.02 liters/day (Figure 4, Table 4). The increase in melatonin levels from July to September of 33.4 pg/ml was accompanied by a decrease in prolactin level of 107.7 ng/ml. At that time, there was a decrease in the secretion of milk by an average of 0.11 liters/day (Table 2).
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\n
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2.2. Secretion melatonin and prolactin in short days
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In the case of Group II, the highest level (234.0 ± 39.5 ng/ml) of prolactin was also determined in July and the melatonin concentration in this period was the lowest (61.1 ± 28.5 ng/ml). With the shortening of the light day, prolactin secretion was decreasing and the level of this hormone was lower by 25.8% in September compared to the level observed in July. A clear decrease in prolactin level observed during the last 2 months of lactation, i.e, October and November was 30.8 ± 17.7 ng/ml and 16.8 ± 10.3 ng/ml, respectively. In July, as previously indicated, the lowest concentration of melatonin was 61.1 ± 28.5 pg/ml, differing significantly (P ≤ 0.05) to the identified levels of this hormone in November (93.2 ± 57.4 ng/ml). Changes in the concentration of melatonin and prolactin during the shorter photoperiod influenced the parameters of sheep milk production, causing a drop in milk yield by 22.2% between August and November (Table 3). The results obtained in Group III showed that the highest level of prolactin found in July was 278.8 ± 55.3 ng/ml and much lower in September, 147.9 ± 82.4 ng/ml; however, it was higher than the level of prolactin identified in August, 132.7 ± 57.4 ng/ml. The resulting differences in the levels of prolactin in the month of July, August and September were statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05). Despite ensuring that this group of animals underwent 16-hour lighting intensity of 200 lux, the concentration of prolactin from September to November reduced (Table 4).
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The sheep of all groups produced similar amounts of milk during the first 28 days of lactation as estimated based on the weight gains of the lambs. The study results showed that the shift in lambing date—from winter to summer—had a negative effect on milk production parameters in ewes. Sheep that gave birth in January and were used for dairy purposes over the long-day period produced 50% more milk than ewes that gave birth in June and were then milked as the day length was gradually decreasing. Lactation in sheep milked in the summer-time was significantly longer than that in sheep milked when the photoperiod duration was shortening. Day length had no effect on milk yield in the period of rearing lambs (i.e., 28 days). Monitoring of hormone levels (prolactin and melatonin) in sheep during lactation allowed to conclude that secretion of melatonin in the fall months increased, while prolactin secretion was decreased over the same period. The increase in melatonin level during the shortening of the day in the Polish Longwool sheep reduces prolactin secretion and inhibition of the synthesis of milk. Introduction of artificial light conditions during the shortening of the photoperiod is not enough to maintain secretion of prolactin in ewes at a level that allows to maintain lactation in the autumn.
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Length of illuminating day, but especially profile of melatonin has a particular meaning in sheep, because decidate of trial procreative with last stage physiology that last stage physiology reproduction is lactation. [18]. As the many physiological processes also the reproductive cycle is genetically encoded in the sheep. The course of this cycle is reflected by the seasonal changes in the secretory activity of the hypothalamopituitary gonadotropic GnRH-LH system. Sustaining of the proper duration of this cycle requires, however, constant and periodically repeated factors which enable the synchronization of the physiological processes with a suitable season of the year. Thus, the day length plays the most important role in this aspect. The information about the day length reaches the organism as the biochemical signal generated by the pineal gland via the nocturnal secretion of melatonin. The seasonal changes in the duration of melatonin secretion are of great importance in the modulation of sexual activity and lactation in the sheep with the inherent traits of seasonality. The dependence of milk yield and the duration of lactation on melatonin and prolactin secretion are also demonstrated in seasonal and aseasonal breeds of sheep lambed during the different seasons of the year. The putative mechanisms of melatonin action on luteinizing hormone and prolactin secretion are also demonstrated with reference to the melatonin-binding sites in the sheep central nervous system and pituitary gland [29].
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\n
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2.3. Influence of day length and melatonin in prolactin secretion and growth hormone in suckling sheep
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The effects of melatonin on the secretion of prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (GH) were studied in ewes’ nursing lambs (Polish Longwool, n = 20) under different photoperiods (March and November). The animals were divided into four groups: (a) (LDC—long-day control group, n = 5), (b) melatonin-treated (LDM—long-day group, n = 5), (c) (SDC—short-day control group, n = 5) and (d) (SDM—short-day melatonin, n = 5). Blood samples were collected from ewes 5 days after lambing. Four blood collections were performed at 10-day intervals, over a 40-day time period. Sampling started at sunset and continued for 6 hours at 20-minute intervals. Melatonin implants (exogenous melatonin) were inserted in ewes of the LDM and SDM groups after first blood collection. The plasma concentrations of PRL and GH were assayed using RIA. In ewes from the LDC group, the mean plasma PRL concentration increased gradually, reaching a significantly (P < 0.001) higher level, after 3 weeks. In contrast, in the LDM group, PRL concentration decreased significantly (P < 0.001) following 10 days, compared to that in ewes from the LDC group. The mean plasma GH concentration was significantly (P < 0.001) higher in the LDC group than that in the LDM group, the for the entire experimental period during the experimental period. In the SDC and SDM groups, plasma PRL concentrations did not decrease significantly (P < 0.001) 2 weeks after the onset of the experiment and did not differ significantly between these groups. The mean plasma GH concentration increased significantly (P < 0.001) in the SDM group compared with the SDC group only after the third week. The mean plasma GH concentration in the SDM group and the SDC group reached a similar level by the end of the trial. It would appear that melatonin may effectively inhibit PRL secretion in nursing ewes during long photoperiod and stimulate GH release during short photoperiod. The inhibition of PRL secretion in nursing ewes during increasing photoperiod (long days) occurs, despite the strong stimulation of suckling. At the onset of the experiment, the mean plasma PRL concentrations in the LDC and LDM groups were similar (193.2 ± 10.9 and 192.3 ± 8.7 ng/ml, respectively) (Figure 2). During the subsequent collection (second), the PRL concentration in the LDC group was 166.2 ± 8.0 ng/ml; however, in the LDM group a significant decrease in the plasma PRL concentration was recorded as 56.5 ± 4.2 ng/ml (P < 0.001). During this time, the mean concentration of PRL in LDC ewes was significantly higher (P < 0.001) than the LDM ewes (Figure 2). The mean concentration continued to increase as day length (photoperiod) increased.
\n
Figure 2.
Mean plasma PRL concentrations in nursing-sheep lambing (LDC—a long-day control and LDM—a long-day melatonin-treated group, SDC—a short-day control and SDM—a short-day melatonin-treated group). See text for statistical comparisons.
\n
During the decreasing day length period, the PRL secretion profile was similar in SDC and SDM groups (Figure 2). In both groups, there was a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in plasma of PRL concentration in during the third week of lactation (14.7 ± 1.4 and 12.6 ± 1.0 ng/ml) compared with the initial concentration (60.6 ± 7.3 and 53.4 ± 6.0 ng/ml, respectively). No differences in PRL plasma concentrations were recorded between the SDC and SDM groups.
\n
The mean plasma GH concentration was significantly (P < 0.001) higher in the LDC group than the LDM group for the entire trial period. It was also observed that a gradual decrease in GH concentration took place in both groups (Figure 3). The mean GH concentrations in SDC and SDM ewes were at a similar level up to the second time of blood collection day (Figure 3). The only significant (P ≤ 0.001) rise in plasma GH secretion was recorded in the third week of lactation in the SDM group (12.23 ± 5.36 ng/ml) compared with the SDC group (6.58 ± 2.36 ng/ml).
\n
Figure 3.
Mean plasma PRL concentrations in nursing-sheep lambing (LDC—a long-day control and LDM—a long-day melatonin-treated group, SDC—a short-day control and SDM—a short-day melatonin-treated group). See text for statistical comparisons.
\n
In conclusion, the long-term treatment with exogenous melatonin of early-lactating sheep reduced the PRL secretion during the increasing photoperiod, despite strong stimulation by suckling. Moreover, in nursing ewes, melatonin stimulated GH secretion during the short photoperiod. It can therefore be assumed that melatonin may be indirectly affected by the level of milk production in sheep, especially following the nursing period.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Influence of metabolic hormones on prolactin secretion in lactation sheep
\n
\n
3.1. Role of orexin
\n
Studies on the role of orexin A in the control of prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (GH) secretion in rodents have produced inconsistent results. Orexin A may play a special role in animals’ sensitivity such as sheep to the day length changes. The aim of the study was to determine the role of orexin A in the control of prolactin secretion and growth hormone in sheep during different photoperiods. In vitro studies were carried out on 10 Polish Longwool ewes on 30 days of lactation during long photoperiod (May, LD, n = 5) and short photoperiod (December, SD, n = 5). After rearing lambs to 30 days of age, ewes were decapitated and the pituitaries were dissected and then cut along the longitudinal fissure into two halves, so that each half contained the glandular and nervous parts. Pituitary glands were collected and divided along the longitudinal fissure into two halves. Glands were incubated for 3 hours at 37°C in Parker medium with addition of orexin A—experimental group or in medium alone—control group. During the following 3-hour incubation, medium was exchanged every 15 minutes and a sample of 1 ml was collected and immediately frozen at −80°C until assay. Prolactin concentrations in the medium were determined radioimmunologically (RIA).
\n
In the long-day conditions (May), the pituitary explants of lactating sheep exhibited the strongest secretory activity during the first hour of incubation—significantly higher in orexin-treated group (O1) than the control group (K1), (P < 0.01). During the second hour of the incubation, PRL concentration decreased and reached the similar values in both groups. During the third hour, PRL concentration in O1 group was again significantly higher than that noted in K1 group (P < 0.01). In the short-day conditions (December), PRL concentration was significantly higher in orexin-treated group O2 during the first hour of incubation than the value observed in the control group—K2 (P < 0.01). The inverse relationship in prolactin release was observed during the second hour of incubation (P < 0.01), however, during the third hour, PRL concentration was again significantly higher in O2 group than the concentration noted in K2 group (P < 0.05). Collective analysis of the data showed that PRL concentrations were higher in experimental groups (O1 and O2) than the concentrations noted in control groups (K1 and K2) under both the long (May) and short (December) photoperiods (Figure 4).
\n
Figure 4.
Mean concentrations of prolactin in control and orexin A-treated pituitary explant cultures during long-day (LD) and short-day (SD) photoperiods. See text for statistical comparisons.
\n
GH release from the pituitary explants during the long-day conditions was maintained on significantly higher level in orexin-treated group O1 than control K1 group (P < 0.05), throughout the whole period of the incubation. In contrast, during the short-day period, GH release from the explants was significantly less in orexin-treated group O2 than that in the control K2 group (P < 0.05). The suppressive effect of orexin was observed during 2 hours. Collective analysis of the data showed that GH concentrations were higher under long-day conditions than under short-day conditions (Figure 5).
\n
Figure 5.
Mean concentrations of growth hormone in control and orexin A-treated pituitary explant cultures during long-day (LD) and short-day (SD) photoperiods. See text for statistical comparisons.
\n
The results of experiments performed on lactating sheep, i.e., animals with strong seasonality characteristics, are difficult to compare with others, however, in ewes as in rodents, orexin A is able to stimulate PRL secretion due to its direct effect on the lactotropic cells. The slight response of ovine pituitary glands to orexin during short days is probably due to the insensitivity of lactotropic cells to the orexin signal. The initiation and maintenance of lactation in sheep require the presence of many hormones, where PRL and GH seem to be the most important. Studies on lactating sheep showed that the ewes starting lactation during the period of increasing day length produced 50% more milk compared with sheep milked during the decreasing day length [15]. When June-lambed ewes were kept under artificial conditions of the long day (16L:8D), PRL level decreased as the natural length of a day became shorter. The fact that pituitary cells become refractory to over-repeated summer signal of the darkness hormone (melatonin) makes it impossible to lengthen lactation in sheep in the autumn-winter period [15]. Determining the role of orexins, especially orexin A, in regulating prolactin secretion may help to clarify the process of lactation maintenance in sheep, especially during the decreasing photoperiod. In conclusion, our results obtained on the pituitary explants demonstrated that the pituitary tissue of lactating sheep was sensitive to photoperiod and orexin A. We conclude that the secretion of PRL and GH from the ovine pituitary gland is negatively responsive to orexin A during SD, whereas orexin may stimulate PRL and GH secretion during LD. Further studies investigating orexin—PRL and GH interactions are needed.
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Role of TRH
\n
Recently, it was observed that TRH has a role to play in the initiation and maintenance of lactation in small ruminants. The aim of the performed study was to determine the impact of the TRH factor on secretion of prolactin in lactating sheep. In vitro studies were carried out on 10 animals. The pituitary gland of each sheep was collected at day 40 of lactation. In vitro incubations were performed on 12 microwell plates in Parker medium for 1 hour at 37°C. One half of the gland was incubated in pure Parker medium (control group), while the second (test group) half was incubated in Parker medium conditioned with exogenous TRH (TRH concentration—36 ug/100 ml medium). The medium was administered every 15 minutes and collected from the wells; in each case, 1 ml of medium was administered. The first 15 minutes served as blank and both halves of the pituitary remained in the same medium; the aim was to stabilize the secretory function of lactotropic cells. Prolactin measurements were made using RIA method. The tests carried out have demonstrated a stimulating impact of the TRH factor on secretion of prolactin. In the first 15 minutes of incubation, PRL concentration in the control group was 81.83 ± 11.4 pg/ml and was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) lower than the concentration (87.48 ± 11.6 pg/ml) observed in the test group. After 30 minutes of incubation, the control group showed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) lower prolactin level (74.04 ± 10.03 pg/ml) than the group with TRH-enriched medium (79.9 ± 10.6 pg/ml). After 45 minutes of incubation, the concentration of PRL in the control group was 59.66 ± 9.4 mg/ml and it was significantly (P ≤ 0.01) lower than that in the experimental group (10.2 ± 65.47 mg/ml) (Figure 6).
\n
Figure 6.
Mean concentrations of prolactin in control and TRH-treated pituitary explant cultures during long-day. See text for statistical comparisons.
\n
\n
\n
3.3. Role of ghrelin
\n
The process of initiation and maintenance of lactation in sheep requires the presence of a number of hormones. The aim of this study was to determine the role of ghrelin in the regulation of prolactin secretion in lactating sheep, based on the culture of in vitro pituitary. The study was conducted in May—long-day period. Pituitary was collected from 10 sheep on day 30 of lactation and divided along the longitudinal grooves so that each contains half of the glandular part and nerves. Incubations were carried out in vitro pituitary in 12 well plates for 1 hour at 37°C. The control group was incubated in a clean Parker medium and experimented in medium supplemented with exogenous ghrelin. The concentration of prolactin in the medium was determined by RIA method. The study showed stimulatory effect of ghrelin on the secretion of prolactin. The tests demonstrated a modulating effect of ghrelin on secretion of prolactin. Significant (P ≤ 0.05) increase in prolactin secretion after 30 minutes of incubation in the test group (89.6 ± 18.1 mg/ml) compared with the control group (73.6 ± 17.4 mg/ml) was noted. After 45 minutes of incubation, the concentration (69 ± 15.2 mg/ml) of prolactin in the test group was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) lower than the concentration (77.2 ± 17.6 mg ml) in the control group. After 60 minutes, prolactin level was significantly lower at P ≤ 0.05 in the test group (46.3 ± 8.4 mg/ml) than that in the control group (51.8 ± 9.6 mg/ml) (Figure 7). The results of studies conducted have demonstrated a modulating impact of ghrelin on secretion of prolactin. While increase in prolactin secretion during the incubation period was observed, reduction in prolactin secretion has been recorded in the test group. Administration of exogenous ghrelin during the period of physiologically high prolactin concentration in lactating sheep has not given a clear answer as to whether ghrelin stimulates the secretion of prolactin. The results suggest, therefore, that ghrelin does not directly affect the secretion of prolactin from the pituitary. The hitherto obtained test results showed that the effects of ghrelin may be dependent on the species of animals. In the case of sheep, seasonal breeders, the mechanism of ghrelin activity is complicated. As revealed by the studies in lactating sheep, administration of exogenous ghrelin modulates the secretion of prolactin.
\n
Figure 7.
Mean concentrations of prolactin in control and ghrelin-treated pituitary explant cultures during long day. See text for statistical comparisons.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Summary
\n
In seasonal animals, the process of triggering and maintaining lactation requires numerous hormones. The interaction of growth factors and other hormones is necessary in processes such as mammogenesis, lactogenesis and galactopoiesis. Due to the proper synchronization of pregnancy and changes in the area of the mammary gland, the gland is ready for the production of milk at the moment the offspring is born. Mammogenesis is a phenomenon that requires the participation of a number of hormones, including prolactin (PRL), growth hormone (GH), estrogens, progesterone, oxytocin, placental lactogen (PL) and insulin-like growth factor (somatomedin, e.g., IGF1). The coparticipation of IGF and GH is necessary in coordinating the differentiation and proliferation of epithelial cells. The manner in which the growth factors stimulate or inhibit the growth of cells or their influence on the cell cycle is not fully understood. The role of IGF in particular stages of functioning of the mammary gland (mammogenesis, lactogenesis, galactopoiesis and desiccation), particularly in the case of ruminants, is highly complicated. Recently, attention has been given to the metabolic hormones, particularly the role of leptin, orexin and ghrelin in mammogenesis, lactogenesis and galactopoiesis, respectively. Due to the recently increased interest in sheep’s milk products, an understanding of the endocrine mechanisms facilitating the maintenance of lactation during autumn and winter may contribute to the improved profitability and usefulness of sheep’s milk.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"seasonality sheep, melatonin, length days, biological clock lactotropic and metabolic hormone",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/52981.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/52981.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52981",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52981",totalDownloads:958,totalViews:375,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 4th 2016",dateReviewed:"October 7th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 10th 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Impact of light on animal behavior has been known for a long time—from 1925, Rowan [30] showed that lighting conditions influence gonad activity in birds and the related processes are controlled not only by means of intraorganic signals. Studies carried out in subsequent years have established that, also in mammals, the gland reacting to changes in light conditions is the pineal gland, producing a substance called melatonin. Biosynthesis of melatonin in most animals studied to date occurs at a rhythm dependent on the photocycle. The highest concentrations of this hormone—often called “the hormone of darkness”—are recorded at night. Seasonal changes in melatonin secretion conditioned by activity of the biological clock, known also as “biochemical calendar”, are the key signals in the annual reproductive cycles of animals exhibiting seasonality of reproduction. Seasonality in sheep refers not only to the reproduction itself but also to lactation. One of the main hormones conditioning initiation and maintenance of lactation, synthesis of milk proteins, fat and immunoglobulins is prolactin (PRL), secreted primarily by lactotrophic cells in the adenohypophysis. Prolactin is also produced locally by the mammary gland—the hormone of this origin is identical to prolactin secreted by the pituitary gland. Until now, it was considered that the level of milk production in mammals is determined by both genetic and environmental factors. However, in recent years, many studies focused on the role of light as a modulator of prolactin levels. In livestock, changes in light-period length play a very important role as this determines their productivity and milk yield. Photoperiod is particularly important in short-day breeder animals (sheep), for which the length of light period is associated with changes in melatonin level. The modulating effect of melatonin on secretion of prolactin may take place via two different mechanisms. One is associated with the circadian rhythm, wherein—directly or through the medium of a factor popularly termed “tuberalin”—melatonin stimulates the release of prolactin. However, this effect is short-lived and is most likely applicable only to prolactin stored in lactotrophic cells of the pituitary. The second mechanism regulating the secretion of melatonin and prolactin is associated with the annual rhythms of secretion—melatonin, due to its lipophilic characteristics, has a direct effect on the secretion of prolactin. Under natural conditions, the maximum concentration of prolactin in the blood of sheep is observed over the long-day period, during which the melatonin level decreases. The lowest prolactin concentration is observed over the short-day period, where melatonin levels are at their highest. Changes in secretion of prolactin during lactation in sheep undoubtedly affect the amount of milk produced.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/52981",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/52981",book:{slug:"current-topics-in-lactation"},signatures:"Edyta Molik and Dorota Zięba-Przybylska",authors:[{id:"139135",title:"Dr.",name:"Edyta",middleName:null,surname:"Molik",fullName:"Edyta Molik",slug:"edyta-molik",email:"rzmolik@cyf-kr.edu.pl",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Genetic predispositions and impact of environmental factors on the lactation process in sheep",level:"2"},{id:"sec_1_3",title:"1.1.1. Role of melatonin and the biological clock",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.1.2. Role of prolactin and the growth hormone (GH)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.1.3. Role of metabolic hormones",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6",title:"2. Influence of day length and melatonin on milking yield",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.1. Secretion melatonin and prolactin in day length",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.2. Secretion melatonin and prolactin in short days",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.3. Influence of day length and melatonin in prolactin secretion and growth hormone in suckling sheep",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Influence of metabolic hormones on prolactin secretion in lactation sheep",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1. Role of orexin",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2. Role of TRH",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.3. Role of ghrelin",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hazlerigg DG andersson H, Johnston JD, Lincoln G: Molecular characterization of the long-day response in the Soay sheep, a seasonal mammal. Current Biology. 2004; 14, 334–339.'},{id:"B2",body:'Lincoln G, Messager S andersson H, Hazlerigg D: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Temporal expression of seven clock genes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the pars tuberalis of the sheep: evidence for an internal coincidence timer. 2002; 99(21), 13890–13895.'},{id:"B3",body:'Lincoln GA: Decoding the nightly melatonin signal through circadian clockwork. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 2006; 252, 69–73.'},{id:"B4",body:'Lincoln GA: Melatonin entrainment of circannual rhythms. Chronobiology International. 2006; 23, 301–306.'},{id:"B5",body:'Dardente H: Does a melatonin-dependent circadian oscillator in the pars tuberalis drive prolactin seasonal rhythmicity. Journal of Neuroendocrinology. 2007; 19, 657–666.'},{id:"B6",body:'Lincoln GA, Clarke IJ: Photoperiodically-induced cycles in the secretion of prolactin in hypothalamo-pituitary disconnected rams: evidence for translation of the melatonin signal in the pituitary gland. Journal of Neuroendocrinology. 1994; 6, 251–260.'},{id:"B7",body:'Cardinali DP, Pévet P: Basic aspects of melatonin action cardinali. Sleep Medicine Reviews. 1998; 2(3), 175–190.'},{id:"B8",body:'Houghton DC, Young IR, Mcmillen IC: Photoperiodic history and hypothalamic control of prolactin secretion before birth. Endocrinology. 1997; 138, 1506–1511.'},{id:"B9",body:'Johnston JD: Photoperiodic regulation of prolactin secretion: changes in intra-pituitary signalling and lactotroph heterogeneity. Journal of Endocrinology. 2004; 180, 351–356.'},{id:"B10",body:'Molik E, Pasternak M, Błasiak M, Misztal T, Romanowicz K, Zieba D: The effect of the diversified signal of melatonin on milk yields in seasonally breeding sheep. Archive fur Tierzucht. 2013; 56(93), 924–929.'},{id:"B11",body:'Misztal T, Romanowicz K, Barcikowski B: Melatonin modulation of the daily prolactin secretion in intact and ovariectomized ewes. Neuroendocrinology. 1999; 69, 105–112.'},{id:"B12",body:'Mikolayunas CM, Thomas DL, Dahl GE, Gressley TF, Berger YM: Effect of prepartum photoperiod on milk production and prolactin concentration of dairy ewes. Journal of Dairy Science. 2008; 91(1), 85–90.'},{id:"B13",body:'Morrissey AD, Cameron AW, Tilbrook AJ: Artificial lighting during winter increases milk yield in dairy ewes. Journal of Dairy Science. 2008; 91(11), 4238–4243. doi: 10.3168/jds.2007-0918.'},{id:"B14",body:'Misztal T, Romanowicz K, Barcikowski B: Short-term modulation of prolactin secretion by melatonin in anestrous ewes following dopamine - and opiate receptor blockade. Experimental, Clinical, Endocrinology & Diabetes. 2001; 109, 174–180.'},{id:"B15",body:'Molik E, Misztal T, Romanowicz K, Wierzchoś E: Dependence of the lactation duration and efficiency on the season of lambing in relation to the prolactin and melatonin secretion in ewes. Livestock Science. 2007; 107, 220–226.'},{id:"B16",body:'Molik E, Misztal T, Romanowicz K, Wierzchoś E: The Influence of length day on melatonin secretion during lactation in aseasonal sheep. Archive fur Tierzucht. 2006; 49, 359–364.'},{id:"B17",body:'Molik E, Misztal T, Romanowicz K, Zięba D, Wierzchoś E: Changes in growth hormone and prolactin secretion in ewes used for milk under different photoperiodic conditions. Bulletin of the Veterinary Institute in Puławy. 2009; 53, 389–393.'},{id:"B18",body:'Andrade BR, Salama AA, Caja G, Castillo V, Albanell E, Such XJ: Response to lactation induction differs by season of year and breed of dairy ewes. Journal of Dairy Science. 2008; 91(6), 2299–2306. doi: 10.3168/jds.2007-0687.'},{id:"B19",body:'Misztal T, Górski K, Tomaszewska-Zaremba D, Molik E, Romanowicz K: Identification of salsolinol in the mediobasal hypothalamus of lactating ewes and its relation to suckling-induced prolactin and GH release. Journal of Endocrinology. 2008; 198, 83–89.'},{id:"B20",body:'Zieba D, Szczęsna M, Klocek-Górka B, Molik E, Misztal T, Williams GL, Romanowicz K, Stepien E, Keisler DH, Murawski M: Seasonal effects of central leptin infusion on melatonin and prolactin secretion and on SOCS-3 gene expression in ewes. Journal of Endocrinology. 2008; 198, 147–155.'},{id:"B21",body:'Górski K, Romanowicz K, Herman A, Molik E, Gajewska A, Tomaszewska-Zaremba D, Misztal T: The possible involvement of salsolinol and hypothalamic prolactin in the central regulatory processes in ewes during lactation. Reproduction in Domestic Animals. 2009;45(5), e54–e60. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0531.2009.01521.'},{id:"B22",body:'Górski K, Romanowicz K, Molik E, Fülöp F, Misztal T: Effects of salsolinol and its antagonistic analogue, 1-MeDIQ, on growth hormone release in nursing sheep. Acta Neurobiology of Experimental. 2010; 70, 20–27.'},{id:"B23",body:'Reinert BD, Wilson FE: Hormone thyroid and the hypothalamus-pituitary-ovarian axis in American Tree Sparrows (Spizella arborea). General and Comparative Endocrinology. 1996; 103, 60–70.'},{id:"B24",body:'Karsch FJ, Dahl GE, Hachigian TM, Thrun LA: Involvement of thyroid hormones in seasonal reproduction. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. Supplement. 1995; 49, 409–422.'},{id:"B25",body:'Klocek-Górka B, Szczęsna M, Molik E, Zieba D: The interaction of season, leptin and melatonin levels with thyroid hormone secretion, using an in vitro approach. Small Ruminant Research. 2010; 2, 231–235.'},{id:"B26",body:'Mitin V, Mikulec K, Karadjole I: Thyroid hormones and insulin concentration in sheep. Veterinarski Arhiv. 1986; 55, 73–75.'},{id:"B27",body:'Tucker HA: Hormones, mammary growth and lactation: a 41-year perspective. Journal of Dairy Science. 2000; 83, 874–884.'},{id:"B28",body:'Kokot F, Stupnicki R: Methods used radioimmunoassay and radiokompetycyjne in the clinic. PZWL, Warszawa, 1985.'},{id:"B29",body:'Morgan PJ: The pars tuberalis: the missing link in the photoperiodic regulation of prolactin secretion. Journal of Neuroendocrinology. 2000; 12, 287–295.'},{id:"B30",body:'Rowan W. Relation of light to bird migration and developmental changes. Nature. 1925; 115, 494–495.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Edyta Molik",address:"rzmolik@cyf-kr.edu.pl",affiliation:'
Department of Animal Biotechnology, Agricultural University in Krakow, Kraków, Poland
Department of Animal Biotechnology, Agricultural University in Krakow, Kraków, Poland
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Nevinsky",authors:[{id:"47119",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgy",middleName:null,surname:"Nevinsky",fullName:"Georgy Nevinsky",slug:"georgy-nevinsky"},{id:"178315",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Buneva",fullName:"Valentina Buneva",slug:"valentina-buneva"},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh"}]},{id:"50749",title:"Milk Proteins: Processing of Bioactive Fractions and Effects on Gut Health",slug:"milk-proteins-processing-of-bioactive-fractions-and-effects-on-gut-health",signatures:"Anindya Mukhopadhya and Torres Sweeney",authors:[{id:"178622",title:"Dr.",name:"Torres",middleName:null,surname:"Sweeney",fullName:"Torres Sweeney",slug:"torres-sweeney"},{id:"179091",title:"Dr.",name:"Anindya",middleName:null,surname:"Mukhopadhya",fullName:"Anindya Mukhopadhya",slug:"anindya-mukhopadhya"}]},{id:"50690",title:"Bioactive Peptides from Milk",slug:"bioactive-peptides-from-milk",signatures:"R. Anusha and O.S. Bindhu",authors:[{id:"180942",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradip",middleName:null,surname:"Bindhu",fullName:"Pradip Bindhu",slug:"pradip-bindhu"},{id:"185368",title:"Mrs.",name:"Anusha",middleName:null,surname:"R",fullName:"Anusha R",slug:"anusha-r"}]},{id:"51564",title:"An Important Milk Enzyme: Lactoperoxidase",slug:"an-important-milk-enzyme-lactoperoxidase",signatures:"Zeynep Koksal, Ilhami Gulcin and Hasan Ozdemir",authors:[{id:"178914",title:"Prof.",name:"İlhami",middleName:null,surname:"Gulcin",fullName:"İlhami Gulcin",slug:"ilhami-gulcin"},{id:"178915",title:"Dr.",name:"Zeynep",middleName:null,surname:"Köksal",fullName:"Zeynep Köksal",slug:"zeynep-koksal"}]},{id:"50211",title:"Bioactive Lactoferrin-Derived Peptides",slug:"bioactive-lactoferrin-derived-peptides",signatures:"Adham M. Abdou and Hend A. Elbarbary",authors:[{id:"151093",title:"Dr.",name:"Adham",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdou",fullName:"Adham Abdou",slug:"adham-abdou"},{id:"184758",title:"Dr.",name:"Hend",middleName:null,surname:"Elbarbary",fullName:"Hend Elbarbary",slug:"hend-elbarbary"}]},{id:"50445",title:"The Protein Component of Sow Colostrum and Milk",slug:"the-protein-component-of-sow-colostrum-and-milk",signatures:"P.K. Theil and W.L. Hurley",authors:[{id:"136109",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",middleName:null,surname:"Hurley",fullName:"Walter Hurley",slug:"walter-hurley"},{id:"185771",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Theil",fullName:"Peter Theil",slug:"peter-theil"}]},{id:"50213",title:"Donkey Milk Proteins: Digestibility and Nutritional Significance",slug:"donkey-milk-proteins-digestibility-and-nutritional-significance",signatures:"Donata Marletta, Flavio Tidona and Salvatore Bordonaro",authors:[{id:"178798",title:"Prof.",name:"Donata",middleName:null,surname:"Marletta",fullName:"Donata Marletta",slug:"donata-marletta"},{id:"184946",title:"Dr.",name:"Flavio",middleName:null,surname:"Tidona",fullName:"Flavio Tidona",slug:"flavio-tidona"},{id:"184947",title:"Prof.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Bordonaro",fullName:"Salvatore Bordonaro",slug:"salvatore-bordonaro"}]},{id:"50202",title:"Usefulness of Faecal Markers in Cow’s Milk Protein Immunomediated Reactions",slug:"usefulness-of-faecal-markers-in-cow-s-milk-protein-immunomediated-reactions",signatures:"Maria Elisabetta Baldassarre, Raffaella Panza and Nicola Laforgia",authors:[{id:"176045",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Elisabetta",middleName:null,surname:"Baldassarre",fullName:"Maria Elisabetta Baldassarre",slug:"maria-elisabetta-baldassarre"},{id:"176169",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaella",middleName:null,surname:"Panza",fullName:"Raffaella Panza",slug:"raffaella-panza"},{id:"176170",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Laforgia",fullName:"Nicola Laforgia",slug:"nicola-laforgia"}]},{id:"50598",title:"Allergenic Milk Proteins. Friend or Foe Nutritional Proteins?",slug:"allergenic-milk-proteins-friend-or-foe-nutritional-proteins-",signatures:"Guillermo Docena, Paola Smaldini, Renata Curciarello and Angela\nMaría Candreva",authors:[{id:"70459",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Docena",fullName:"Guillermo Docena",slug:"guillermo-docena"}]},{id:"50650",title:"Insights into the Interaction of Milk and Dairy Proteins with Aflatoxin M1",slug:"insights-into-the-interaction-of-milk-and-dairy-proteins-with-aflatoxin-m1",signatures:"Fabio Granados-Chinchilla",authors:[{id:"178287",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados",fullName:"Fabio Granados",slug:"fabio-granados"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"63918",title:"The Amazonia Third Way Initiative: The Role of Technology to Unveil the Potential of a Novel Tropical Biodiversity-Based Economy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80413",slug:"the-amazonia-third-way-initiative-the-role-of-technology-to-unveil-the-potential-of-a-novel-tropical",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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It is more urgent than ever to find alternative ways to develop the Amazon. This realization comes with the science-based analysis that the Amazon may have come much closer to a tipping point than previously thought. Recent analysis [1] lends support to the idea that the whole Amazon system might flip to second stable climate-vegetation equilibrium, with degraded savannas covering most of the central, southern and eastern portions of the basin.
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The drivers of such change are deforestation, climate change and increased forest fires. Given the simultaneous and synergistic impact of these drivers of change, total deforestation must not exceed 20–25% to avoid transgressing a potentially irreversible tipping point.
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Global climate considerations also matter: CO2 emissions from forest burning may well be the biggest unresolved global climate challenge. Without reductions in rainforest burning, including in the Amazon, international goals called for in ratified international Conventions for climate, biodiversity and water protection cannot be reached.
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The heightened critical risk to the Amazon forests calls for intensifying the search for disruptive socioeconomic alternatives and transformations. For many decades, contradicting strategies to develop the Amazon have been at work: conservation (we call it the ‘First Way’) versus resource-intensive development (which we call the ‘Second Way’). Considerable efforts were made by successive governments and by NGOs to reconcile those two ways through agricultural ‘sustainable intensification’,—albeit with meager results. The question therefore remains how to unveil the potential of a forest-biodiversity economy in the Amazon.
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We argue that a radically different ‘Third Way’ for sustainable development of the Amazon is within reach. We propose to utilize modern technologies of the 4th Industrial Revolution to harness the biological and biomimetic assets of the Amazon’s biodiversity. And we postulate that this Third Way can support a standing forest-flowing river bio-economy while being socially inclusive [2].
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2. Methodological framework
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The methodological approach of this study starts with a perfunctory examination of land use patterns in the Amazon. We examine two distinct models of land use pathways that in general terms may direct and define the maintenance or not of the Amazon forest. The first model is characterized by expansion of protected areas in the Amazon. It has been labeled ‘The First Way’. In the other model, it is prevalent intensive natural resources exploitation. It has been labeled ‘The Second Way’. In Section 3 of this chapter we briefly assess the overall results of these models in land use (for a comprehensive review, see [2]). We present updated literature data in support for current trends in land use changes, such as planned infrastructure, policies and evidence of ongoing land use processes and change.
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We pose two research questions to guide the next phase of the study: Overall, current and planned patterns of land use are environmentally sustainable in the long run? If not, what would be an alternative way? The answers are developed from the basic concepts proposed by [2] for the so-called Amazonia Third Way (A3W), which is based upon a novel economic model. This rests on an innovative, knowledge-based standing forest-flowing rivers bio-economy, valuing the Amazon’s renewable natural resources, biological and biomimetic assets, environmental services and biodiverse molecules and materials. A conceptual model of the A3W is proposed with the main drivers for its planning and implementation. Two of these drivers, namely Technological Drivers and Capacity Development, were considered key to the construction of A3W and are further developed in this work. The technologies of the 4th Industrial Revolution were coupled with core A3W guidelines, leading to the conceptual definition of the Amazonia 4.0. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the methodological approach used in this work.
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Figure 1.
Methodological diagram for the conceptual development of the Amazonia Third Way.
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3. Land use trends and planning: evidences of future land use change pathways
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The Amazon forest biome has a total of 45.4% of its territory formed by protected areas and indigenous territories [3] as depicted in Figure 2. This large area where the forest is predominantly protected or managed in a sustainable way [4, 5] is the ballast that makes the First Way a possible model of land use for the Amazon. An effective example of the implementation of conservation policies by Amazonian governments is given by Brazil. In the 1990–2013 period, protected areas of the Amazon have grown from 11 to 125 million hectares and indigenous land have grown from 33 to 125 million hectares [6]. Indigenous territories and protected areas occupy 47.85% of the Brazilian Amazon [7].
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Figure 2.
Protect areas in the Amazon basin. Source: Conservation International [8].
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On the other hand, the model of resource-intensive development (Second Way) rests mostly on economic activities that lead to the elimination of the forest and had cycles of intense growth for many decades. RAISG’s ‘Deforestation in the Amazon (1970–2013)’ (see Figure 3) study indicates that up to 9.7% of the region have been deforested until the year 2000, and that between that year and 2013 that rose to 13.3%, which represents 37% increase in 13 years [9]. Given that, by and large, Amazon deforestation rates increased in the last 5 years, it is likely that total deforestation is close to reaching 16% of the whole basin by 2018.
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Figure 3.
Mapping of deforestation of the Amazon forest biome for two distinct periods: the total accumulated up to 2000 (red color) and the increment from 2000 to 2013 (black color). Source: RAISG [9].
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Other studies show that protected areas and indigenous territories are not necessarily blocking deforestation completely. Although deforestation in indigenous territories in the Amazon remains relatively small, rates have grown 32% between 2016 and 2017 [7]. That points out that the barrier formed by indigenous land and other protected areas may vanish under the pressure of environmental crime and expansion of the commodities frontier, if adequate protection policies are not enforced. The increase of deforestation in some indigenous territories occurs at a time when the total rate of destruction of the Amazon rainforest fell by 16%, from 7892 km2 in August 2015–July 2016 to 6624 km2 in August 2016–July 2017. Notwithstanding the observed decrease, the level is still extremely high in absolute terms [7]. For the same period, the Sistema de Alerta de Desmatamento (SAD) from Instituto do Homem e Meio Ambiente da Amazônia (Imazon) detected an increase of 22% in the rate of deforestation in protected areas [10].
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Besides the current evidences indicating that protected areas may not be a good proxy for permanent forest conservation because the prevalent model of intensive use of natural resources is a permanent dynamic force toward disrupting it, there are evidences that the future can be even more challenging for the First Way to ensure forest conservation. Official Amazonian countries’ planned infrastructure developments indicate a huge increase in the construction of dams, roads, railroads and ports [11] throughout the Amazon basin. These types of infrastructure pose severe threats to the forestland through their construction and will almost certainly induce new developments of high deforestation profile.
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Land use change in the Amazon: sustainability or deforestation?
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In the Brazilian Amazon, which comprises 65% of the whole biome, deforestation figures from 2005 to 2017 show that a period of consistent decrease from 2004 to 2012 may be now reversed (Figure 4).
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Figure 4.
Annual deforestation rates in Brazilian Amazon (km2) from 2004 to 2017 and map of fraction of land cover change for 2010 (left panel) based on PRODES data [14] and projections of two possible scenarios for the Amazon in the future up to 2030 [13]: one of large deforestation (called ‘Fragmentation’) and one of declining deforestation (called ‘Sustainability’).
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Future land use change in the Amazon has been modeled [12, 13] for two rather opposed scenarios which lead to very different land cover changes (Figure 4). In one of them (the so-called ‘Fragmentation’ scenario), there is a continuous weakening of strict deforestation control policies successfully implemented from 2005 to 2012 in Brazilian Amazon and expansion of resource-intensive activities leading to agricultural and livestock expansion, resulting in over 50% of the Brazilian Amazon deforested by 2050. That is a scenario quite consistent with a progression in time of the Second Way. The other scenario in Figure 4 (the so-called ‘Sustainability’ scenario) calls for continuation and strengthening of the environmental policies to bring deforestation rates close to zero in the near future. It is the land cover change scenario compatible with the Third Way.
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The economic rationale to protect the tropical forests (The First Way or the ‘Sustainability’ scenario of Figure 4) rests to some degree upon the assumed low costs of maintaining intact forests as carbon storage and carbon sinks as a non-costly way to mitigate climate change in comparison to more expensive alternatives such as switching energy systems to renewable energy. Calculations for Brazil [15] estimate savings up to USD 100 billion/year to 2030 for Brazil to fulfill its NDC commitments to the Paris Accord if deforestation of the Amazon and Cerrado biomes can become smaller than 4000 km2/year and the bulk of its commitment to reduce national emissions 43% relative to 2005 emissions by 2030 come from land use policy and not from rapidly switching the energy matrix to renewable energy. However, it is clearly short-sighted to view only the carbon pathways as justification to preserve tropical forests. In fact, the Third Way Initiative raises various limitations of such approach (see [2]) and proposes that, in addition to ecosystems services, the economic potential of tropical forests rests on their biological and biomimetic assets to a larger extent.
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4. Identification of issues and opportunities for sustainable socioeconomic development
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In this chapter, we analyze the issues and circumstances that have impeded to date socioeconomic development based on Amazon biodiversity assets to occur in large scale. We point out the major failures in dimensions such as concepts (imagination challenges), knowledge (research and information challenges) and implementation (governance and policy challenges & entrepreneurial capacity failures), and the lack of imagination of the potential of an innovative green economy based on nature that goes beyond the Amazon regional institutions. In the opportunity side, we present a summary of a major review in the scientific and technical literature, which identified more than 200 species of Amazonian plants with known potential to provide raw for an initial low-end bio-economy in the Amazon. Many biodiversity products of the Amazonian flora follow have established value chains. We did qualitative analysis on a sample of it to identify its main characteristics, problems, virtues and bottlenecks. This analysis included selected cases of innovative entrepreneurship leveraging relatively low-end technologies and evaluation of 25 enterprises that markets non-timber products of Amazonian biodiversity. The sample encompasses a range of segments, types, sizes and bio-assets processed.
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4.1. Conceptual failures for sustainable tropical development
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The challenges to achieving sustainable development in the Amazon can be broadly categorized in three categories, similarly to a conceptual framework laid out for planetary health [16]:
conceptual failures (imagination challenges), such as the vision of the Amazon as only a source of commodities for the world and the lack of imagination to create alternative, less socially and environmentally damaging development pathways based on the Amazon’s renewable natural resources (e.g., its rich biodiversity), with value added via technological innovations for an inclusive ‘bio-industrial’ model of development, generating higher income jobs and sustainable development.
knowledge failures (research and information challenges), such as reduced amount of funding to research institutions in the Amazon, focus of research and monitoring systems on land use transformations, insufficient R&D investments by the private sector, and lack of innovative research, for instance, to unveil the hidden economic and societal value of biological assets, that is, a ‘tropical model of development’.
implementation failures (governance and policy challenges & entrepreneurial capacity failures), such as the failure of Amazonian countries’ government to recognize the risks of current and past development policies and the inefficient implementation of a diversified economy by public and private actors and even the failure to share more equitably the benefits of the current resource-intensive economy, reducing social and income inequities.
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The lack of imagination of the potential of an innovative green economy based on nature is not restricted to the Amazon regional institutions. Economic viability studies for the Amazon of serious institutions such as the World Bank almost completely ignore such potential. For example, recent studies [17] continue to see the value of forest products in an exclusively extractive way and assume very low returns. For example, less than $10 per year per hectare for non-timber products and just over $20 for sustainable selective logging. They ignore the concrete case of market success of agroforestry systems such as çaí, with proven annual returns of between $200 and $1000 per hectare [18], adding more than $1 billion annually to the regional economy [19].
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The intense resource-based agribusiness, mining and hydropower in the Amazon generate wealth and little of that is reinvested to propel health and education improvements within the Amazon beyond what is called for in the licensing process. That is in part due to the regressive taxation system and in part due to historical inefficiencies in investments in public services. For instance, the highest average per capita income region in Pará—annual per capita income of close to R$50,000—is the iron ore-rich Carajás area, with overall income higher than national average. However, social indicators such as health and education services are no different than other regions of the State of Pará and much lower than national averages. In summary, very little of the wealth remains in the region and improves the wellbeing of the population.
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The discourse on sustainability has been allowed to proceed as a sign of the times and to be aligned with global trends starting with the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio and to transmit an international aura of adherence, but in fact the concrete development policies for the Amazon never in fact deviated from the one devised by the military government out of geopolitical concerns: livestock and agricultural occupation to ensure sovereignty and exploitation of minerals, hydropower and fossil fuels as drivers for economic development.
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The intense and swift expansion of the Brazilian agriculture frontier in the Amazon resulted not only in the growth of the country’s GDP since the 1960s, but also in the rates of tree felling and greenhouse gas emissions—a consequence of conversion of forest landscapes into pasture for cattle raising and agricultural fields for grain production. Some numbers illustrate this human-orchestrated metamorphosis. Since 1997, more than 20 billion trees have been cut in the world’s largest rainforest. In 2016, more than half of the 8000 km2 of Amazon deforestation was transformed into new pastures. Currently, beef and dairy farming and production account for 45% of gross Brazilian GHG emissions.
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The main public policies responsible for the sharp reduction in deforestation from 2005 to 2014 seem to have already reached their limit, so much so that deforestation has been growing in 2015 and 2016, even in a period of historic economic recession, demonstrating once again the decoupling of deforestation with economic growth, neither when GDP grows nor when GDP shrinks. The underlying reasons for continued land cover change are more complex than simply responding to global markets.
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Unfortunately, we may not have a long window of time to change course with respect sustainable pathways for the Amazon. Tipping points not to be transgressed for forest-climate stability are in the horizon. The synergistic effects of land cover and climate changes, and with increased forest fires due to a combination of forest degradation, use of fire in agriculture and droughts, make the risks even greater. Earth system modeling [2] shows that the synergistic combinations of those drivers could lead to a relatively rapid transition to new forest-climate equilibrium with loss 50–60% of the forest over eastern, southern and central Amazon, replaced by degraded savannas and dry forests. The sense of urgency to avert a systemic risk to the Amazon forests must be kept in mind in the search for solutions.
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4.2. Potential of a biodiversity-based bio-economy
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The knowledge of nature, accumulated over 3.5 billion years of evolutionary processes, that finds in the Amazonian biodiversity one of its greatest showrooms, is a potentially very large bio-economic asset. The number of molecular substances with specific and usable functions is practically incalculable, since each existing species is itself a biochemical design laboratory. And most species are yet unknown and every 3 days, on average, one new species is discovered [20].
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Even though a single substance with a desired function discovered by the study of living things in the Amazon could be biologically synthesized and produced industrially by laboratories to reduce costs or to provide quantities demanded for world consumption, the intrinsic knowledge that generated its form and function was stored in the forest and ready to be copied.
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A review carried out in the scientific and technical literature as part of this work identified more than 200 species of Amazonian plants with known potential to provide raw for an initial low-end bio-economy in the Amazon. A reduced listing of the 20 very promising species that have been widely used, integrate local productive chains or show strong potential use in food, cosmetics, perfumery, medicinal, advanced materials and biotechnology have their distribution modeled. The listing includes rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora), Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), cumaru/tonka (Dipteryx odorata), açaí (Euterpe oleracea) and rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) among other. A sample distribution for rosewood in the territory is shown in Figure 5.
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Figure 5.
Geographic distribution for rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora) in the Brazilian Amazon [21].
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Few of the biological assets of Amazonian biodiversity are known, others are being researched for their nutritional, structural, biochemical and market properties, to become products of future use.
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A good example of this transition in the area of food is the açaí fruit of the Euterpe oleracea palm, widely and historically consumed only by local populations until the 1990s. From then on, it gained the world for its nutritional and functional qualities and its flavor, even with the operational difficulties of being a fresh, minimally processed fruit transported frozen from the vicinity of the forest to consumer markets elsewhere in Brazil and abroad (e.g., to the US and Japan) [18]. Its botanical genus (Euterpe) bears the name of one of the nine muses of Greek mythology, daughter of Zeus, who represents pleasure and happiness, as many consumers of açaí pulp may well attest.
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Like açaí, many of the Amazonian biodiversity foods are traditionally consumed by the local population, with marked flavors and excellent nutritional properties, as well as functional foods and nutraceuticals in many cases. Camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia (HBK) McVaugh), for example, has 4 times more vitamin C than acerola [22]; murici (Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Rich.), has excellent antioxidant properties [23], as well as açaí, that reached global markets. In addition to antioxidant activity and being a source of five types of carotenes, taperebá (Spondias mombin L.) is a rich source of vitamin A, at the rate of 100 g of fruit corresponding to more than 37% of the daily needs of the vitamin [24]. Besides the well-known Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), which is already a nut consumed worldwide for a long time, there are many other fruits and seeds of the Amazon with potential to gain new markets, such as cumaru-ferro (Dipteryx odorata); cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum); uxi (Endopleura uchi (Huber) Cuatrecasas); graviola (Annona muricata L.); patauá (Oenocarpus bataua Mart.); guaraná (Paullinia cupana); priprioca (Cyperus articulatus L.); and bacuri (Platonia insignis), among many others.
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The raw materials of Amazonian biodiversity are used in the industry of essences and oils to make cosmetic and perfumery products. As an example, the cumaru-ferro (Dipteryx odorata) fermented seeds produce an essential and industrial oil, while coumarin (coumarinic anhydride), which is an aromatic essence used as a narcotic and stimulant [25]. This oil is also used as a fixative in the perfumery industry [26]. Another example is andiroba (Carapa guianensis) available in the market in the form of essential oil, with anti-inflammatory, moisturizing, healing properties [27], being also sold for especially sensitive skin care cosmetics [28].
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Açaí has also been studied and is used far beyond food: in the cosmetics sector its oil has properties for skin nutrition, revitalization and hydration, it contains omega 6, it is an antioxidant agent rich in polyphenols indicated for the formulation of anti-aging products [29, 30]. The anthocyanin present in large quantities in the açaí pulp was used in an application as a natural marker for teeth bacterial plaque [31] with large potential markets. In another development, nanoparticles of açaí oil are used to treat cancerous lesions [32]. Proving that applications of biodiversity raw materials tend to be innumerable, especially when combined with modern technological tools and cutting-edge research, a natural plastic was developed from açaí, with polyurethane produced from the seeds [33]. Discarding the abundant açaí berry seeds is a potential environmental problem in the pulp for food production cycle. The development of a plastic from the seeds also shows the possibilities of using by-products of a production chain in other associated chains for an even more efficient bio-economy with minimized externalities.
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Other examples of uses of bio-composites are ucuuba (Virola surinamensis) from which a patented [34] butter is produced, which is capable of providing a matte effect in the skin. From the leaves and branches of the pau-rosa (Aniba rosaeodora Duckei), the linalool compound is extracted [35] which is one of the traditional components of the classic Channel No. 5 perfume. Currently, the following products of the Amazonian biodiversity for diversified products are on the market for cosmetics applications: Babaçu (Orbignya oleifera) oil, Buriti (Mauritia flexuosa) oil, Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) oil, Copaíba (Copaífera officinalis) oil, Passionflower (Passiflora edulis) oil, Urucum (Bixa orellana) oil, Patauá (Oenocarpus bataua) oil, Pequi (Caryocar brasiliense) oil, Bacuri (Platonia insignis) oil, Cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum) oil, Murumuru (Astrocaryum murumuru) oil and Ucuúba (Virola surinamensis) butter.
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Research in the medical field confirms the value of many indigenous traditional medicines and goes beyond, with its own and advanced research methods [36]. As an example, we can mention the chichuá (Maytenus guianensis Klotzsch ex Reissek) that presents anti-leishmaniosis [37] and anti-microbial [38] compounds; guaraná (Paullinia cupana) with its properties for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease [39], priprioca (Cyperus articulatus L.) with anticonvulsant properties [40], babaçu (Orbignya phalerata) with a cicatrizing compound [41], sacaca (Croton cajucara Benth.) with hypoglycemic properties [42] and as ulcer healing [43], pracaxi (Pentaclethra macroloba Willd.) with anti-hemorrhagic activity [44] and natural larvicide [45], in addition to estoraque (Ocimum micranthum Willd.) with its antifungal [46] and antioxidant [47] properties.
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Quercetin is a flavonoid that has the ability to suppress free radicals and thereby help preserve the brain and heart, keep the immune system active, protect the body against cancer, and act to prevent diseases, especially neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease [48]. Quercetin, present in many foods but in low concentrations, is obtained from the natural purification process of the fava d’anta (Dimorphandra mollis Benth) [49]. And the uncera (cat’s claw) (Uncaria tomentosa and Uncaria guianensis) and is largely used in the pharmaceutical industry [50]. Pilocarpine, an alkaloid with extensive use in ophthalmology [51], is extracted from jaborandi (Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf ex Holm). These are many other examples of species already studied that integrate or can integrate local production chains in the production of drugs and phytotherapeutics.
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But the biological assets also have application in industry, with emphasis on endophytic fungi (Coniochaeta lignaria, for example) with the capacity to degrade lignin in the cell walls of plant cells, with great potential for the bioenergy industry [52].
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Another study with phytosterols isolated from endophytic fungus (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), an Amazon fungus, offers potential sources of novel natural products for exploitation in medicine, agriculture and the pharmaceutical industry [53]. Microorganisms are an attractive source of new therapeutic compounds, they serve the ultimate readily renewable, and inexhaustible source of novel structures bearing pharmaceutical potential [54].
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State-of-the-art research can unveil new and surprising uses even for forest assets that have been exploited for a long time. For instance, that is the case for natural rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). When combined with nanoclay composites using biomechanical technology, it results in an advanced material to be utilized as artificial skin (Biocure)—a patented active material that induces the formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis) and new tissues (neoformation) on the surface on which it is applied [55]. Latex and clay compounds have also been developed to manufacture high-tech tire (run cooler, thus increasing tire durability and fuel economy), anti-rust coatings, tennis balls, gloves and masks [55].
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4.3. Summary of Amazon value chains
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The biodiversity products of the Amazonian flora follow well-defined paths between the origins of the raw material, to its processed form for final consumption or to be reprocessed into components for very high specialty products. The value-added paths of biodiversity products involve multiple steps and social and business actors, varying according to the nature of the raw material, the products to be processed and the location of the harvesting and processing regions. As a general rule, the production of the raw material, which may be fruit, seed, sap, or other part or component of the plants occurs in the rural environment. They may come from primitive areas of natural forest or managed agroforestry systems (SAF), such as natural forests with extensive extractive species and intercropped planted forests.
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The rural area is home to communities where the first basic stages of preparation of the material collected or harvested for subsequent supply occur, such as cleaning, threshing, drying and other low-tech processes. Logistic processes such as the transport of the material from the collection and production sites to the pre-processing sites, storage and shipment to the processing centers also occur in the rural domain. In every aspect of this beginning of the value chain, there are opportunities for individual, family, cooperative or business based on local entrepreneurship.
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After pre-processing, the materials are taken by boat or truck to companies or cooperative facilities in the Amazon or in another region in Brazil or in other Amazonian countries (e.g., Bolivia) where most or the entire product’s actual processing takes place, in facilities with varying degrees of automation. From there it is ready for consumption, locally or in markets elsewhere in Brazil or abroad. Based on a comprehensive study we conducted with value chains of five plant species, we developed a conceptual diagram that represents the main places, environments and activities carried out throughout the whole transformation cycles, from inputs origin to final consumption, as shown in Figure 6.
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Figure 6.
Conceptual diagram of the location of the basic stages of value chains of Amazonian biodiversity products. Solid lines mean the last stage of a product in the value chain [21].
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Not all paths shown in Figure 6 have fair remuneration in the value adding they represent. A 2005 study for cumaru (Dipteryx odorata) value chain in the State of Pará, Brazil, illustrates the problem [56]. The markup was 75.0% for the intermediary, 166.7% for wholesale companies in towns nearer production areas, and 233.3% for the wholesale companies from Belém, the State capital. The total markup from the beginning to the end of the market chain was approximately 500%. The price of the nut ranged from R$3.00 per kg for the collectors to R$18.00 per kg for the wholesale companies. It was observed that the exporting companies, which generated unequal gains within the chain, imposed the major additions to the product price. There were approximately 2700 families involved in cumaru nuts collection, exported mainly to Japan, France, Germany and China.
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Another evidence of such imbalance in the value sharing was revealed by our study of five value chains. While Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) seeds, mostly from manual forest extraction, come from dozens of places along the Amazon basin, the value aggregation of such yields takes place only on just a few locations furnished with processing plants, as shown in Figure 7.
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Figure 7.
Differences between the many places where Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) is collect in the forest (left map) and the few places where there is value aggregation of it (right map), in the Brazilian Amazon, found in a sample survey [21].
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Recent corporate social responsibility efforts focused on purchasing biodiversity products from communities or cooperatives have generated more balanced and fair-trade relations, as with the operations of a range of forest products purchased by the Natura company and açaí purchased by the Sambazon company. However, the typical market distortions in the values paid to the extractivist-producer by intermediaries still has to be resolved.
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Agroforestry systems (SAF—Sistema Agroflorestal) are agricultural crops intercropped with tree species, used to restore forests and recover degraded areas. The SAF technology overcomes terrain limitations, minimizes degradation risks inherent in agricultural activity and optimizes the achieved productivity. There is a reduction both in soil fertility losses and pest attacks. The use of trees is fundamental for the recovery of ecological functions, since it allows the reestablishment of much of the relationships between plants and animals. The tree components are inserted as a strategy to combat erosion and the contribution of organic matter, restoring soil fertility. Two successful tropical agroforestry projects illustrative of this system in the Amazon are the CAMTA cooperative [57] in Tomé Açu, in the state of Pará and the RECA cooperative [58] in Abunã, in the state of Rondônia.
With the advancement of consumer markets, technologies and business models, new business development opportunities have emerged from the products of Amazon biodiversity. Four examples of this innovative entrepreneurship model were selected to demonstrate the combination of technology and corporate social responsibility for the generation and fair distribution of benefits to all links and actors of value chains. Two of the examples illustrate production companies and the other two examples show companies that developed digital platforms to increase efficiency in transactions and traceability of biodiversity products.
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The first example is the Tahuamanu company, a Bolivian producer of Brazil nut products, which illustrates the case of an Amazonian company that innovated by applying relatively low-end technologies, to all links of the Brazil nut productive chain, reflected in tremendous increases in productivity and benefits also to collectors at the base of the value chain. The 2016 severe El Niño-related drought in many parts of the Amazon may have wreaked havoc to the Brazil nut production that supplies the company. It is reported a 70% drop in harvest in 2017, responsible for laying off over 300 employees from his Cobija processing plants [59]. This unprecedented fall in production raise the question of the potential impact of climate change on the new development paradigm for the Amazon.
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The second example is the NATURA cosmetics company and its bio-industrial operations. It is probably the most successful case of exploration Amazon biodiversity assets within the most desirable parameters of socio-environmental excellence. Natura has developed a network of suppliers of raw materials from Amazon biodiversity that organizes production of almost 3000 families across the region. It supports training programs and community empowerment toward sustainability. The example of the ucuuba butter shows how the combination of innovative R&D and training communities in sustainable exploitation can deliver good results. Ucuuba trees were used as timber for broom sticks and that was accelerating risks of tree extinction. Butter was developed out of the ucuuba seeds and that new product found its way in cosmetics of high added-value. Floodplain communities of the Marajó Island were trained to collect and pre-process the seeds for sale to Natura and to other companies which also process ucuuba butter. The net profit of those operations for those families is three times larger per year as compared to the only once income for felling the tree. Natura is also promoting the bio-industrialization in the Amazon itself. It opened the Ecopark, an industrial complex in Benevides, near Belém, state of Pará.
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The third example is the FLORAUP digital platform that shows how information technology can be used to foster direct connection between local producers, from their remote locations in the forest, with potential buyers of their Amazon biodiversity products. After 1 year on air, the platform has only 57 registries, perhaps due to the relatively low digital connectivity of remote communities across the Amazon.
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Finally, the fourth example is ORIGENS BRASIL, a production chain tracking digital platform. The platform allows anybody to know instantly the origin of the product that contains assets of Amazonian biodiversity since its raw material harvesting, its history and actors involved in the production. This is done simply by pointing a smartphone to the product packaging, which is equipped with a QR Code that accesses a remote live database. If one assumes that responsible consumers are an accelerating trend, such traceability platforms are in dire need for the Amazon.
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4.5. Traditional bio-industries
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Natural products developed on a sustainable basis have a long history in the Amazon since the rubber boom years. An increasing demand for these products for traditional and innovative uses in the food, cosmetics, perfumery and pharmaceutical industries has promoted new business opportunities in the Brazilian Amazon. As part of this trend, advances in biotechnology research have demonstrated a key role in expanding this potential, thus boosting the value chains that have as one of the main attributes the bio-industries focused on the processing of forest raw materials into biodiversity products.
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This research evaluated 25 enterprises that markets non-timber products of Amazonian biodiversity. The sample encompasses a range of segments, types, sizes and bio-assets processed. From international corporations with more than 100 years in the market of extracting the finest Amazonian essences, to innovative indigenous entrepreneurship of collecting and selling forest’s native species seeds in large amounts to support much needed reforestation efforts elsewhere.
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These industries deliver a vast array of products: It ranges from an exfoliating agent of açaí seed (Beraca company) to a powder form of the same fruit for energy drinks (Yerbalatina Phytoactives and 100% Amazônia companies). The Amazon-based bio-industry is also well-defined and consolidated in the supplying chains of oils and essences. As early as 1921, the essential oil extracted from the pau-rosa (Aniba rosaeodora) wood, a native tree from the Amazon, which is rich in the aromatic compound linalool, was the main ingredient of the famous French perfume Chanel n° 5 [35]. From them on, the supplying of the finest and unique ingredients from the Amazon biodiversity thrived, adopting, mostly, adequate standards for social and environmental sustainability, which was not always the case with Pau-Rosa. Today, extracts of cumaru are present in the most famous and popular fragrances (Givaudan company) and the ingredients market for the cosmetics industry is supplied with essential oils of priprioca (Laszlo Aromaterapia & Aromatologia companies), pracaxi (Amazon Forest Trading company); copaiba (IFF—International Flavors & Fragrances company) and andiroba (Amazonoil company), among many other.
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Another sector that has shown significant growth is the food, functional food and nutraceutical industries (e.g., Sambazon, Tahuamanu companies). Companies in this sector tap in the healthy food market and, by applying relatively low-end technologies, have put Amazon bio-actives available worldwide at anyone’s table. As a rule of thumb, most sectors have benefited from the adoption of newer and accessible technologies in their processing facilities. From Brazil nuts micro-factories for peeling seeds (COOPERACRE cooperative) to agrosilviculture producer’s cooperatives focused on traditional bio-industries (CAMTA, RECA cooperatives).
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In our study, we analyzed many products offered by the Amazon traditional bio-industries based on two defining axis: the amount of technology involved in the making of their products and the degree to which they are closer or further to their original state as furnished by Nature. It was a qualitative analysis and it shows status classes for these products. The diagram in Figure 8 shows the result of this qualitative analysis.
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Figure 8.
Diagram depicting status classes for Amazon bio-industry products based on the amount of technology involved in their making and the degree to which they are closer or further to their original raw material state as furnished by nature [21].
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As it might be expected, values such as environmental sustainability, social development and fair-trade are a matter of concern for virtually all operations, to a greater or lesser extent, from small chestnut cooperatives to the giants of the essences and cosmetics sector. Nevertheless, there are reports of large traditional bio-industry operations that required botanical resources at large scales that have driven transformation in the supplying of natural asset, once coming from extractivism or agroforestry systems, into an asset generated from monocultures in the agroindustry’s usual patterns. It also disrupted traditional handmade extractive processes [60]. Accommodating increasing demands for bio-products with limitations inherent to Nature’s carrying capacity and traditional and local people culture, needs and potentials for insertion into new economic development paradigm is an imperative challenge for a real sustainable Amazon development strategy.
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The industrial sector transforming biodiversity assets into available consumables act in the interface between biodiversity, biotechnology and bio-industry, which involves a complex system of partnerships between companies, universities, research institutes, official financial agencies, organized communities and cooperatives inside and outside the Amazon region.
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5. Amazonia Third Way as a disruptive alternative
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The Amazonia Third Way initiative is conceived as a disruptive social and technological transformation toward a sustainable Amazonian development path. It calls for ‘an Amazon-specific Fourth Industrial Revolution innovation (4IR) “ecosystem”. This system must be able to rapidly prototype and scale innovations that apply a combination of advanced digital, biological, and material technologies to the Amazon’s renewable natural resources, biomimetic assets, environmental services, and biodiverse molecules and materials’ [2].
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In support of socioeconomic development, systemic innovations will also apply to enhancing biodiversity-based value chains. Ideally, these would shape a unique ‘Amazon-brand’ able to conquer global markets [61, 62, 63].
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The Amazonia Third Way Initiative promotes in-depth research on alternative pathways for sustainably developing the Amazon territory, in harmony with the twenty-first century’s Zeitgeist. Forests in the Amazon are the result of evolution over millions of years. Nature has developed a wide variety of biological assets, which include metabolic pathways, and genes of life on land, in aquatic ecosystems, and in their natural products—both, chemical and material—in conjunction with biomimetic assets, that is, the functions and processes used by nature.
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4IR technologies increasingly harness these assets across many industries from pharmaceutics to energy, food, cosmetics, materials and mobility. Indeed, they are making profits, but to date these profits have not been channeled back to conserve the Amazon and to support the custodians of nature—indigenous and traditional communities—and also urban population in the region.
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Within a proper legal and ethical framework, the Amazonia Third Way Initiative offers unprecedented opportunities to local populations to develop a vibrant, socially inclusive ‘standing-forest, flowing-river’ green economy. By harnessing nature’s value through physical, digital and biological technologies of the 4th Industrial Revolution, we can simultaneously protect the Amazon ecosystems and their traditional custodians.
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The region is still largely disconnected from the main centers of technological innovation dealing with 4IR technologies and the advanced bio-economy. The Amazonia Third Way Initiative is conceived as a multi-level path toward a new inclusive bio-economy, combining a highly innovative, entrepreneurial and technological economy with the re-valuation of non-timber forest products and industries with low-end technologies.
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5.1. Determinants of sustainable development pathways for the Amazon
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The conceptual framework for the Third Way follows the overall structure of Figure 9 for the determinants of sustainable pathways for the Amazon.
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Figure 9.
Determinants of sustainable pathways for the Amazon. The Amazonia third way initiative seeks ‘to add value to the heart of the forest’ by promoting a novel sustainable development paradigm based upon harnessing biological and biomimetic assets of Amazon biodiversity.
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At the broader level, first we need to understand the nature of the socioeconomic and political drivers accounting for the rapid transformation of the Amazon in the last 50 years and the consequences of the resource-intensive development policies in action in contrast with the view of forest preservation and setting aside large tracts for conservation.
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As mentioned before, the Third Way Initiative is not one more attempt to reconcile resource-intensive development with conservation. Instead, it will seek to implement the twenty-first century paradigm of knowledge societies to Amazon realities through research and development, entrepreneurship, twenty-first century skills and education, and fit for purpose sustainable development policies toward a standing forests-flowing rivers inclusive bio-economy.
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Second, we deal with solution spaces, recognizing that an important effort has been done to identify and diagnose the risks to the Amazon of the current development actions and policies, including their fragilities. We are in urgent need to find feasible solutions of a different nature: driven by communities and by an entrepreneurial revolution powered by the Fourth Industrial Revolution and not only by powerful legacies, assisted by altogether more sustainable policies based on knowledge, be it scientific/technological or traditional.
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Third, we discuss in more detail the role of some key enablers and catalysts to jumpstart sustainable pathways for the Amazon in two categories, those to enable a biodiversity-based development, namely research, development and innovation; harnessing the Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies to unlock the economic value of nature; and conducive regulatory framework; and those necessary to implement such novel paradigm, agroforestry systems; innovative entrepreneurship; bio-industries; product-based and knowledge-based value chains.
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5.2. Fourth Industrial Revolution and innovation ecosystems in the Amazon
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Within the Amazonia Third Way initiative, an approach has been developed to operationalize the principles and practices that will allow a proposed paradigm shift for Amazon sustainable development. It defines seven interconnected realms: (1) the existing natural knowledge; (2) the ability for learning from nature; (3) the capacity to applying biodiversity-based knowledge to human needs; (4) the capacity to producing biodiversity-based goods and solutions; (5) the insertion of biodiversity-originated products on a local-to-global bio-economy; (6) the fair sharing of socioeconomic benefits and life quality improvement for all; and (7) the rising of an Amazon Biome intrinsic valuing. With the advancements of 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR) technologies and its wide accessibility, we identified ways it can interact and make feasible a game-changing realization of such realms. We call ‘Amazonia 4.0’ the prospects of realization of these seven elements by means of technological accessibility and resources, and market transformation made available by the 4IR.
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The existing Natural knowledge is an initial condition of the system; it does not depend on any human technology. It is a source of information we inherited from evolutionary processes, occurring associated with 3.7 billion years old life on Earth. The A3W initiative targets to keep it going its course, valorizing it in many ways.
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Learning from Nature is inherent to humans ever since we became a species (Homo sapiens) as a part of the Natural system. Ancient and traditional knowledge come greatly from observing and interacting with the natural elements. As we evolve, we became more apt to understand Nature’s intrinsic knowledge with the building of science and its instruments. With 4IR technologies, which include biotechnology, advanced computing, genomics, nanosciences, materials science and advanced sensor platforms, we can learn from Nature in a depth and such fast pace never imagined before.
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Applying knowledge from Nature to human needs is the next natural consequence. This is the realm of invention and innovation. 4IR technologies can boost invention and prototyping of new products and solutions. More than just facilitating invention, it creates demand for new solutions, advanced materials and innovative products.
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Once a new biodiversity-based product or solution is developed, producing it in varying scales is the next outcome. It may utilize biodiversity inputs directly on its making or can only be sourced from biodiversity knowledge. To carryout industrial operation in the Amazon has been always a challenging, if not impossible, operation. With the changes brought by 4IR technologies and market demands, industrial equipment became smarter, lighter and customizable. It became possible to have plenty of electrical solar-powered energy in the forest, with equipment connected with satellite internet and local crews trained with virtual and augmented reality, for example. With 4IR technologies, including advanced sensors and AI, it is possible to control more precisely the use of natural resources to prevent possible negative impacts.
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Insertion of biodiversity-originated products on a local-to-global bio-economy is a key for driving wide interest in conserving the bio-assets. Different than the traditional model of supplying commodities for further processing and generating value away from its origins, 4IR technologies and new manufacturing paradigm eases and redefines the possibilities to produce in close association with the local people on local environments, yet reaching global markets. Complicated logistic typical of a vast forest territory can be easily offset using self-flying cargo drones, for example.
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Fair sharing of socioeconomic benefits and life quality improvement for all involved, including forest stakeholders and final consumers can be levered by 4IR technologies and social changes brought by the technological revolution. With distributed ledger technologies like blockchain and holochain, we propose the creation of the Amazon BioBank. It is a framework for attributing value to many instances of Amazon socio-biodiversity. Biological assets, biomimetic insights and discoveries, traditional knowledge, local people forest skills and other sources of resources will be registered in the Amazon BioBank digital platform through holochain distributed ledger technology [64]. The Amazon BioBank share common principles with the Earth Bank of Codes [65].
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Aside from any specific technology, the ultimate, long-term result of these chain of events and realizations would be the rising of a socially shared Amazon Biome intrinsic value. The social valuing of Nature and its knowledge as an end in itself is an ideal state of relationship between humans and other elements of the natural system. By becoming acquainted and perceiving many times actual benefit from products and solution based on the Amazon biodiversity, made available by the chain of events depicted above, one can realize the value of the tropical forest. As a utilitarian value first, that over time may crystalize as core life, intrinsic value, forming the personal and social foundations to hold attitudes and behaviors that imply, support and demand conserving the Amazon Biome.
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The ‘innovation ecosystems’ proposed in the Amazonia Third Way initiative are creative-productive arrangements based on the Amazon 4.0 principles that synergistically align several ‘ignition powers’ for a novel Amazon bio-economy. Major research laboratories and universities are knowledge centers on biodiversity. Processes, molecules and genetic information with potential for diverse uses are discovered on daily basis. Start-ups are companies that specialize in rapidly transforming knowledge into business that tends to transform traditional consumer and service markets. Prospects for the industries with Internet of Things, or 4.0, announce new products to be created with computational tools, to be ‘uploaded’ and produced at any scale. Inventors and new businesses can idealize customized or niche-specific products, which are done automatically, even overnight. A dynamically well-developed and structured environment for locally rooted associations of (1) knowledge, (2) business and (3) production form the ‘innovation ecosystems’. They are a way for transforming the biological wealth of the Amazon into economic wealth, locally anchored, with social benefits for communities and sustainable mechanisms for conservation of the forest.
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5.3. Capacity development as a necessary condition for the Amazonia Third Way initiative
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To begin to walk down the Third Way we need, above all, capacity development.
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As results of the long-standing Program to Protect the Rainforests of Brazil (PPG-7) show, the lack of entrepreneurial skills has stood in the way of developing a non-timber bio-economy in the Amazon. Only with field-based knowledge and supporting academic curricula can tap into the Amazon’s biological and biomimetic assets, and the mainstreaming of a standing forest-flowing river, biodiversity-based bio-economy be achieved. To do that, we propose the development of a capacity program ‘Amazon Creative Labs’ (ACL). The program is designed to promote technical, technological and entrepreneurial capacity development focused on non-timber products of the Amazon biodiversity, with training events carried out directly at local communities and towns throughout Amazon region.
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We propose the launching of Amazon Creative Labs (ACLs)—laboratories for innovative experimentation set up throughout Amazonia. They will provide intensive training linked to local potentials to generate a virtuous insertion on bio-economy-related new opportunities. Typically, Creative Labs will be located in smaller communities, villages and towns, assembled on tents or on floating platforms packed with state-of-the-art equipment and technology for both, wide audience learning processes and core value chain local development.
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Amazon Creative Labs will enable development of small-scale innovation ecosystems for co-design, co-development and co-creation of solutions and applications, serving as an effective interface with the knowledge and practices of the Amazon people.
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The Amazon Creative Labs will operationalize sustainable ‘Solution Spaces’ (see Figure 1). It is of critical importance that the Labs be community oriented, joining technology and traditional knowledge, and designed to contribute toward a strong local and regional economy.
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The Labs will promote capacity development activities focused on a number of products of Amazon biodiversity illustrative of an array of bio-economic and even bio-artistic applications, such as food, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, fragrances, pharmaceuticals, industrial oils, art crafts, bio-art, biomimicry, etc. Training activities can enable local communities to gather more information on the natural resources available to them, including the use of high-end technologies such as, genome sequencing.
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The exposure to 4IR technologies will allow innovative concepts to emerge. With the assistance of technology experts on the one hand, and entrepreneurship specialists on the other, groups of participants from Amazonian communities, villages and towns will be invited to develop new applications and to prototype (at least digitally) such innovations. The Labs’ creative environment will bring 4IR concepts like mass customization, democratized invention and smart & autonomous factories, powered by Industrial IoT, to a meaningful level with practical outcomes accessible at planned local and regional clusters of custom-sized processing and manufacturing plants.
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Alongside communities—forest people, riverine communities and agroforestry farmers—young undergraduate or just graduated students interested in creating sustainable biodiversity-based businesses in the Amazon will be engaged. The expectation is that such ‘on the ground’ collaboration will give rise to new partnerships.
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The Amazon Creative Labs design includes solar photovoltaic panels, convertors and batteries, for steady power supplying, and connection to broadband satellite internet. These features will allow digital, internet-connected equipment to work for prototyping potential applications of new products and processes. These infrastructures, operating in remote regions of the Amazon, are also proof of concept of how the newest available and accessible technologies can reach and benefit the whole spectrum of the social pyramid, from their everyday life to new work opportunities.
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ACLs also include a focus on the realm of biomimetic, that is, the functions, processes and mechanisms of living organisms that, once learned, can provide insights and solutions for engineering new technologies and innovative products. They also leverage applications, including the high-end of genetic resources and genomics; prototype innovative processing of materials through the diverse links of value chains—raw materials, intermediate products, all the way to finished products.
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To illustrate the potential of ACLs, we designed the three following conceptual examples of applications, based on currently available technologies and equipment. A final design should incorporate new technological solutions specifically tailored for solving implementation and scaling challenges and include consultation with local communities for accessing their specific needs, priorities and potentials.
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A line of Amazon Creative Labs will deal with value chains feed by inputs from local biodiversity and an example of that is themed after nutraceutical Cupulate, a chocolate made from the seeds of Amazon fruit Cupuaçu, instead of cacao. From forest picking to creating a final product that combines basic Cupulate with other products of very high nutritional value, the lab also includes utilizing a 3D food printer for unique chocolate designs and precise dosage of the added natural micronutrients. A by-product of Cupulate-making is cupuaçu pulp, which is then freeze-dried in a value chain of its own. Heavy-lift electric-powered drones can help overcome logistics challenges the region poses, by easily and quickly taking loads of nutraceutical cupulate sculptures and bars to a nearby gateway.
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Another example of ACLs focus is the Brazil Nuts value chain, known for the discrepancies between its higher cost for consumers and the low remuneration local people who harvest it from the forest receive. To change this, in one end, the ACLs will target extractivism issues, like processes precariousness that halts productivity and seeds’ price, with accessible technological resources including GIS mapping, micro-controlled sensors arrays (for health safety on seed’s harvesting and storing) and comprehensive traceability systems (origin and processes). At the same time, ACLs will carry out further locally based nut processing, using equipment that extracts oil and flour, by-products with greater trading value. With top technical education and processes precisely controlled with the aid of computers, sensors and biotechnological checks for sanitary standards, it becomes possible to output export-grade quality products strait from the forest vicinities. Those inputs also allow bringing to small villages the manufacture of even more processed products targeted to the natural cosmetics and nutraceuticals markets.
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Another line of ACLs will tackle the potential of making Amazon local inhabitants aware of the genetic value of biodiversity and to take part in genome sequencing projects. The lab will take participants into a knowledge journey departing from the biodiversity that can be seen all the way to the microscopic and nanoscopic structures of it, and to the grasping of the molecular coding of life. To achieve this, the Lab will make use of optical and portable electron scanning microscopes and virtual and augmented reality gear, furnished with contents to experience and understand organic chemistry complex structures. At the end, participants will carry out actual DNA sequencing through ultra-portable genome sequencers, allowing for registering genomes of species and benefiting from the provisions of benefit sharing of the Nagoya Protocol of Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS).
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6. Discussion and conclusions: envisioning the future for the Amazon
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Systemic risks to the maintenance of the Amazon forest due to the synergistic combination of the main human drivers of change—namely regional climate change due to both deforestation and global warming, and augmented forest vulnerability due to fires—poses an urgent challenge to avoid an irreversible threshold being transgressed that would threaten to turn over 50% of the forest in degraded savannas in the second half of this century [2].
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The natural resource-intensive mode of development (the Second Way) is the dominant mode of development and receives generous government subsidies for its continued advancement. Investments in conservation, forest restoration and a sustainable economy in the global tropics of about $20 billion annually receive less than 3% of total investments. The bulk of investments (around $770 billion annually) goes to the expansion of commodities frontier of cattle, grains, oil palm [66] and also to road, energy and mining infrastructure, which are also key drivers of deforestation [67]. One more detrimental effect of such path is the increasing rural violence in the Amazon. Brazil has the highest number of assassinated rural and environmental leaders since 2015, with more than 140 killings, mostly in the Amazon [68].
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It is becoming crystal clear that trying to reconcile resource-intensive development with conservation is not leading to lasting and permanent solutions. Deforestation rates are still very high and do not show a tendency to go down near zero and rural violence is on the rise. Social inequalities in the Amazon remain high and are not improving at a fast pace at least to bring social indicators to the national averages of the Amazonian countries. Imposing strict conservation to protect large swathes of the forest has had clear successes over the last decades in the Amazon—about 50% of the Amazon forest is under some kind of protection. However, that in itself does not guarantee protection forever for tropical forests and eventually may affect the livelihoods of local population as is the case documented for Madagascar [69] who may bear a high cost for forest conservation.
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The Amazon Third Way Initiative seeks to demonstrate the urgent need for a conceptual, educational and entrepreneurial revolution—a revolution based on knowledge, traditional and scientific. The current economy of meat, grain and timber in the Brazilian Amazon is less than $10 billion a year. The economy associated to biological assets of Amazon biodiversity in a few industries (food, cosmetics, oils, etc.) is already worth 30% of that and distributes income in fairer ways and benefits more of the local population. However, that is a tiny portion of the potential of a sustainable economy hidden in the biological and biomimetic assets of Amazon biodiversity that the Amazon Third Way initiative attempts to address and give visibility to. We will be estimating the real hidden economic value of these assets in a next phase of the initiative.
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The Amazon forest is not a void of human presence. Diverse communities live all over the region. Even some communities of new settlers of the 1970s and 1980s have looked to find ways of generating income in agroforestry systems. There is rich traditional knowledge in many of indigenous and caboclo communities. Supporting the diversity of communities and economic pathways for a standing forest-flowing rivers economy is mandatory.
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From a more general standpoint, sustainable development pathways based on natural resources exploitation should in principle put the local populations as priority. That is not the case for the Amazon currently (low HDI and other social indicators). Therefore, the Third Way Initiative also proposes that new sustainable paradigms have the development policy as a central tenet. The sustainable economy should first and utmost be means of wellbeing to the Amazonian people. That is not the case of the Second Way, where the Amazon is seen important for intensive resource exploitation for the Amazonian countries as a whole and taxation of the resource wealth should redistribute benefits as public services for all in the Amazon. However, a regressing taxation system does not realize that.
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The Amazon has a number of good examples of biology laboratories and a number of entrepreneurship initiatives that beyond economic development target social responsibility and deployment of sustainable biodiversity value chains. They are true pioneers into the new era of sustainability. However, they are as yet a small minority. They may even accrue national and international visibility and are role models, but in critically insufficient numbers to create momentum economically and socially to give clout to the rupture needed to put Amazon on a different track.
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The new model must rely on these existing good examples, on the diversities of forest communities across the Amazon, on state-of-the art knowledge generations laboratories and innovative entrepreneurship and build up from there.
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In due course, one has to build up momentum for enhancing the policies that are necessary to uplift the Third Way; investment in zero-deforestation value chains; reducing the enormous subsidies for commodities that drive deforestation; but as importantly invest in knowledge generation through a network of advanced biology laboratories in the Amazon, in Amazonian Countries and internationally in association with private R&D labs and science-based start-ups and creation of innovation ecosystems throughout the regions. That is a pre-requisite to the development of local next generation bio-industries in towns and cities of the future.
\n
By attracting venture capital and productive investments both for R&D and for industries, the political interest in the Third Way will rise in the eyes of governments to a tipping point in which government investments and subsidies will start to flow to this other type of economy, even on the absence of visionary governments that would see the potential of a new Amazon bio-economy and would design the pathways to reach it.
\n
The implications of harnessing the Fourth Industrial Revolution to unlock the economic value of the Amazon’s biological and biomimetic assets for governments, start-ups, corporations and R&D centers are profound. Partnerships among public and private R&D innovation labs to create a number of hubs of innovation throughout the region is necessary. This would accelerate new research and development leading to new products and innovations relevant for many industries locally and worldwide. Amazonian countries with immensely valuable natural assets would have an additional source of income to help protect these resources and support indigenous and traditional communities. These funds would create a new incentive on the part of communities and governments to protect rather than destroy natural habitats. The interest in understanding and sustainably using our biological and biomimetic assets could propel a new era of scientific exploration of life on the planet. Large new markets for sustainably sourced innovation could be created. Technology companies and start-ups seeking to demonstrate compliance with the Nagoya Protocol could be certified, through the transparency that distributed ledger technology offers.
\n
In sum, development policy in the Amazon has historically taken two pathways. The first embraces nature conservation and protects large swathes of territory from any human activity. The second approach has focused on conversion or degradation of forests for the production of agricultural commodities like meat and soya or tropical timber at the forest frontier, and also mineral commodities and the build-out of massive hydropower generation capacity. These uses together have been historically responsible for the massive deforestation of the Amazon.
\n
There is, however, a Third Way within reach in which we aggressively embrace high-tech innovation and look at the Amazon as a tremendous source of biological and biomimetic assets that can provide new, innovative products and services for current and new markets. System-level change in the Amazon as proposed cannot be executed single-handedly. On the contrary, we are proposing collaboration with leading public, private, academic and philanthropic actors for the journey ahead, engaging Indigenous and traditional communities across Amazonian countries, uniting the best capabilities of regulators, R&D centers, universities, technology start-ups and visionary companies all over the world.
\n
The Amazonia Third Way can be the most effective Land Use Change Planning policy for the Amazon because it is fully based on a standing forest-flowing river bio-economy. If successful, this new development model can be applied to all tropical regions helping to preserve the Earth’s great biological diversity. We have an important choice to make. The future of the Amazon and its impact on the planet lie so clearly in the balance. Time is not on our side, but we can still choose the Third Way.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work has been supported by the National Institute of Science and Technology for Climate Change via CNPq Grant Number 573797/2008-0 and FAPESP Grant Number 2008/57719-9 and additional financial support by the Climate and Land Use Alliance (CLUA) and Moore Foundation. We express our thanks to Juan Carlos Castilla-Rubio and Luciana Castilla for their contributions to the development of the Amazon Third Way Initiative.
\n
\n',keywords:"Amazon, Fourth Industrial Revolution, Amazonia Third Way, Amazonia 4.0, Amazon sustainable development, land use",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/63918.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/63918.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63918",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63918",totalDownloads:1031,totalViews:438,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"July 20th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"March 13th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Abstract For the last two decades, the Amazon development debate has been torn between attempts to reconcile two rather opposing views of land use: on one hand, a vision of setting aside large tracts of the Amazon forests for conservation purposes (referred hereafter to as The First Way) and, on the other hand, seeking a ‘sustainable’ resource-intensive development, mostly through agriculture/livestock, energy and mining (referred hereafter to as The Second Way). The decrease of Brazilian Amazon deforestation from 2005 to 2014 (about 75% decline) opens a window of opportunity to conceive a novel sustainable development paradigm: The Amazonia Third Way initiative (A3W). It can represent a new opportunity emerging to protect the Amazon ecosystems and the indigenous and traditional peoples who are their custodians and at the same time develop a vibrant, socially inclusive biodiversity-driven ‘green economy’ in the Amazon by harnessing Nature’s value through the physical, digital and biological technologies of the 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR). 4IR technologies are increasingly harnessing these assets across many industries from pharmaceutical to energy, food, cosmetics, materials and mobility, and making profits. A3W addresses ways to channel to the Amazon the benefits of the 4IR for the creation of bio-industries and local development as it protects the forests.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/63918",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/63918",signatures:"Ismael Nobre and Carlos A. Nobre",book:{id:"7476",title:"Land Use",subtitle:"Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future",fullTitle:"Land Use - Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future",slug:"land-use-assessing-the-past-envisioning-the-future",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Luís Carlos Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7476.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251339",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Nobre",fullName:"Carlos Nobre",slug:"carlos-nobre",email:"cnobre.res@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"251344",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismael",middleName:null,surname:"Nobre",fullName:"Ismael Nobre",slug:"ismael-nobre",email:"nobreismael@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methodological framework",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Land use trends and planning: evidences of future land use change pathways",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"Land use change in the Amazon: sustainability or deforestation?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Identification of issues and opportunities for sustainable socioeconomic development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1. Conceptual failures for sustainable tropical development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2. Potential of a biodiversity-based bio-economy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.3. Summary of Amazon value chains",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.4. Innovative entrepreneurship leveraging relatively low-end technologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.5. Traditional bio-industries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Amazonia Third Way as a disruptive alternative",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.1. Determinants of sustainable development pathways for the Amazon",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.2. Fourth Industrial Revolution and innovation ecosystems in the Amazon",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.3. Capacity development as a necessary condition for the Amazonia Third Way initiative",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Discussion and conclusions: envisioning the future for the Amazon",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lovejoy TE, Nobre CA. Amazon tipping point (Editorial). Science Advances. 2018;4. http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/2/eaat2340/tab-pdf\n\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Nobre CA, Sampaio G, Borma L, Castilla-Rubio JC, Silva JS, Cardoso M. Fate of the Amazon forests and the Third Way. In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Sep 2016;113(39):10759-10768. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1605516113\n'},{id:"B3",body:'RAISG. Amazônia 2017—Áreas protegidas e territórios indígenas. 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Fourth Industrial Revolution for the Earth Series. 2018. Available from: www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Harnessing_4IR_Life_on_Land.pdf [Accessed: May 18, 2018]\n'},{id:"B66",body:'Haupt F et al. Progress on the New York Declaration on Forests. Finance for Forests. Goals 8 and 9 Assessment Report. Available from: forestdeclaration.org. New York. 2017\n'},{id:"B67",body:'Sonter L et al. Mining drives extensive deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Nature Communications. 2017;8:1013-1018. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-00557-w\n'},{id:"B68",body:'Global Witness. Defender of the Earth: Global Killings of Land and Environmental Defenders in 2016. Global Witness Org. 2017. Available from: www.globalwitness.org\n\n'},{id:"B69",body:'Poudyal M, Jones JPG, Sarobidy Rakotinarivo O, Hockley N, Gibbons JM, Mandimbiniana R, et al. Who bears the cost of forest conservation? Peer Journal—Life and Environment. 2018;6:e5106. DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5106\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ismael Nobre",address:"nobreismael@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Independent Consultant, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Carlos A. Nobre",address:null,affiliation:'
Institute of Advanced Studies/University of São Paulo, Brazil
WRI Brazil, Brazil
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Vega",slug:"jose-a.-vega",email:"javega@uniovi.es"},{id:"86045",title:"Prof.",name:"Felix",surname:"De Carlos",fullName:"Felix De Carlos",slug:"felix-de-carlos",email:"fcarlos@uniovi.es"},{id:"100646",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Jimenez Caro",fullName:"Carmen Jimenez Caro",slug:"carmen-jimenez-caro",email:"carmenjcaro@gmail.com"},{id:"100647",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Alvarez Suárez",fullName:"Alberto Alvarez Suárez",slug:"alberto-alvarez-suarez",email:"suarez@uniovi.es"},{id:"100648",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Cobo",fullName:"Juan Cobo",slug:"juan-cobo",email:"jcobo@uniovi.es"}],book:{title:"Orthodontics",slug:"orthodontics-basic-aspects-and-clinical-considerations",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"59892",title:"Prof.",name:"José A.",surname:"Vega",slug:"jose-a.-vega",fullName:"José A. Vega",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/59892/images/system/59892.jpg",biography:"Dr. José Antonio A. Vega is a graduate in Medicine and Surgery that obtained PhD (with Extraordinary Prize) from the University of Oviedo, Spain. He completed his postdoctoral training at the universities of Brno and Prague (Czech Republic), 'La Sapienza' and 'Tor Vergata' in Rome specializing in peripheral nervous system and growth factors of the neurotrophin family. Currently he is a Professor of Anatomy and Human Embryology of the Department of Morphology and Cell Biology at the University of Oviedo, and Head of the research group SINPOS (Sensory Organs and Peripheral Nervous System) at the University of Oviedo. He has taught as a contracted professor, at the Universities of Messina, 'Federico II' of Naples, Rome 'La Sapienza' and Rome 'Tor Vergata', Sassari, Barí, and CEU-San Pablo at Madrid. He co-authored more than 350 JCR articles and 50 chapters in books mainly related to peripheral nervous system, neurotrophins and aging, and supervised 54 doctoral theses.",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"90497",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose M.",surname:"Almerich-Silla",slug:"jose-m.-almerich-silla",fullName:"Jose M. Almerich-Silla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"95049",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Bellot-Arcis",slug:"carlos-bellot-arcis",fullName:"Carlos Bellot-Arcis",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"95051",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose María",surname:"Montiel-Company",slug:"jose-maria-montiel-company",fullName:"Jose María Montiel-Company",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"96409",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",surname:"Evans",slug:"carla-evans",fullName:"Carla Evans",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Illinois at Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"96472",title:"Prof.",name:"Budi",surname:"Kusnoto",slug:"budi-kusnoto",fullName:"Budi Kusnoto",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Illinois at Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"96473",title:"Dr.",name:"Rasha",surname:"Al-Sanea",slug:"rasha-al-sanea",fullName:"Rasha Al-Sanea",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100646",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Jimenez Caro",slug:"carmen-jimenez-caro",fullName:"Carmen Jimenez Caro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"100647",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Alvarez Suárez",slug:"alberto-alvarez-suarez",fullName:"Alberto Alvarez Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100648",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Cobo",slug:"juan-cobo",fullName:"Juan Cobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYYvHQAW/Profile_Picture_1596782950933",biography:"Dr. Juan Cobo is a graduate in Medicine and Surgery from the University of Zaragoza (Spain) that obtained his PhD degree from the University of Oviedo (Spain). He completed his postdoctoral training at the University of Chicago. He is currently a Professor of Orthodontic and Head of the Master Orthodontic and Dentofacial Orthopedics at the University of Oviedo. He co-authored more than 150 JCR articles, 4 books and 30 chapters in books mainly related to orthodontics, and peripheral nervous system.",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"retraction-and-correction-policy",title:"Retraction and Correction Policy",intro:"
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
",metaTitle:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaDescription:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/retraction-and-correction-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\\n\\n
1. RETRACTIONS
\\n\\n
A Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\\n\\n
A formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Data fabrication
\\n\\t
Data recycling in a purportedly original research article
\\n\\t
Severe plagiarism - whether or not the plagiarism is to be deemed severe will be determined by the Academic Editor and verified by plagiarism checking software
\\n\\t
Double publication
\\n\\t
Copyright infringement - for example, if a Chapter uses copyrighted figures without permission.
\\n\\t
Unreliable findings
\\n\\t
Unethical research practices
\\n\\t
Any other practice or act considered potentially harmful to the scientific community.
\\n
\\n\\n
Publishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\\n\\n\\n\\t
All relevant bibliographic information about a retracted Chapter will be given in the title.
\\n\\t
A Retraction Notice will be published as a regular book Chapter and will be given its own Chapter number.
\\n\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Authors shall be required to approve a proposed retraction of their Chapter. If Authors maintain that their Chapter should not be retracted, the Academic Editor may issue a Statement of Concern (see 2. below).
\\n
\\n\\n
1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Additionally, a Chapter retracted on grounds of copyright infringement (e.g. double publication) may be Removed by the publisher should the original copyright owner request such action. A Chapter retracted on grounds of its potential to harm the scientific community, for example, when a Chapter is defamatory in nature, may also be subject to removal.
\\n\\t
No formal Removal Notice will be published but a notice citing the reason for removal will be prominently displayed in place of a retracted and subsequently removed Chapter.
\\n\\t
Chapters published due to inadvertent production mistakes shall be canceled and the cancellation notice will be published.
\\n
\\n\\n
2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\\n\\n
A Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Authors refuse to approve a retraction proposed by the Academic Editor
\\n\\t
There is inconclusive evidence of scientific misconduct
\\n\\t
Authors and their respective institutions fail or refuse to provide adequate assistance in an investigation
\\n\\t
The publication of a Statement of Concern will adhere to the Retraction Notice guidelines outlined above
\\n\\t
An article PDF for which a Statement of Concern is published will remain available online without being edited or watermarked
\\n
\\n\\n
IntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\\n\\n
3. CORRECTIONS
\\n\\n
A Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Only a small portion of a Chapter is flawed in a way that does not severely affect any findings.
\\n\\t
It is determined that the scientific community would be better served by a Correction rather than a Retraction.
\\n\\t
Corrections will be issued in one of two distinct forms -- ERRATUM or CORRIGENDUM, depending on the origin of a mistake.
\\n
\\n\\n
3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\n
An Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\n
A published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n
3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\n
A Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n
4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\n
IntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\n
In the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\n
The general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n
1. RETRACTIONS
\n\n
A Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\n
A formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\n
\n\t
Data fabrication
\n\t
Data recycling in a purportedly original research article
\n\t
Severe plagiarism - whether or not the plagiarism is to be deemed severe will be determined by the Academic Editor and verified by plagiarism checking software
\n\t
Double publication
\n\t
Copyright infringement - for example, if a Chapter uses copyrighted figures without permission.
\n\t
Unreliable findings
\n\t
Unethical research practices
\n\t
Any other practice or act considered potentially harmful to the scientific community.
\n
\n\n
Publishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n\n\t
All relevant bibliographic information about a retracted Chapter will be given in the title.
\n\t
A Retraction Notice will be published as a regular book Chapter and will be given its own Chapter number.
\n\n\n
\n\t
Authors shall be required to approve a proposed retraction of their Chapter. If Authors maintain that their Chapter should not be retracted, the Academic Editor may issue a Statement of Concern (see 2. below).
\n
\n\n
1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n
\n\t
Additionally, a Chapter retracted on grounds of copyright infringement (e.g. double publication) may be Removed by the publisher should the original copyright owner request such action. A Chapter retracted on grounds of its potential to harm the scientific community, for example, when a Chapter is defamatory in nature, may also be subject to removal.
\n\t
No formal Removal Notice will be published but a notice citing the reason for removal will be prominently displayed in place of a retracted and subsequently removed Chapter.
\n\t
Chapters published due to inadvertent production mistakes shall be canceled and the cancellation notice will be published.
\n
\n\n
2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\n
A Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\n
\n\t
Authors refuse to approve a retraction proposed by the Academic Editor
\n\t
There is inconclusive evidence of scientific misconduct
\n\t
Authors and their respective institutions fail or refuse to provide adequate assistance in an investigation
\n\t
The publication of a Statement of Concern will adhere to the Retraction Notice guidelines outlined above
\n\t
An article PDF for which a Statement of Concern is published will remain available online without being edited or watermarked
\n
\n\n
IntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n
3. CORRECTIONS
\n\n
A Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n
\n\t
Only a small portion of a Chapter is flawed in a way that does not severely affect any findings.
\n\t
It is determined that the scientific community would be better served by a Correction rather than a Retraction.
\n\t
Corrections will be issued in one of two distinct forms -- ERRATUM or CORRIGENDUM, depending on the origin of a mistake.
\n
\n\n
3.1. ERRATUM
\n\n
An Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\n
A published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n
3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\n
A Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n
4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\n
IntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\n
In the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\n
The general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"105746",title:"Dr.",name:"A.W.M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Koopman-van Gemert",slug:"a.w.m.m.-koopman-van-gemert",fullName:"A.W.M.M. Koopman-van Gemert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105746/images/5803_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Anna Wilhelmina Margaretha Maria Koopman-van Gemert MD, PhD, became anaesthesiologist-intensivist from the Radboud University Nijmegen (the Netherlands) in 1987. She worked for a couple of years also as a blood bank director in Nijmegen and introduced in the Netherlands the Cell Saver and blood transfusion alternatives. She performed research in perioperative autotransfusion and obtained the degree of PhD in 1993 publishing Peri-operative autotransfusion by means of a blood cell separator.\nBlood transfusion had her special interest being the president of the Haemovigilance Chamber TRIP and performing several tasks in local and national blood bank and anticoagulant-blood transfusion guidelines committees. Currently, she is working as an associate professor and up till recently was the dean at the Albert Schweitzer Hospital Dordrecht. She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Egypt and the chairman of Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Engineering and Technology, Giza, Egypt. He is also a consultant engineer and head of structural group at Hamza Associates, Giza, Egypt. Dr. Moustafa was a senior research associate at Vanderbilt University and a JSPS fellow at Kyoto and Nagasaki Universities. He has more than 40 research papers published in international journals and conferences. He acts as an editorial board member and a reviewer for several regional and international journals. His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Al Azhar University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"113313",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel-Aal",middleName:null,surname:"Mantawy",slug:"abdel-aal-mantawy",fullName:"Abdel-Aal Mantawy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:1683},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"qngrRaqGuveqFgrcChoyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:63},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. 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