Four phases of maintaining the momentum for startup.
\r\n\tDiagnostic tools are advancing: micro-and nano-diagnostics, advanced molecular genetics, and diagnosis of the aberrant clotting factor synthesis development and the options for the staging of the genetic abnormality - severe, moderate, and mild expression.
\r\n\tTreatment developments and advances start with prevention, intra-uterine approaches, genetic manipulation, genetic engineering, the high specificity of replacement factors, and recombinant technology.
\r\n\tIn addition to the above, the book will provide an update on the prevention of transmission of pathogens and potentially toxic substances used to stabilize and preserve treatment commodities. The role of big data and artificial intelligence through both machine learning and the application of deep learning and digital footprinting will also be addressed.
\r\n\tIn the developing world, there is an urgent need to collect, preserve and process plasma for the manufacturing of high yield, safe, and stabilized cryoprecipitate, or pharmaceutical fractionation of purified and specific clotting factors, as well as improvement on diagnostic and sociomedical approaches with an emphasis on patient and family care, and management of bleeding episodes.
Entrepreneurship for sustainable development. - Resolution 73/225 adopted by the UN General Assembly on 20 December 2018: https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/A/RES/73/225
In today’s society there is a great demand for entrepreneurial behaviour. Public and private sectors view entrepreneurship as a movement of active, creative people who exploit opportunities under uncertainty, create new products, jobs, contribute to economic development of the region. Entrepreneurs, with their ‘fresh’ perspective and agility, are able to play an important role in creating sustainable future for all by addressing social and environmental challenges. So currently, entrepreneurship is viewed as a catalyst for sustainable development [1].
The public sector applies entrepreneurial approaches to efficiently develop new types of services for citizens; in particular, social entrepreneurship is developing. Platforms for Communities of Practice are being created (for instance, DESPRO’s Community of Practice for Sustainable Development [2]), which promote the culture of management by projects for sustainable development.
Besides, in order to overcome poverty, the public sector is deeply involved in supporting and promoting entrepreneurship ecosystems, the mission of which includes creating favourable conditions for starting business ventures and creating jobs as a return on public investment [3]. But they should understand the entrepreneurial style of thinking and the nature of innovation processes in order to develop ecosystem-building policies for startups (also called ‘
Today it is no longer enough for companies seeking sustainable development to be effective in operation (e.g., reducing waste streams) and successful in the market by constantly improving their products. We also need to make the most efficient use of resources (including energy and materials) to eliminate any harmful effects on the environment, health of a person and a whole community, vitality of future generations throughout the life cycle of products [4]. Therefore, we can define the following criteria for viable innovation: ZERO WASTE, ZERO EMISSION, ZERO TOXIC, ZERO NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES, and ZERO DESCRIMINATION.
In order to compete and scale up, startups equip themselves not only with some technological or product innovations, but also with completely different ways or models of doing business. Investors today look for both solutions (technologies or products) they need and business models that work. From an investor’s perspective, it is no longer possible to wait until startups have scaled up, and then invest in the ones that seem to work well. Due to a highly competitive environment in the capital market, investors are forced to invest in a much earlier phase in order to ‘
The recent analytical studies point out the necessity to focus on the early stages of the development of enterprises (ventures), new activities, operational models and practice, in order to determine the factors of sustainable development for entrepreneurial initiatives [5, 6].
Thus, investors have to be able to understand, evaluate and support an enterprise at its early stage, when not only a new product is created, but also certain promising ways of development and the systematic role of the enterprise in the market are determined.
But even if the start of a venture is successful, practice shows that more than half of all startups fail in the first 5 years, and this failure peak occurs during the first 18–24 months after their onset [7].
In this chapter, we first give the definition of who entrepreneurs are, how this definition has acquired different meanings over the last century. We also define the main characteristics of the entrepreneurial ‘mindset’ and describe the model that helps an entrepreneur to start his/her own venture. Since entrepreneurship is, first of all, a practice, we talk to the founders of startups and learn where the initiative to start their venture came from, what the main reason for creating the startup was, what big surprise they came across in the first 18 months, and what essential choices and important decisions they made.
The first term we need to define is an “
In the middle of the 20th century, entrepreneurs were seen as innovators implementing “
In this regard, Peter Drucker wrote: “
Opportunities and innovation are integral parts of entrepreneurship and, in particular, the act of implementing something new in the face of uncertainty is one of the most difficult tasks of the entrepreneur as it requires determination and perseverance, readiness to manoeuvre. The entrepreneur has to be able not only to create new value and conceptualise new products but also to offer a completely different business model that will demonstrate the potential to scale up. These innovative business models are often the basis of competitiveness for startups, while traditional technological innovations (like transistors or lasers, computers or smartphones) are usually associated with large corporations.
In an effort to fulfil their mission, entrepreneurs must think in a systemic way, move with acceleration and be ready to quickly change both tactics and strategy, perhaps even very dramatically, in response to new environmental challenges.
Thus, entrepreneurship is the accelerated movement of entrepreneurs driven by needs through uncertainty and ambiguity, ‘
According to G. Onuoha, entrepreneurship is “
The more modern definition of entrepreneurship is also about people who change (transform) the world by solving urgent problems, creating and presenting innovative products or new systemic solutions.
Thus, an entrepreneur:
pays attention to the challenges facing humanity, sees critical situations and imagines how everything could ideally be with the same resources used and with minimal impact on nature made;
selects target groups, determines needs, sees opportunities, and generates ideas;
perpetuates his/her talent to meet the needs and desires of people in goods, services, experience/impressions, and develops solutions giving preference to systemic transformations;
accepts the uncertainty on the market, defines the goals for movement in the space of three coordinates: technical feasibility, ‘executability’, and market perceptibility;
makes his/her mission attractive to him/herself and to others, by validating both products and business models;
acts, undertakes (=entreprendre) responsibility, demonstrates determination and push, ingenuity and resourcefulness for passing obstacles;
generates innovations in the market, ‘warms up’ the market and creates a place to localise capital and profit;
creates ventures that both provide the market with products and services, and are also responsible for reducing waste and using resources efficiently.
As stated in this chapter, the leading role played by entrepreneurs in society has historically emerged: they are one of the most important resources and segments of economic growth. But entrepreneurs play the same leading role in the development of social innovation. Therefore, the end result of their actions is associated with a business venture in the private sector, and it is also a driving force for social, public and cultural progress that ensures community health: zero waste, zero emission, zero toxic, zero non-renewable resources, and zero discrimination.
In our understanding, entrepreneurship is about:
Entrepreneurs are able to take the first step into uncertainty in order to make the world a better place. Hence, we view
And today a new term has been coined – Entrepreneur
Great engineer Theodore von Karman once said, “
This section focuses on the issue of how we understand the concept of ‘
Typical characteristics of individuals with an entrepreneurial mindset include:
love for freedom and willingness to change the world,
openness to see opportunities where others see only annoyance and problems,
courage in actions that correspond to one’s values,
effectiveness, focus on results,
willingness to learn and not be afraid to experiment,
take full responsibility for progress, fulfilling one’s mission.
The freedom and need for achievement, creativity and innovation, internal locus of control, hard work and reasonable risk taking with possible benefits – all these are integral parts of an entrepreneur’s profile. Entrepreneurs can best use available opportunities to solve problems, meet needs even with limited or uncontrolled resources through innovation.
If we do not like something, when something annoys us, we can use this situation as an our opportunity to abandon the status quo and change the world around us.
Attention is our level of irritation; and this irritation actually stems from the fact that a person strongly believes that something needs to be done very differently, not the way it is going on now, when excessive resources are wasted and a negative impact is made on nature, health of an individual person or even communities. And this is seen both from the standpoint of those who live in this situation and the entrepreneur who seeks to change it. This requires understanding other people, knowing their values, habits, their problem(s), their ‘pain’, and searching for alternatives to solve their problem(s).
We might be too self-confident, but our confidence is based on our strengths and beliefs, and we are also directed by intuition which suggests that there should always be another way to do something, in a more effective, interesting, even ‘cool’ way.
We cannot act like everyone else, which requires us to think differently (expand the horizons of the situation, see new opportunities and set goals), reflect, communicate, generate ideas, put everything into a nice concept (idea) and act decisively (quickly make and timely implement managerial decisions, see their role in overcoming obstacles or through the prism of the expected result), persistently pave our way to the goal, or to get out of it on time in order to start a new venture.
We need to be open to the world; if there are any weaknesses, we should not be ashamed to ask for help, find a common interest and establish a partnership, capture others’ interest in our plan (a new approach to meeting needs or a new model for running a business), and it will make us ‘
Now that the opportunities are open, we need to be confident in our actions: that is, always know exactly what we are doing and why we are doing it. For this purpose, we recommend, instead of analysing an idea (or new approach) and focusing on how good it is, turning back to the problem we are going to solve. And it is important to make sure that there is a certain group of people who need an urgent solution to this problem (or ‘pain’): i.e., it is necessary to determine the price they pay for living with this problem or even ‘
So, on the one hand, we consider current needs, and on the other hand, we may know which technologies should be used, but now we need to focus on the goals we can achieve if we get enough customers and through partnering with them. It should be noted that customers need to be available to us, and they can be sought from potential competitors. If we are able to change the habits of competitors’ customers and attract them to us, then this is the most effective way to get ‘
Actualisation is when we focus on an innovative solution to the problem (how to meet the need of potential customers) and our capability of conceptualising, creating and providing a new value onto the market (developing a business model), our vision of systemic transformations.
When we already know what to do and why we need to act, two groups of questions arise:
Why Me, and why do I need it? How does this activity, its result correspond to my dreams, my self-realisation? What team do I need to assemble, with what set of necessary skills, competencies and way of thinking?
What will I be like when this initiative comes to an end, how will we celebrate our success? That is, we must know not only how to ‘commence’, but more importantly – how to complete this mission in a sustainable manner.
And thus we come to the conclusion that our goals have actualised our desire to ‘immerse’ in entrepreneurship. Now we need to be balanced, paying attention to every detail. Each action must be passed through a ‘sieve’ of its purpose and expected result. And when you have some activity in the plan, ask yourself: “What’s the point of doing this?” That is, we have to be sure that we do these actions thoughtfully and for the right reason.
The vision of achieved result and the intention to work hard in conditions of uncertainty stimulate creativity, experimentation, obtaining quick results and learning. Work becomes a passion, admiration and joy. Entrepreneurs do not know exactly what to expect at every turn of their path, however, their worldview is energy, their creativity is a well-chosen route, their product is a means of movement, and their business model is a prospect for scaling up. Constant generation of ideas is a weapon against turbulence and a means of overcoming all kinds of obstacles, while focused attention and active processing of information give the entrepreneur the opportunity to manoeuvre. Entrepreneurs strive to reach the finish line, because this finish is a created value that changes the market, adds value to the company, and makes them successful. But such a huge desire to come to the finish line first can sometimes replace the realisation that sometimes it might be worth getting off the track (route) in time. And it is also an entrepreneurial move: you want to pay the lowest price if your mission fails. Do entrepreneurs like taking risks? In my opinion, they do not. The risk must be calculated and compared with the benefits we want to get.
We are characterised by valence, we create connections, work hard to build a team and expand our network, build our ecosystem for a startup where we are consulted, motivated, united and stimulated. But in order to remain free, we must refine ourselves, learn, study and improve, never stop to become better or reach high standards. Such benchmarks are a kind of energy level that we have to achieve to leave the comfort (valence) zone and move on.
We are not learning for the future, we are learning for the present, because it is not known what knowledge and skills will be needed in five to ten years, but it is well known what is required today. Besides, skills and experience are placed above knowledge when there is a need for new professionals for your team. We have no choice but to constantly learn and practice, applying knowledge and mastering new skills to support changes in our way of thinking and behaviour.
Now we in the team are ‘
If we are planning to raise capital, we need to have a clear answer to investors’ questions: “
And of course, we need to be a good salesperson: knowing how to promote ourselves, our ideas, products, our team and our company. Those who will listen to us should not only hear and understand what we say to them, but also resonate with what we strive for and tell others about our initiative.
Once we have started the business, it becomes 100% our commitment, and from now on it depends
on how much we have:
ambition and passion; whether we trust ourselves and believe in ourselves, whether we believe in the ability of our team and the importance of the mission we perform;
confidence in needs; whether we know how to hear our customers and partners, whether we understand their problems and interests;
willingness to adapt to the situation and make a choice in favour of the best options;
flexibility – to see multiple opportunities;
persistence – to reach the finish line;
positive thinking, drive, striving for the best and change perception of challenges as opportunities to learn, improve;
determination coupled with a high tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity, as well as the ability to make quick decisions to save time;
devotion to victory over competitors or just a desire to do our job well;
courage, ability to assess risk and reward, willingness to accept well-calculated risk;
strong desire to learn as soon as possible about the ability to scale up; or fail as soon as possible to give up our passion, ‘idée fixe’, and pay as little as possible for it; and
on how quickly we can accelerate and gain velocity that will create the momentum for take-off of our startup.
In all actions and situations it is necessary to look for lessons to learn from and factors to increase productivity and efficiency, keeping in mind the possible impact on environmental sustainability. Each mistake is a higher level of mobilisation, a new option in the product, adjustments to the business model, or a corrected course of further progress. We need to be smart, insightful, curious and inquisitive. Do not perceive everything as it is; try to look further beyond the horizon. For example, just because you need some light to read a book in the evening does not mean you need a simple light bulb; you probably need a well-thought-out and designed lighting at home. That is, we must learn to look beyond the horizon and anticipate trends, develop competitive advantages under certain constraints, before others can at least begin to understand them.
Thus, the objectives of the
Table 1 presents the 4A approach [14], which we call ‘4A engine’, to maintain the momentum for startup. It consists of 4 phases.
Demonstrate the ability to determine a problem /‘ Demonstrate the ability to see the ideal situation and existing functional contradiction. | high level of irritation – something a needs to be done very differently a problem of a specific target group(s) the target group is accessible for the entrepreneur industry analysis | |
Demonstrate the ability to identify a Find a system (innovative and comprehensive) solution. Demonstrate the ability to present a solution in a creative way (make a pitch). Make sure that the development of this solution is within our capabilities. | the impact of the need on customer behaviour focus on an innovative solution to the problem benefits for the target group our intention and professional team who believes in the success of your mission competitive advantage, customisation of product | |
Demonstrate the ability to develop a business model (for driving a solution onto the market) as our innovation and competitive advantage. | value for a specific target group customer and delivery price, types of revenue resources, partners and action plan risks; cost and expenses | |
Demonstrate the ability to discuss business model with potential customers, suppliers, investors, form a partnership. Demonstrate the ability to sell vision. Demonstrate agility and creative approach to business scaleup. | making a compelling offer for our customer planning effective ways of delivering products/ services and getting revenue getting first customers who demonstrate ‘ developing a loyalty program |
Four phases of maintaining the momentum for startup.
The speed at which your startup develops (scales up) depends, on the one hand, on the type of the market, and on the other hand, on establishing strategic partnerships with customers, suppliers or on entering the network.
Especially in the initial phase of a startup, it is important to prove the viability of the startup’s business model – which investors call ‘
In this section, we are going to explore the practice of entrepreneurs seeking to change the world. One of them, Max (29), created a company, which was developing a tool – a ‘
Our other interlocutor is Mark (35), CTO in a big outsourcing IT company. His passion is making creative ideas come true. He is the core developer and CEO of DigiSCity energy management platform. DigiSCity is the intelligent smart city system, which aims at optimising energy resources and consumption. It can be used by business enterprises and official government municipalities. Using this system, managers can quickly gather the consumption data and deeply analyse energy effectiveness of the buildings as well as respond to the detected anomalies and provide behavioural pattern analysis.
We have conducted interviews with the startup founders approaching them with the following questions:
How did you perform in the first 18 months from product, customer, team, brand, partners’ perspective and what were the biggest surprises you faced in this period?
Max:
Mark:
2. What were the most important decisions and essential choices you have made since you launched your startup, and which choices and decisions do you regret?
Max:
Mark:
3. Which decisions influenced your company expansion?
Max:
Mark:
4. Could you say any words of support to young entrepreneurs?
Max:
Mark:
In this chapter, entrepreneurs are presented as a driving force for economic, social, public and cultural progress and as those who:
pay
identify (
develop a business model (for driving a solution onto the market) as an innovation and competitive advantage and makes their mission
create ventures
A new concept of
young people, even when they lack enough experience but have a strong desire to change the world for the better, have more chances to succeed in their initiatives, since they are not afraid to “lose a game”;
it is necessary to explore the problems our potential customers face, the pain they live with, the needs they have, get feedback on our initiative and understand the benefits they can have from the product we are going to introduce to the market;
it is necessary to create a prototype or a platform for demonstration and to establish communication with both potential clients and investors as soon as possible;
one of the key success factors is trust among the founders who share common values, have a vision and understanding of why they are in this business; another success factor is involving the right people to play the right roles in the team, since the choice of the team is the fundamental objective;
when developing a value proposition, it is necessary to use various creative methods, involve in the team specialists with a good imagination, systematic and human-centred design thinking;
in technology-based business, it is important to determine the technological feasibility and take into account all the technology trends that are evolving rapidly and may affect our business;
active communications, public product presentations and participation in various events – this is a chance to get partners and customers who cannot be ignored, so we must always be ready for a high-quality pitch;
the fundraising process should be divided into several steps, instead of concentrating all our efforts to raise big amounts of investment in one step. At the same time, each fundraising step should be made at least six months before the time we need to spend these funds in order to ensure sustainable development.
You have reached the end of this chapter, and we offer to reflect on what you have read. Now you know more about who entrepreneurs are, which approaches they use to create their ventures for sustainable growth, and what practice of such startups in the early stage exists. So now we encourage you to stop for a while and imagine your future.
The global structure and productivity of ecosystems are deeply impacted by joined climate conditions and human drivers, causing general vegetation degradation [1]. The phenomenon has kept increasing in the last four decades and eventually affects whole ecosystem, soil productivity, biological systems, biotic diversity, and other environmental systems’ ability to support human needs in concerned areas. Main indicators are the decline in parameters, such as low biomass, less ecological production, fragmentation, or lower canopy cover [2, 3].
Inside the tropics, vegetation is globally sensitive to seasonal and inter-annual variation in precipitations and temperatures. Extremes seasonally, i.e., longer rainy season and shorter dry season in lowest latitudes, versus the reverse phenomenon towards medium latitudes, influence the vegetation distribution with several phenological and physiological adaptations, including cover and status changes [4, 5, 6]. Typically, forest colonizes wetter areas, while savannas cover drier areas, with a gradual species distribution such as dense forest, tree savannas, grassy/herbaceous savannas, and isolated desert shrubs or clumps of dry grasses known as steppes. However, transitions are not rigidly determined by climate [7]. There is an extensive overlap between forest and savanna creating a mosaic of landscapes, and most studies on the subject remain widely hypothesized and modeled with controversial results, supported by questionable evidences. Biases include the high species turnover around 1000 mm to 2500 mm rainfall, the (un)stable states of forest and savanna maintained by feedbacks between tree cover and disturbances, and for the satellite-based approaches, the structural (in)difference between trees or grasses layer [8].
These specificities are challenging to spatialize at a point that sub-Saharan African ecosystems have played a key role in the development of remote sensing of vegetation for decades [9, 10, 11]. Nowadays, several satellite-based models provide scalable spectral information relevant to vegetation distribution and changes, physiology, and phenology, in broad terms, to monitor and combat land degradation, especially in African drylands [12, 13, 14, 15]. As such, numerous spectral indices measure the vegetation parameters [16]. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, NDVI, especially, has purposely been widely used [17]. However, some limitations like sensitivity to soil background effects and atmospheric influence as well as values saturation under dense and multilayered canopy, usually alter the NDVI capacity to simultaneously predict senesced vegetation and efficiently discriminate individual anomalies, i.e., growth, vigor, leaf area index, biochemical components (anthocyanin, carotenoids, cellulose, etc.), water content or pigmentation [18, 19, 20] with accuracy. Then some previous studies focused on identifying or modeling the direction of change as well as underlying drivers of drylands vegetation [21]. Those models applied to two or more spatially close and interwoven vegetation species, require to implementation of specific processings. To the best of our knowledge, the recent progress in modeling sub-Saharan vegetation transition introduced the term of “bistability” around lower and upper transition boundaries between forest and savanna [8]. This model is based on paleo-ecological evidences (soil, topography) and climatic parameters change and oscillation (rainfall and temperature), that influence (for the firsts) and predispose (for the seconds) these two species to coexistence. With the support of a floristic survey, the ambiguity of mischaracterizing savanna as a degraded forest was clarified at some point, by identifying, the dense forest, the “bistable” forest, the “bistable” savanna, and the proper savanna.
This study approaches the forest-savanna transition study, by investigating its different spectral behaviors and their statistical meaning, in a context lacking field data, and from an open-source/open-data perspective. The triple aim is to assess the dynamics, discriminate species disturbance based on their empirical spatial distribution, and predict their extent and boundaries. As such, assuming a blurred boundary and an overlapping spatial gradient between the two species, some phenological and physiological characteristics are considered as separately as possible in terms of anomalies, and further integrated beneath the same model, so as to locate the spots requiring permanent monitoring or sustainable actions, without mischaracterizing punctual changes, factual distribution, and most accurate delineation.
The study was conducted on the sub-Saharan mixed ecoregion, highly dependent on varied annual precipitations (AP) and yearly medium to high average temperatures (T0), which both influence relative humidity (RH) changes. The area belongs to the medium Cameroon (central Africa), between latitudes 500’-805’N and longitudes 1000′-1505′E, a climatic transition between the agroecological zones of western highlands (AP = 1800-2500 mm; T0 = 19.5°C; RH = 75%), bi-modal rainforest (AP = 1700-2000 mm; T0 = 24°C; RH = 80%), and then Guinean high savanna (AP = 1500–1800 mm; T0 = 30°C; RH = 60%) to Sudano-Sahelian savanna (AP = 400–1200 mm; T0 = 28°C; RH = 50%) for the core area. Specifically, the vegetation density broadly reflects the climate gradient of dense moist broadleaf forest and highland forest to sparse extensive savannas featuring the co-dominance of woody shrubs, grassland in plains, and herbaceous steppe at the edge of Sahel (Figure 1) [22].
Location of the study: (A) Cameroon in the context of African ecoregions based on Olson et al. (2001); (B) distribution of ecoregions in Cameroon; (C) preview of the subset ecoregions; (D) Sentinel2-a median image of the subset for mid-November 2020 to end march 2021.
The study was conducted using European Spatial Agency, ESA, Sentinel2-A multispectral instrument (MSI) data, which represents a very valuable opportunity for the fine characterization and monitoring of vegetation types on large scales, but is poorly investigated for the tropical biome study [11, 23]. This sensor provides 13 varied spectral bands from 0.443 to 2.190 micrometers, a 10-day repeat cycle, and a spatial resolution up to 10 meters (Additional material 1).
The phenological dry season, globally from November to March, was selected because of its high temperatures and less rainfalls, assuming they are ideal conditions to observe the vegetation adaptations to extremes, for years 2015 to 2021. In the GEE cloud coding environment and using the JavaScript opensource simplified coding, the median reducer function was appended as the pixel-wise computation of all bi-annual collection images, based on a band per band processing [24]. Then, applying a date filter from November 15 to end of March 31, a boundary filter for the study area, and a cloud cover acceptance filter below 10%, one image of 13 bands was outputted per bi-annual periods 2015–2016 to 2020–2021, displayed a,nd converted from 16 bits to 8 bits before further processings. Offline tools, i.e., desktop software, were used to extract statistics and for some complementary processings using less memory, including final layouts. Namely, Erdas Imagine 2020, ArcGIS Pro 2020, and Microsoft Excel with extension Xlstat were specifically used.
In arid and semi-arid regions, common changes in density, spatial distribution, chlorophyll, pigmentation, water stress, anthocyanin, nitrogen, carotenoids, leaf structure, and browning or senescence differently impact the biomass [25]. Previous spectral indices-based applications investigated that, the visible (0.4–0.7 μm) wavelengths respond to photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic pigments, the NIR (0.7–1.4 μm) wavelengths respond to the cellular structure and exhibit solar-induced fluorescence (SIF) and the SWIR (1.4–3 μm) wavelengths respond to senescent non-photosynthetic vegetation. As such, the anisotropic behavior of vegetation at visible-SWIR wavelengths has been parameterized to describe vegetation structure [26].
We computed twelve spectral indices, whose three were selected as reference data according to their ability to better highlight the land cover targeted, i.e., second modified soil adjusted vegetation index, MSAVI2 [27], to assess the vegetation cover, normalized difference soil drought index NDSoDI [14], to highlight the dry bare soils, and new water index, NWI [28], to map the surface water. After testing dozens of other indices, two assumptions were emitted for an efficient last casting, such as
Name | Equation | Primary goal | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
MSAVI2 | Map vegetation cover while reducing soil background | [27] | |
NDSoDI | Map dry soils while reducing surroundings source of moisture | [14] | |
NWI | Extract surface water | [28] | |
PVR | Photosynthetic vigor for crop monitoring | [29] | |
GVMI | Vegetation water content and evapotranspiration | [30] | |
PBI | General biochemical reflectance | [31] | |
REIP1* | Canopy chlorophyll, nitrogen content and polluted soil dynamics | [32] | |
mCRIG | Chlorophyll, carotenoids and anthocyanin | [33] | |
LWCI | Water content, change and stress | [34] | |
MARI | Chlorophyll, carotenoids and anthocyanin | [35] | |
SRPI** | Nitrogen content, water and chlorophyll | [36] | |
PSRI | Pigmentation and vigor changes dues to vegetation senescence | [37] |
Spectral indices used.
Was inverted after first preview, to better highlight vegetation patterns instead of soil dynamics.
Was adapted to SENTINEL2-A covered wavelengths by using band 6.
These indices were stacked and previewed with, MSAVI2, NDSoDI and NWI seeking the following:
Relationships between each analytical spectral index and both referential ones. The bright green curve represents the dependent variable, while the two others are explanatory variables (MSAVI2 = dark green; NDSoDI = light brown). N = 500 for all variables and regression parameters. The following is noticed from the trends of curves: PVR, PBI and GVMI have a neat positive correlation with MSAVI2, but a sharp negative one with NDSoDI; conversely, MARI and PSRI curves describe the exact opposite trends (positive with NDSoDI and negative with MSAVI2); mCRIG and LWCI curves evolve in another direction cutting the MSAVI2 and NDSoDI curves, while IREIP1 curve shows no real relationship them.
This process creates a difference image between two or more bands in a multi-temporal image analysis, so to detect changes in the type or the conditions of surface features. Depending on the study, change vector analysis (CVA) can use calculation principles of the Mahalanobis or the Euclidean distance as in this study, according to the following expression [38]:
Where
Four classes of magnitude are represented for either degradation or re-growing [39] (Additional material 4). For each binarized image, a CVA process was performed, the magnitudes of increase and decrease patterns were used, while the stability magnitudes were ignored. A total of twelve difference images per index resulted, i.e., six per selected magnitude. Considering the need of complementarity among indices, only one CVA magnitude, i.e., increase or decrease, was selected per index for further processing. Criteria used to optimize the selection were the original goal of each index, as well as its spatial and statistical relationship with MSAVI2, NDSoDI and NWI (Table 2).
Index | Targeted asset | Compared trends to MSAVI2 / NDSoDI / NWI | CVA |
---|---|---|---|
PVR | Age & Cover | Same with a plus / Inverted / Inverted | Decrease |
GVMI | Water content & Cover | Same with a plus / Inverted / Inverted | Decrease |
PBI | Inner composition & Cover | Same with a plus / Inverted / Inverted | Decrease |
IREIP1 | Height, Cover & Health | Different / Inverted / Inverted | Decrease |
mCRIG | Health & Composition | Different / Inverted / Inverted | Increase |
LWCI | Water stress | Different / Inverted / Close | Decrease |
MARI | Health & Inner composition | Inverted / Close / Inverted | Increase |
SRPI | Health & Inner composition | Inverted / Close / Inverted | Increase |
PSRI | Age & Cover | Inverted / Close / Inverted | Increase |
CVA magnitude selected per spectral index.
The moving standard deviation index, MSDI, is a filter applied to satellite images multispectral or derivative channels using the moving standard deviation calculation, generally to assess degradation [40]. One common application is the vegetation and soil of semi-arid systems, where the variability of the MSDI is used to indicate levels of habitat degradation [41, 42, 43]. MSTDI has been proven efficient to operate well in complex regions [40, 42, 44].
Here, the five derivative images per selected CVA were used as entries. A standard deviation was computed for each entry. Difference between consecutive standard deviations were calculated, giving four new images. Then, the averaged MSDI (aMSDI) was conceived as follows:
For all
The global Moran’s I index was computed to assess the spatial autocorrelation of aMSDI outputs along the 1544 pixels transect. Its integration in spatial analysis is important to avoid incorrect statistical inference from inefficient or biased parameter estimates [45]. The formula is expressed such as follows:
Where
Values closer to
Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression was computed as the non-spatial measure of the spatial convergence/divergence of aMSDI. This method predicts or models a dependent variable relationship with a set of explanatory variables. The regression coefficients are usually estimated by using least-square techniques such as:
Where,
Here, each aMSDI of the nine indices was considered as dependent variable, whereas MSAVI2’s aMSDI of both CVA, were simultaneous explanators. Three OLS parameters were selected for interpretation, i.e., adjusted R-squared, corrected Akaike’s information criterion (AICc) which assesses the best-fit model between spatial and non-spatial Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) models, root mean squares error (RMSE), and three graphs, i.e., scatterplots of the relationship among variables, histograms of standard deviation probability and plots of residuals versus predicted.
At this point, the spatial correlation was assessed through the cross-correlation mapping process using only the finest
Further, the individual maps of anomalies were used to produce a single one. The first step consisted in stacking the aMSDI for each
Based on visual trends, binarized images were regrouped in three axes of three indices of vegetation each. A principal component analysis, PCA, was performed for each ax using the covariance reducer algorithm, that reduces some number of
Training:Testing | Total | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vegetation1 | Vegetation2 | Vegetation3 | Soil/Built-up | Water | |
100:100 | 100:100 | 100:100 | 100:100 | 100:100 | 500:500 |
Samples distribution.
Three machine learning algorithms were performed, such as the Classification and Regression Trees (CART), Random Forest (RF) and Support vector machine, (SVM) [47, 48, 49]. The metrics used to assess general performance of each classifier were overall accuracy, OA, and the kappa coefficient, KC [50, 51]. Whereas, the thorough assessment of their efficiency on individual LULC classes was done using the error matrix to extract the producer accuracy (PA) and the user accuracy (UA). Eqs. (7) and (8) formulate the main quality measures of the learning:
with,
Where,
Overview of the study design.
Globally, each index showed a different interseason sensitivity to dynamics for the two main magnitudes of change in the vegetation distribution. The indices detecting vigor, biochemical composition, and water content, i.e., PVR, PBI and GVMI, that are highly correlated with MSAVI2, invaded the upper medium area for the increasing magnitude, while their increasing patterns were more concentrated on the south and lower medium area (Figure 4a and
a. Decrease trends of CVA per index. The background layers are from 2021 to 2022. b. Increase trends of CVA per index. The background layers are from 2021 to 2022.
Moreover, all magnitudes agreed to the same total areas for all indices, when adding the unchanged magnitudes. For the extreme cases, LWCI indicates a brutal decrease in between 2015 and 2016 and 2016–2017 (Change1, Figure 5a), from 61,609 km2 to 22,030 km2, i.e., 58% of the total change for the study period (Figure 5b). While, GVMI indicates an important increase between 2019 and 2020 and 2020–2021 (Change 5, Figure 5a), from 1439 km2 to 41,215 km2, i.e., 69.4% of the total change for the study period (Figure 5b). Then all changes were complementary between the two magnitudes, except for IREIP1 in the last period, 2020–2021/2021–2022, which the decrease was unsignificant (4km2) compared to the increase (Figure 5a&
Areas(a), percentages(b) and hierarchy of changes (c) based on the CVA decrease (row1) and increase (row2) magnitudes.
The outputs of the aMSDI were all obtained in the same interval,
From the spatial autocorrelation model synthesized in Table 4, the expected Moran’s I index and p-values are identical for all, −
aMSDI | Moran’s I | Expected Moran’s I | Variance | Z-Scores > +2.58 | P-Values |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
MSAVI2_Decr | 0.9 | −0.000648 | 0.000457 | 42.2 | 0.00 |
MSAVI2_Incr | 0.81 | −0.000648 | 0.000457 | 37.9 | 0.00 |
PVR | 0.95 | −0.000648 | 0.000458 | 44.3 | 0.00 |
PBI | 0.85 | −0.000648 | 0.000458 | 39.6 | 0.00 |
GVMI | 0.84 | −0.000648 | 0.000457 | 39.5 | 0.00 |
IREIP1 | 0.76 | −0.000648 | 0.000457 | 35.4 | 0.00 |
mCRIG | 0.86 | −0.000648 | 0.000457 | 40.3 | 0.00 |
LWCI | 0.91 | −0.000648 | 0.000457 | 42.5 | 0.00 |
MARI | 0.91 | −0.000648 | 0.000457 | 42.5 | 0.00 |
SRPI | 0.86 | −0.000648 | 0.000457 | 40.4 | 0.00 |
PSRI | 0.84 | −0.000648 | 0.000458 | 39.3 | 0.00 |
Spatial autocorrelation model report. N = 1544 for all variables and parameters.
First outputs of the cross-correlation mapping algorithm informed on the spatial relationship between each MSAVI2’s aMSDI and individual aMSDI of analytical indices. About the MSAVI2 decrease CVA, the highest positive correlation of aMSDI was with PVR (
Cross-correlation maps between aMSDIs of MSAVI2 and the selected aMSDI for each index.
The multi-regression performed between each analytical aMSDI and simultaneously both MSAVI2’s aMSDI on
OLS regression results synthesis (
Spatial synthesis of the cross-correlation mapping algorithm confirms the distribution of patterns and global trends. The combined correlation among the nine indices’ aMSDI were found strong at different degrees, for both highest and lowest values, then indicating convergences of significant or non-significant anomalies at the South-west and North-East of the area (Figure 8). For the three windows of calculation, they were clearly separated from predicted vegetation statuses, i.e., highly and lowly affected, soil, built-up and water features (Figure 8). From the cross-correlation map synthesis, the simple linear combination (SLC) outputs for each window discriminated positive from negative spatial trends. Then, the largest spots of extremely severe anomalies are located in the south-west, south-east and north-east areas, well separated on
Anomaly trends and spots. The synthesized correlation maps on the first row shows patchwork of high correlation in the medium area for the
The repeated sampling of vegetation gave spectral curves with at least three pairs of same trends for vegetation (Figure 9a). As spatial evidence, the patterns of ML were identical for the three algorithms, with three distinguished classes of vegetation, well separated from soil/built-up and water (Figure 9b). The three classifiers performed with a high and identical OA of
Spectral curves (A), spatial patterns (B) and statistics (C) of the three axes of vegetation on LULC. In details: (A) CART; (B) RF; (C) SVM: (D) stacked axes of vegetation with soil (NDSoDI) and water (NWI) features for 2021–2022; E) Sentinel2-a image of 2021–2022.
Concerning the vegetation types, discrimination, and extent, RF and SVM gave the exact areas for the three classes, CART agreed with them for the second and third axes, whereas the stacked derivative only agreed with all the algorithms concerning the third ax, i.e.,
The efficiency of the whole proposed methodology was assessed and discussed on selected aspects and the comparison with existing methods was basically empirical. At first, depending on their goals, previous MSDI-based studies analyzed only the standard deviation of the red and near infrared wavelengths, while those integrating vegetation indices were limited to three of them [40, 43, 52]. Because the goal of proposing aMSDI in this study was to assess consecutives dry season anomalies and discriminate them from empirical statuses of the forest-savanna specificities, we integrated nine spectral indices, selected on the basis of targeted phenological or physiological weaknesses, and whose computations basically integrate several wavelengths. Interestingly, although only one CVA magnitude was chosen per index, all individual models showed the expected visual convergence of similarity or dissimilarity trends.
Moreover, previous applications stated that the common calculation of MSDI on raw spectral index, gives outputs with a minimum value of zero and a maximum value determined by those of the pixels evaluated [43]. Consequently, outputs value cannot be directly compared. Here, by applying the averaging process to binarized CVA,
Besides, common attempts of mapping distribution, typology, and delineation of forest and savanna, have always been supported by fieldwork, based on climate parameters, as well as including paleo-ecological evidences and detailed floristic survey to be efficient [8]. The methodology presented in this paper has predicted three different axes of vegetation, resulting from the PCA processing and thresholding (Table 5). For each of the six study periods, the first ax in the south part is composed by a dense and potentially healthier vegetation, highly correlated with the referential data MSAVI2. Whereas the other two axes, more and more sparse towards north, are divergent with the first one and somehow each with another (Figure 10a&
Vegetation trends | Regrouping | PCA threshold |
---|---|---|
1st axe | PVR, PBI, GVMI | |
2nd axe | IREIP1, MARI, PRSI | |
3rd axe | mCRIG, LWCI, SRPI |
Vegetation axes, proposed groups and PCA thresholds used to binarize.
a. the three main axes of vegetation’s spatial distribution. b. Pixels’ value along the transect of the vegetation’s axes.
To answer the interrogations behind these ambiguities, a simple multicollinearity test was run, showing how independent one ax is from another. When the correlation between two independent variables is considerably high, it is a problem in the modeling process. The VIF (variance inflation factor) and tolerance were used for diagnosis. VIF is the reciprocal of tolerance, knowing that, tolerance is
Axe | VIF | Tolerance | Percentile for value 1 |
---|---|---|---|
AXE1 | 1.33 | 0.75 | [49.9–99.97] |
AXE2 | 1.12 | 0.89 | [62.5–99.97] |
AXE3 | 1.35 | 0.74 | [78.3–99.97] |
Multicollinearity test results.
Although from this study, we cannot properly use the qualifier of “bistable” forest or savanna, because it highly depends upon climate and paleo-ecological parameters, it is important to notice how ambiguous is the distribution and blurry are the boundaries. Thoroughly, on any ML output, three zooms distributed on three different latitudes helped to notice different types of transitions (Figure 11). Between the lower latitudes 5030’-6030’North, the transition is from the first (moist broadleaf forest) to third ax of vegetation (shrubland savanna), although the second ax (grassland savanna) would have been “expected.” Between the middle latitudes 6030’-7030’North, the transition mixes in the below area, the “-‘unexpected” third ax (shrubland savanna) with the ‘expected’ first ax (moist broadleaf forest) of vegetation, before the wide expansion of the ‘expected’ second ax (grassland savanna). At this point, the only “expected” transition was inside the upper latitudes 7030’-8030’North, where the second ax (grassland savanna) gradually gave way to third ax (shrubland savanna) of vegetation. These elements of analysis support the qualifier of “bistable” area, while still questioning the anisotropic distribution with latitudes, and encouraging the finest scale of analysis, i.e., spatial and spectral resolution.
Zooms on the transitions, a sign of anisotropic distribution with latitudes. Yellow square = lower latitudes (5030’-6030’N) transition; red square = middle latitudes (6030’-7030’N) transition; blue = upper latitudes (7030’-8030’N) transition.
Anomalies versus LULC classes. (A) SVM classification map. (B) Two extreme classes of anomalies at
Finally, the display of anomalies with the LULC classes disambiguated the confusion of savanna and degraded forest. The observation was made by overlaying the highest and the lowest values of anomalies in the most concentrate area, on the SVM output. On three spots covered by grassland, shrubland and bare soil, the modeled extremely severe anomalies concern just a part of each class. Whereas, on two spots of lower to no-anomalies, savanna as well as bare soils are partially concerned (Figure 12).
This study has conducted an experimentation on the forest-savanna vegetation, with the goal of assessing dynamics, assuming anomalies and predicting boundaries. On Google Earth Engine platform and using Sentinel2-A satellite images of seven consecutive dry seasons, from 2015 to 2016 to 2021–2022, twelve spectral indices were selected according to their different phenological and physiological assessment of the vegetation, and other natural features to be discriminate. Using the processing of change vector analysis, CVA, it was successfully observed that each index brings a substantial information, to better assess increase or decrease patterns of the vegetation cover. Further, proposing the averaged moving standard deviation index, aMSDI, to face potential issues of simple MSDI, the scale of spatial trends appraisal was found identical between the same interval
To USGS for the free availability of satellite data. To all experts-developers of Google Earth Engine platform APIs. To StatsN’Maps Consulting Firm, for the logistic support. To our laboratories.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conception, A.H.N.M.; study design, A.H.N.M.; acquisition of data, A.H.N.M., I.C.N.P., F.C.L.T., L.M.B., M.T. and J.V.M.M.; execution, A.H.N.M.; analysis and interpretation, A.H.N.M.; writing-original draft preparation, A.H.N.M.; writing-review and editing A.H.N.M., I.C.N.P., F.C.L.T., L.M.B., M.T. and J.V.M.M.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Links to the code are available upon request.
Additional material 1. Characteristics of Sentinel-2A bands.
Sentinel-2A MSI | ||
---|---|---|
Name | Range (μm) | Bands (Resolution/m) |
Coastal aerosol | 0.421 − 0.457 | B1(60) |
Blue | 0.439 − 0.535 | B2(10) |
Green | 0.537 − 0.582 | B3(10) |
Red | 0.646 − 0.685 | B4(10) |
Red_edge1 | 0.694 − 0.714 | B5(10) |
Red_edge2 | 0.731 − 0.749 | B6(10) |
Red_edge3 | 0.768 − 0.796 | B7(10) |
NIR wide | 0.767 − 0.908 | B8(10) |
NIR narrow | 0.848 − 0.881 | B8A(20) |
Water vapor | 0.931 − 0.958 | B9(60) |
Cirrus | 1.338 − 1.414 | B10(60) |
SWIR1 | 1.539 − 1.681 | B11(20) |
SWIR2 | 2.072 − 2.312 | B12(20) |
Additional material 2. The spectral indices used. The first row is the supporting or reference data.
Additional material 3. Binarized indices and thresholds defined.
Additional material 4. Direction and magnitude of change as proposed by Kuzera et al. (2005).
Additional material 5a. Averaged MSDI patterns of MSAVI2.
Additional material 5b. Averaged MSDI patterns for PVR, PBI and GVMI.
Additional material 5c. Averaged MSDI patterns for IREIP1, mCRIG and LWCI.
Additional material 5d. Averaged MSDI patterns for MARI, SRPI and PSRI.
Additional material 6. Spatial autoregression sample plots of aMSDI for PVR (left) and MSAVI2 increase patterns (right). red square = spatial correlation targeted, for n = 1544 pixels.
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Moreover, the main methods of mesophilic SRB identification based on their morphological, physiological, biochemical, and genetical characteristics are presented.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"Ivan Kushkevych",authors:[{id:"252191",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Kushkevych",slug:"ivan-kushkevych",fullName:"Ivan Kushkevych"}]},{id:"65773",title:"Life Cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Invertebrate and the Vertebrate Hosts",slug:"life-cycle-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-in-the-invertebrate-and-the-vertebrate-hosts",totalDownloads:1450,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted to humans by blood-sucking triatomine bugs. T. cruzi is a single-celled eukaryote with a complex life cycle alternating between reduviid bug invertebrate vectors and vertebrate hosts. This article will look at the developmental stages of T. cruzi in the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate hosts, the different surface membrane proteins involved in different life cycle stages of T. cruzi, roles of different amino acids in the life cycle, carbon and energy sources and gene expression in the life cycle of T. cruzi. The author will also look at extracellular vesicles (EV) and its role in the dissemination and survival of T. cruzi in mammalian host.",book:{id:"8806",slug:"biology-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-",title:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",fullTitle:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi"},signatures:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu",authors:[{id:"245368",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenechukwu C.",middleName:null,surname:"Onyekwelu",slug:"kenechukwu-c.-onyekwelu",fullName:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu"}]},{id:"54154",title:"Staphylococcus aureus: Overview of Bacteriology, Clinical Diseases, Epidemiology, Antibiotic Resistance and Therapeutic Approach",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-overview-of-bacteriology-clinical-diseases-epidemiology-antibiotic-resistance-",totalDownloads:7155,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen that causes wide range of infectious conditions both in nosocomial and community settings. The Gram-positive pathogen is armed with battery of virulence factors that facilitate to establish infections in the hosts. The organism is well known for its ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotic classes. The emergence and spread of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains which are often multi-drug resistant in hospitals and subsequently in community resulted in significant mortality and morbidity. The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. However, being notorious for developing antibiotic resistance, there is a continuous need for exploring novel anti-MRSA agents from various sources including plants and evaluation of non-antibiotic approaches.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"55437",title:"Biological Control of Parasites",slug:"biological-control-of-parasites-2017-07",totalDownloads:4281,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Parasites (ectoparasites or endoparasites) are a major cause of diseases in man, his livestock and crops, leading to poor yield and great economic loss. To overcome some of the major limitations of chemical control methods such as rising resistance, environmental and health risks, and the adverse effect on non‐target organisms, biological control (biocontrol) is now at the forefront of parasite (pests) control. Biocontrol is now a core component of the integrated pest management. Biocontrol is defined as “the study and uses of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host (pest) densities”. Considerable successes have been achieved in the implementation of biocontrol strategies in the past. This chapter presents a review of the history of biocontrol, its advantages and disadvantages; the different types of biological control agents (BCAs) including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes); the effect of biocontrol on native biodiversity; a few case studies of the successful implementation of biocontrol methods and the challenges encountered with the implementation of biocontrol and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti",authors:[{id:"191763",title:"Dr.",name:"Tebit Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kwenti",slug:"tebit-emmanuel-kwenti",fullName:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti"}]},{id:"70336",title:"Plastics Polymers Degradation by Fungi",slug:"plastics-polymers-degradation-by-fungi",totalDownloads:1416,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The studies on plastic degradation are very important for the development of biodegradable plastics, and for reduction of pollution, since plastic waste can remain in the environment for decades or centuries. We have showed the degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastic bags and green polyethylene by Pleurotus ostreatus. This fungus can also produce mushrooms using these plastics. The plastic degradation was possibly by three reasons: (a) presence of pro-oxidant ions or plant polymer, (b) low specificity of the lignocellulolytic enzymes, and (c) the presence of endomycotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. In this chapter, the plastic bags’ degradation by abiotic and microbial process using the exposure to sunlight and the use of a white-rot fungus will described. The physical, chemical, and biological alterations of plastic were analyzed after each process of degradation. The degradation of plastic bags was more effective when the abiotic and biotic degradations were combined.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"José Maria Rodrigues da Luz, Marliane de Cássia Soares da Silva, Leonardo Ferreira dos Santos and Maria Catarina Megumi Kasuya",authors:[{id:"217699",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Da Luz",slug:"jose-maria-da-luz",fullName:"Jose Maria Da Luz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"151",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"79935",title:"Salmonellosis and Campylobacteriosis, Emerging Zoonosis in the World and Current Situation in Mexico",slug:"salmonellosis-and-campylobacteriosis-emerging-zoonosis-in-the-world-and-current-situation-in-mexico",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101875",abstract:"Salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis are the furthermost common zoonotic infections around the world that are transferred. The spread of Salmonella enterica serotypes Enteritidis (SE) and Typhimurium (ST) has increased dramatically in the last 50 years due to the consumption of food contaminated and the emergence of SE and ST infections with multiple antibiotic resistance. Retrospective investigations imply an epidemiological link between people and poultry. It has been argued that farm modernization and global exports of progenitor birds have had a vital role in spreading SE and ST. On the other hand, campylobacteriosis is more common than salmonellosis in affluent countries. Campylobacter jejuni has been identified as the primary cause of acute diarrheal illnesses, frequently associated with animal-derived foods, particularly poultry meat. The current review examines immunological and molecular biological techniques that allow for the quick detection of asymptomatic animal carriers, as well as recent characterizations of relevant taxonomic and pathogenic characteristics of these organisms. We further urge epidemiological research to evaluate the incidence of human diseases arising from poultry eating, based on preliminary non-publisher findings implying a prevalence of salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis in Mexican poultry farms comparable to other nations.",book:{id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg"},signatures:"Adriana del Carmen Gutiérrez-Castillo, Leopoldo Henri Paasch-Martínez and Norma Leticia Calderón-Apodaca"},{id:"76534",title:"Health Care Associated Infections (HCAIs) a New Threat for World; U-Turn from Recovery to Death",slug:"health-care-associated-infections-hcais-a-new-threat-for-world-u-turn-from-recovery-to-death",totalDownloads:241,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97193",abstract:"Health care associated infections also termed as nosocomial infections are notable cause of morbidity and mortality especially in resource limited countries like Pakistan. Newborns and aged people have more probability of being infected by Health care associated infections because of immunosuppressant. Central line associated blood stream infections (CLABSI) are considered as one of the promising negotiator associated with Health Care associated infections. Improper health care setting and unaware medical staff play a championship protagonist in prevalence of health care associated infections. Standard hygienic measures should be adopted to reduce risk of Health care associated infections. So, there is a pressing need to take on control policies by Government to handle this dilemma. This chapter gives new intuition to healthcare associated microbes, infections and provides comprehensive detailed on ironic precaution to scientific community.",book:{id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg"},signatures:"Ayesha Noor, Ali Raza Ishaq, Laila Jafri, Faiza Jabeen, Rehana Rani, Bushra Hafeez Kiani, Nosheen Akhtar, Zeeshan Javed, Tahira Younis and Fatima Jalal"},{id:"75880",title:"Conventional and Molecular Detection Methods of the Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogen Campylobacter concisus",slug:"conventional-and-molecular-detection-methods-of-the-opportunistic-bacterial-pathogen-em-campylobacte",totalDownloads:157,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97004",abstract:"Campylobacter concisus is an emerging pathogen that causes gastroenteritis and is a suspected cause of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its importance is enhanced by the chronic sequela that results from acute infection. This bacterium has been under-diagnosed in intestinal infectious diseases, and its clinical importance has not been determined yet. In order to establish the implication of this emerging bacterial species in human gastroenteritis and other infections, different approaches and procedure have been performed, where molecular typing methods have played a central role. The chapter provides a comprehensive past and recent updates on the detection of C. concisus by biochemical and molecular methods.",book:{id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg"},signatures:"Mohsina Huq and Taghrid Istivan"},{id:"75751",title:"The Role of Immune Response and Microbiota on Campylobacteriosis",slug:"the-role-of-immune-response-and-microbiota-on-campylobacteriosis",totalDownloads:245,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96755",abstract:"Million cases of campylobacteriosis and complications of post-Campylobacter jejuni infection occur every year around the world with huge life losses and economic burdens of billions of dollars. Few therapy options, such as antibiotics, are available to relieve severe cases of the enteritis. The slow progression on new intervention discovery and application is partially resulted from limited mechanistic understanding on campylobacteriosis pathogenesis. As a type of intestinal disorders, campylobacteriosis shares many common features with other intestinal diseases such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and Clostridium difficile infection. In pace with the advancement of the gastroenterology field, a large body of knowledge is accumulating on the factors influencing campylobacteriosis onset, development, and outcomes, including host immune response, intestinal microbiota, and its metabolites. In this chapter, we review the intestinal immune system, intestinal microbiome, and microbiome modulation of inflammation in the development of campylobacteriosis. The interplay between immunity, microbiota, and its metabolites may play essential roles on campylobacteriosis pathogenesis and the finding on the interaction may lead to new prevention and treatment options. The purpose of this chapter is to provide updated knowledge on the role of host–microbe interaction and the therapeutic potential on campylobacteriosis.",book:{id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg"},signatures:"Ying Fu, Tahrir Alenezi, Ayidh Almansour, Hong Wang, Zhenquan Jia and Xiaolun Sun"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:4},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:45,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9753",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",subtitle:"Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9753.jpg",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids-recent-advances",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel",hash:"575689df13c78bf0e6c1be40804cd010",volumeInSeries:21,fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids - Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:12}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:228,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. 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